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Evaluating the Agricultural, Historical, Nutritional, and Sustainable Uses of Pulse Grains and Legumes

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Evaluating the Agricultural, Historical, Nutritional, and Sustainable Uses of Pulse Grains and Legumes EVALUATING THE AGRICULTURAL, HISTORICAL, NUTRITIONAL, AND SUSTAINABLE USES OF PULSE GRAINS AND LEGUMES A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Stefanie Marie Havemeier IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE June 2018 ©Stefanie Marie Havemeier 2018 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to extend my sincerest appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Joanne Slavin, for her guidance, trust, and support throughout my graduate degree. She is a role model to all, especially her graduate students, and her positive attitude brings life to any arduous task. I would undoubtedly not be where I am today if it were not for Dr. Slavin providing me with the opportunity to work alongside her. I would also like to thank my other advisory committee members: Dr. Dave Smith and Dr. Renee Korczak. Thank you, Dr. Dave Smith, for providing me with fundamental information that forms the basis of food science and always a good laugh in the classroom. Thank you, Dr. Korczak, for allowing me to work beside you as your teacher’s assistant, barreling through endless student emails together. I thank my lab mates, Alexis, Hannah, Jennifer, Julie, Justin, and Rylee, for providing guidance and advice and for always listening. I would not have been able to complete this journey without your constant support. To my parents, David and Jeane, I would like to thank you for your encouragement and unending support not only throughout this process but, throughout my entire life. To my sister, Stacie, thank you for listening to me talk, “about my beans,” endlessly. To my best friend, Peter Coborn, thank you for driving me to exams in snowstorms, always cheering me on, and inspiring me to always be my best. i Table of Contents Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………..….i List of Figures…………………………….……………………………..………………vi List of Tables…………………………………………………………..………………..vi CHAPTER ONE: DIETARY GUIDANCE FOR PULSES: THE CHALLENEGE AND OPPORTUNITY TO BE PART OF BOTH THE VEGETABLE AND PROTEIN FOOD GROUPS Summary…………………………………………………………………………2 Introduction………………………………………………………………………2 Definition of Foods Referred to as Pulses……………………………………4 Nutritional Composition…………………………………………………………4 Health Benefits…………………………………………………………………..6 Evolution of Dietary Guidelines………………………………………………..9 The Importance of Sustainability and Increasing Pulse Consumption…..13 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...16 CHAPTER TWO: INVESTIGATING SEVENTEEN DIFFERENT PULSES AND LEGUMES: A LITERATURE REVIEW Summary Introduction……………………………………………………………..20 Background and Uses in Food……………………………………….20 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………21 Processing……………………………………………………………...22 Production….…………………………………………………………..23 Conclusion……………………………………………………………...24 Black Bean Background…………………………………………………………….25 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………26 Processing……………………………………………………………...30 Production………………………………………………………………33 Adzuki Bean ii Background…………………………………………………………….35 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………36 Processing……………………………………………………………...40 Production………………………………………………………………43 Bambara Groundnut Background…………………………………………………………….45 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………46 Processing……………………………………………………………...49 Production………………………………………………………………52 Chickpeas Background…………………………………………………………….55 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………56 Processing……………………………………………………………...58 Production………………………………………………………………59 Faba Bean Background…………………………………………………………….62 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………63 Processing……………………………………………………………...66 Production………………………………………………………………68 Kidney Bean Background…………………………………………………………….70 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………71 Processing……………………………………………………………...72 Production………………………………………………………………74 Lupins Background…………………………………………………………….75 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………76 Processing……………………………………………………………...78 Production………………………………………………………………79 Mayocoba Bean Background…………………………………………………………….81 iii Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………81 Processing……………………………………………………………...84 Production………………………………………………………………86 Mung Bean Background…………………………………………………………….88 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………89 Processing……………………………………………………………...92 Production………………………………………………………………93 Navy Bean Background…………………………………………………………….95 Nutrition and Health Benefits…………………………………………96 Processing……………………………………………………………...98 Production…………………………………………………………….102 Pigeon Pea Background…………………………………………………………...104 Nutrition and Health Benefits………………………………………..105 Processing…………………………………………………………….107 Production…………………………………………………………….109 Pinto Bean Background…………………………………………………………...110 Nutrition and Health Benefits………………………………………..111 Processing…………………………………………………………….115 Production…………………………………………………………….118 Lentils Background…………………………………………………………...119 Allergenicity…………………………………………………………...120 Production…………………………………………………………….121 Red Lentil Background…………………………………………...122 Nutrition and Health Benefits………………………..122 Processing……………………………………………125 iv Production…………………………………………….126 Green Lentil Background…………………………………………...128 Nutrition and Health Benefits………………………..128 Processing…………………………………………….131 Production…………………………………………….133 Peas Background…………………………………………………………...134 Yellow Peas Background…………………………………………...135 Nutrition and Health Benefits………………………..135 Processing…………………………………………….139 Production…………………………………………….141 Green peas Background…………………………………………...142 Nutrition and Health Benefits………………………..142 Processing…………………………………………….145 Production…………………………………………….146 Cowpeas Background…………………………………………………………...148 Nutrition and Health Benefits………………………………………..149 Processing…………………………………………………………….151 Production…………………………………………………………….152 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………..217 v List of Figures Figure 2-1: Protein content per 100 grams of cooked pulse grains ……………154 Figure 2-2: Fiber content per 100 grams of cooked pulse grains……...............155 List of Tables Table 1-1: Nutritional composition of various pulses per 100 grams…………….18 Table 2-1: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of boiled, unsalted and mature black beans…………………………………………………………………………...156 Table 2-2: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of raw, mature black beans……157 Table 2-3: PDCAAS values for black beans and black bean/rice flours……….158 Table 2-4: Composition and characteristics of black bean starch and amylose ………………………………………………………………………………………….158 Table 2-5: Amylose content of CDC nighthawk and black jack black bean cultivars………………………………………………………………………………..158 Table 2-6: Swelling factor, swelling power and amylose leaching of black bean starch at varying temperatures……………………………………………………..159 Table 2-7: Table 7 Parameters of gelatinization for black bean starch by differential scanning calorimetry……………………………………………………159 Table 2-8: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of raw, mature adzuki beans….160 Table 2-9: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of boiled, unsalted and mature adzuki beans………………………………………………………………………….161 Table 2-10: Parameters of gelatinization for adzuki bean starch by differential scanning calorimetry…………………………………………………………………162 vi Table 2-11: Composition and characteristics of adzuki bean starch and amylose ….………………………………………………………………………………………162 Table 2-12: Characteristics of adzuki bean amylopectin………………………...162 Table 2-13: Pasting characteristics of adzuki bean starch………………………162 Table 2-14: Companies producing and supplying adzuki beans………………..163 Table 2-15: U.S. small red beans: acreage, yield, production and value from 1987-2010…………………………………………………………………………….163 Table 2-16: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of soaked, cooked, boiled, unsalted Bambara groundnuts……………………………………………………...164 Table 2-17: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of dried, raw Bambara groundnuts ………………………………………………………………………………………….165 Table 2-18: Yield and amylose content of Bambara groundnut starch…………165 Table 2-19: Predicted glycemic index of starches and nutritional starch fractions extracted from Bambara groundnut………………………………………………..166 Table 2-20: Food processing technologies to reduce or remove antinutritional factors in Bambara groundnuts……………………………………………………..166 Table 2-21: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of raw, mature chickpeas…….167 Table 2-22: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of mature, cooked, boiled, and unsalted chickpeas…………………………………………………………………..168 Table 2-23: Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Scores (PDCAAS) for chickpeas……………………………………………………………………………...169 Table 2-24: Composition and characteristics of chickpea starch and amylose …………………………..……………………………………………………………..169 vii Table 2-25: Parameters of gelatinization for chickpea starch by differential scanning calorimetry…………………………………………………………………169 Table 2-26: List of U.S. chickpea suppliers………………………………………..170 Table 2-27: U.S. chickpea: acreage, yield, production, and value from 1989-2010 ………………………………………………………………………………………….171 Table 2-28: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of raw, mature faba beans…...172 Table 2-29: Nutrient composition of 100 grams of cooked, mature faba beans… ………………………………………………………………………………………….173 Table 2-30: Composition and characteristics of faba bean starch and amylose ………………………………………………………………………………………….174 Table 2-31: Swelling power and extent of amylose leaching of faba bean starch at different temperatures…………………………………………………………….174 Table 2-32: Nutrient composition for 100 grams of raw, mature kidney beans.. ………………………………………………………………………………………….175 Table 2-33: Nutrient
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