humour as a coping mechanism. I will take the information obtained from these sources, and use it to argue that humour is an effective method of coping with for Racism against First Nations people. People and First Nations Humour Overview of First Nations Racism as a Coping Mechanism Racism against First Nations people began soon after European settlement in North America. As the importance of First Nations Introduction contributions to the fur trade and their As prevalent as racism is against value as allies began to decline, so did First Nations, so is the use of humour by too the positive view of First Nations First Nations people as a coping response. people in the eyes of the colonialists Racism against First Nations people is still (Trigger 1988:19-20). The First widespread in contemporary society, and Nations people became less "noble is reflected in both government policies savages" and became just savages. and in public perception. Continued This change in perspective about First attempts to reduce or eliminate treaty Nations people is apparent as early as rights and the incessant attempts to first contact with Christopher appropriate and exploit what little land the Columbus. Columbus initially viewed First Nations still possess are justified First Nations people as 'generous and through this racism. With their culture, docile', but as they began to resist the language, land ownership, and treaty 'gifts' of colonization and progress rights continuously under attack for the brought by Columbus, they quickly last 500 years, it is of little wonder that became viewed as 'cannibalistic First Nations people as a whole have savages' (Ransby 1992:84). According problems with stress and coping. While to Ransby (ibid.), " ... deeming them some First Nations people have 'racially', socially and culturally succumbed to the temptations of unhealthy inferior served as a convenient coping mechanisms such as alcohol and rationale for confiscating their land, drug use, others use the most powerful usurping their labour, and, eventually, weapon in their arsenal- the First Nations annihilating them as a people." sense of humour. Canadian anthropologist Stanley In this paper, I do not intend to Barrett (1987 :221) stated that "racism offer a thorough examination of racism has been endemic in [and against First Nations people, but rather to that]... the degree, scope, and provide a brief overview of a few aspects persistence of the phenomenon lead to of racism against First Nations people, the a single conclusion; racism in Canada effects of this racism on them, and the use has been institutionalized ... racism of humour as a coping mechanism. As that is intrinsic to the structure of such, I draw on a wide variety of existing society." studies in the areas of racism, assimilation, There is no aspect of First culture loss, First Nations humour, coping Nations culture and life that was mechanisms, and the psychology of

TOTEM vol 15 2006·2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology untouched by racism. Canadian and languages were outlawed, and the government and society saw First Nations education of their children was taken people as children, unable to think for or out of their hands. First Nations protect themselves. In 1918, Arthur children were taken away to be Meighen, Minister of the Interior for educated in the residential schools in Canada, told Parliament that "the order for them to be assimilated into presumption of the law is that he [the mainstream Canada. It was made Indian] has not the capacity to decide what illegal for First Nations to file land is for his ultimate benefit in the same claims or to enlist the help of lawyers degree as his guardian, the Government of to pursue land claims. Hunting and Canada" (Meighen in Francis 1992:202). fishing rights were taken away, their Any positive aspects of First Nations means of livelihood left entirely under culture were attributed entirely to the the control of the government. First influences of European civilization, and of Nations were not able to decide course, any failures were their own whether an individual was a member (Francis 1992: 199). Ultimately, racism of their tribe, and until 1951 were and misinformation about First Nations unable to even leave reserves without a people and their culture serves the primary pass (RCAP Vol. 1. 1996). purpose of maintaining government Despi te the Canadian control over First Nations. This trend government's assertion that bringing continues into the present. In June 2006, this 'civilization' to the First Nations Canada refused to support the United has always been for the benefit of the Nations Declaration on the Rights of First Nations people, it has always . Furthermore, in been about the assimilation of First November 2006, the government cut $170 Nations people into mainstream million in funding for First Nations culture (Francis 1992:203). language training (CBC News 2006) while Assimilation is a strategy used by the increasing funding for French language Canadian government to deal with the training in alone by over $300 'Native Problem', as it eliminates the million (Newswire 2006). By refusing to need for the treaties and opens all support international and remaining land owned by First Nations canceling funding for First Nations to exploitation by Canada. language training, the Canadian Unfortunately for the Canadian government demonstrates their continued government, First Nations people have paternalistic attitude towards First Nations not been so obliging; First Nations people. continue to fight for their Because the Canadian government and for the preservation of their historically viewed First Nations people as culture. children, no part of First Nations life fell In addition to government under their own jurisdiction. For example, policies, racism is also prevalent in First Nations systems of government and mainstream Canadian society. First law were replaced by European systems of Nations stereotypes are still prevalent governance. Until 1960 in Canada, First today and are easily enumerated. In an Nations people could not vote. It was informal survey of a group of non-First illegal for First Nations people to drink Nations students conducted by me at alcohol. First Nations religious practices the University of Western Ontario in

TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology November, 2006, the students were asked newspaper from the University of to identify stereotypes of First Nations Western Ontario, entitled 'Canada has people. The following stereotypes were done enough for its Aboriginals' immediately identified: drunken Indian; (Hayes 2005) is a good indicator that lazy Indian; dumb Indian; dirty Indian; racist viewpoints are still widespread gasoline huffing Indian; useless Indian; and that are not adequately gambling Indian; thieving Indian; heathen educated about First Nations issues. Indian; welfare Indian; Indian giver; poor While some of the above Indian; uncivilized Indian; treacherous policies are no longer enforced, many Indian; Chief; Squaw; Indian time; and others are. First Nations are still perhaps most relevant to this essay, the fighting for self-government and for stoic, humourless Indian. While this was the right to control their own land. not a formal survey, it is a question Land claims are still unsettled; First perhaps deserving more serious study in Nations traditional religions are still the future. When asked the same question seen as heathen and ungodly; hunting in regards to a variety of other cultures, and fishing rights are still not the same group was unable to come up honoured; Canadian law still takes with even half the number of stereotypes. precedence over First Nations justice It is also important to note that all of the systems; First Nations are just stereotypes listed were negative; I had beginning to gain control of their only asked for stereotypes in general. education, and most First Nations still When asked for positive stereotypes, I have no control over who is or is not received blank stares and after five defined as a member of their tribe. As minutes, had only two - the loyal Indian will be made evident in the following and the resourceful Indian. section, the attacks past and present on A more formal study in 2005 by First Nations culture have had negative Russel Barsh examined the results of reperCUSSIons. numerous surveys of Canadian attitudes about First Nations people, and came up Effects of Racism on First Nations with several conclusions. Between 1976 People and 1986, Canadian support for increased The negative effects of racism economic well being of First Nations, for on First Nations people are expressed First Nations control of school programs, in a variety of ways. Disillusionment for cultural protection, and for settlement and distrust with the Canadian of land claims all decreased, and support government and with Canadian society for First Nations self-government was at large is common. Lack of cultural opposed by one third of respondents identity enforces feelings of alienation (Barsh 2005:282). Support for First within society. Furthermore, Nations self-government was still strongly stereotypes have lead to a lack of self- opposed in 1997 (Barsh 2005:283). confidence and to feelings of being Another study examined by Barsh demeaned. These factors, combined (2005:283) showed that 55% of Canadians with land appropriation and cultural believed First Nations people would be alienation have caused frustration, better off if they were assimilated into depression, and anger. "When you take mainstream culture. The recent publication away from Native people their culture, of an editorial in the Gazette, a student their language, and their land, it

TOTEM vollS 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology creates a vacuum ... anger and frustration hope for future" (Lester 1997:47). at what has been lost or taken rushes into Finally, while some aspects of that vacuum" (Taylor 1998:32). drug and alcohol abuse are certainly These negative feelings have led to blown out of proportion by self-destructive behaviours within First mainstream racial stereotypes, there is Nations communities, including family certainly no arguing that these violence, high rates of incarceration, problems are far more prevalent suicide, drug and alcohol abuse. Estimates among First Nations people than they indicate that as many as 80% of First are among non-First Nations North Nations families have experienced family Americans. Inhalant abuse is violence (Fox and Long 1998:274). Rates particularly prevalent among First of incarceration are also extraordinarily Nations people. While many chemicals high for First Nations people; while First are sniffed, gasoline is the most Nations people only form 5% of the common. These chemicals have , they make up 40% serious long term health effects for the or more of the prison population (Taylor users. The 1995 First 1998:31). In the face of these incarceration Nations Solvent Abuse Study rates for First Nations peoples, it is attributed chemical abuse to:"Young interesting to note that the majority of people not having enough to do, drug First Nations cultures had no prisons and dealers in the community, intense no need for prisons (Taylor 1998:32). rivalry in the community, lack of Traditionally First Nations cultures have spiritual/cultural traditions and seen crime as something dealt with within geographical isolation" (qtd. in the community, by friends, families, and Fournier and Crey 1998:307). Fournier sometimes healers, if the situation and Crey (ibid.) also point out alcohol warrants it. and drug abuse, diabetes, domestic Additionally, suicide rates among violence, suicide, and fetal alcohol First Nations cultures are over twice as syndrome as further reasons behind high as that of other Canadians - 34 deaths chemical abuse. per 100,000 for Canadians, versus 14 These high rates of deaths per 100,000 for First Nations incarceration, suicide, and drug and people, with rates being higher for males alcohol abuse indicate that racism has then females (Fox and Long 1998:274). had profound negative effects on First Rates also vary between First Nations Nations culture. While drug and cultures as well. For example, some alcohol abuse have been used as Anishnabe tribes in Northern Ontario coping mechanisms, they are not report suicide rates as high as 98 per healthy alternatives, nor will they 100,000 (Lester 1997:122). First Nations ensure the long term survival of First people in general suffer from a type of Nations societies. In the face of this depression called anomic depression, in adversity, one of the greatest strengths which they feel useless and helpless. The and coping mechanisms possessed by symptoms of anomic depression include First Nations people is their sense of "( 1) anomie, the absence of accepted humour. norms combined with cultural identity confusion, and (2) a chronic dysphoric state, with lack of self-respect, purpose or

TOTEM vollS 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWOJournal of Anthropology First Nations Humour the most humorous, especially those Before I examine First Nations involving foolish things or experiences humour as a coping mechanism, First (Fixico 2006: 173). Nations humour must be defined. In his Teasing is used amongst First discussion on First Nations humour, Vine Nations people to help keep the peace, Deloria (1969:146) tells us "One of the to remind members of a tribe that they best ways to understand a people is to are all part of the same tribe, and are know what makes them laugh. Laughter all of equal importance (Fagan encompasses the limits of the soul. In 2005:36). There are two common humour life is redefined and accepted." characteristics of teasing in First First, we must answer the question of Nations humour: permitted disrespect whether First Nations people have a sense and self-deprecation. Permitted of humour at all; here comes into play the disrespect implies you have the other stereotype of the 'Stoic Indian'. In his person's permission to joke about foreword to Keith Basso's Portraits of them or to tease them (Taylor "the Whiteman", Dell Hymes (1979:ix) 2005:28). This form of teasing requires wrote "the great capacity of Indian people a level of intimacy between for creative wit has been obscured by the individuals; only those that know each image of the Indian as silent stoic." Don other well and have a close Fixico (2006: 171) further comments on relationship tease each other in this this stereotype, when he wrote "Indian way. Self-deprecation is a reverse form people are quite the opposite from the of teasing, in which an individual stereotype of the stoic Indian with the teases him or herself to portray stone face ... people who do not know humility and to display solidarity Indians think that they are quiet, at least (Kelly 2005:62). Roger Speilmann much quieter than the population of the (1998: 123) noted that teasing differs mainstream in America. Nothing could be between First Nations people and non- further from the truth." Vine Deloria First Nations people. While non- First (1969: 146-147) wondered that Indians got Nations people tend to respond to anything done because of their teasing by trying to set the record overemphasis on humour; "Indians have straight, First Nations people tend to found a humorous side to nearly every respond to teasing by not only problem and the experiences of life have laughing along, but by joining in and generally been so well defined through teasing themselves. Fixico (2006: 176) jokes and stories that they have become a wrote, "We make fun of ourselves to thing in themselves. The more desperate get by in life. We need to make fun of the problem, the more humor is directed to ourselves because of a dire situation describe it." that leaves us no other way to respond. First Nations humour is expressed Feeling helpless, we make fun of primarily through stories and teasing. Not ourselves, but we are not hopeless." surprisingly, because First Nations cultures have strong oral traditions and Humour as a Coping Mechanism oral histories, a good portion of their Now that we have established humour emerges through storytelling. First that First Nations people do indeed Nations people feel that stories involving have a sense of humour, we can look the exploits of their friends and family are at the use of .humour as a coping

TOTEM vollS 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The U\'(IOJournal of Anthropology mechanism. Studies have found that a at racism, examined the effects of healthy sense of humour does in fact serve racism on First Nations society, and to reduce the effects of stress (Lefcourt & explored some of the negative coping Martin: 1986:61). In the short term, mechanisms used by First Nations humour increases positive feelings such as people, there can also be no question happiness and well-being, as well as a that humour is among the more feeling of control over one's life, and positive and effective coping reduces anxiety, depression, and anger. mechanisms that can be used by First The long term, healthy use of humour Nations people. Humour is an integral promotes self-esteem, emotional well- part of First Nations culture: being, and permits more satisfying "Finally, this is the interpersonal relationships (Martin way Indians are. Being 2007:306). Gordon Polson (1998:111) Indian is realizing that you asserted that teasing yourself and teasing are different from other your people's ways of thinking and doing people, different in a things can be an intrinsic part of both your cultural context. In this own and your culture's healing. way, being Indian IS First Nations people have an learning to laugh at unmatched ability to laugh at themselves yourself and your own and their situation. Humour is an integral situation. Sometimes, it is part of their culture and is essential to the making a joke about long-term health of their society. Without yourself before the other humour, First Nations people would surely person does. Indians laugh have succumbed to the twin pressures of as much as they cry and racism and assimilation long ago. As feel sad. They laugh Fixico (2006: 183) stated, "Indian humor is because they need to, and the ability to be flexible while sometimes sometimes because they do feeling powerless against the government not know what else to do. and cultural mainstream in control of your Sometimes it is the only life." Through the use of humour, First thing to do when you have Nations people are able to inject some almost run out of tears. control into a life full of confusion and There is very little conflict. Deloria (1969: 167) succinctly difference between the summed up the positive role of First emotional threads of crying Nations humour;"When a people can and laughing. It is like a laugh at themselves and laugh at others fine thin line that is the and hold all aspects of life together difference. Tears are without letting anybody drive them to involved in both emotions. extremes, then it seems to me that that This human emotion of people can survive." laughing has sustained Indian people throughout Conclusion time. It is a way of It is unquestionable that survival." (Fixico institutional and cultural racism against 2006:183) First Nations people has existed in the past and is still prevalent today. Having looked

TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM:The UWO Journal of Anthropology First Nations people today deal Community in Native Literature. with racism and other problems in the In Me Funny: A far-reaching same way they dealt with problems in the exploration of the Humour, past; through stories. Traditionally, stories wittiness and repartee dominant were used to inform, to educate, to share among the First Nations people of ideas, and to teach First Nations people North America, as witnessed, how to survive. Just as humour was experienced and created directly always a part of First Nations storytelling, by themselves, and with the it is just as or more important today with inclusion of outside but reputable the additional pressures of the modern sources necessarily familiar with world. New stories and the humour in the indigenous sense of humour as them enable modern First Nations people seen from an objective perspective. and their cultures to survive in today's Drew Hayden Taylor, (ed.). pp. 23- world. 46. : Douglas and McIntyre. Works Cited Barrett, Stanley R. 1987. Is God a Racist? Fixico, Donald. 2006. Daily Life of Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Native Americans in the Twentieth As quoted in Cultural Anthropology. Century. Westport: Greenwood 3rd Canadian Edition. Barbara Miller, Press. Penny Van Esterik, John Van Esterik. 2007. Toronto: Pearson Education Fournier, Suzanne and Crey, Ernie. Canada. 1998. "We can Heal": Aboriginal Children Today. In Visions of the Barsh, Russel Lawrence. 2005. Heart: Canadian Aboriginal "Aboriginal Peoples and Canada's Issues. 2nd Edition. David Long, Conscience." In Hidden in Plain Sight: Olive Patricia Dickason, (eds.). pp. Contributions of Aboriginal Peoples to 271-301. Scarborough: Nelson. and Culture. David Newhouse, Cora Voyageur, Dan Fox, Terry and Long, David. 1998. Beavon, (eds.). pp. 270-291. Toronto: Struggles within the Circle: University of Toronto Press. Violence, Healing, and Health on a First Nations Reserve. In Visions of CBC News. 2006. Saving native the Heart: Canadian Aboriginal languages up to First Nations: chief, Issues. 2nd Edition. David Long, November 14. World Wide Web page, Olive Patricia Dickason, (eds.). pp. url:http://www.cbc.ca/canada/manitob 271-301. Scarborough: Nelson. a/story/2006/11/14/1anguage- conference.htm1 Francis, Daniel. 1992. "The Bureaucrat's Indian." In The Deloria, Vine. 1969. Custer Diedfor your Imaginary Indian: The Image of Sins: An Indian Manifesto. Toronto, the Indian in Canadian Culture. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. 196-218. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press. Fagan, Kristina. 2005. Teasing, Tolerating, Teaching: Laughter and

TOTEM vollS 2006·2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The CWO Journal of Anthropology Hayes, James. 2005. "Canada has done Newswire. 2006. McGuinty enough for its Aboriginals." The Government Invests In French Gazette. November 1. London: Language Postsecondary University Students Council, Education, November 23. CNW University of Western Ontario. Group. World Wide Web page, url:http://www.newswire.ca/en/rele Hymes, Dell. 1979. Foreward. In Portrait ases/archive/N ovember2006/23/ c7 of "the Whiteman". Keith H. Basso. 830.htrnl pp. ix-xviii. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Polson, Gordon. 1998. As quoted in "You're So Fat!." Roger Kelly, Don. 2005. "And Now, Ladies and Speilmann. Toronto: University of Gentlemen, Get ready for Some Toronto Press. (Ab)Original Stand-up Comedy." In Me Funny: A far-reaching exploration Ransby, Barbara. 1992. Columbus and of the Humour, wittiness and repartee the making of historical myth. In dominant among the First Nations Race and Class 33.3(2). pp. 79-86. people of North America, as witnessed, experienced and created directly by RCAP. Royal Commission on themselves, and with the inclusion of Aboriginal Peoples. 1996. Report outside but reputable sources on the Royal Commission on necessarily familiar with the Aboriginal Peoples: Volume 1 - indigenous sense of humour as seen Looking Forward, Looking Back. from an objective perspective. Drew Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Hayden Taylor, (ed.). pp. 51-65. Services. Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre. Spielmann, Roger. 1998. 'You're So Lefcourt, Herbert M, and Martin, Rod A. Fat!'. Roger Speilmann. Toronto: 1986. Humour and Life Stress: University of Toronto Press. Antidote to Adversity. New York: Springer- Verlag. Taylor, Drew Hayden. 2005. "Seeing Red: The Stoic Whiteman and Lester, David. 1997. Suicide in American Non-Native Humour." In Walking Indians. New York: Nova Science a Tightrope: aboriginal people and Publishers, Inc. their representations. Ute Lischke and David T. Mcnab, (eds.). pp. Martin, Rod A. 2007. The Psychology of 21-28. Waterloo: Wilfred Laurier Humor: An Integrative Approach. San University Press. Diego: Elsevier Inc. Taylor, Drew Hayden. 1998. Funny, Meighen, Arthur. 1992. As quoted in "The You Don't Look Like One. Rev. Bureaucrat's Indian." Daniel Francis. edition. Canada: Theytus Books In The Imaginary Indian: The Image of Ltd. the Indian in Canadian Culture. pp. 196-218. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Trigger, Bruce G. 1988. "The Press. Historians' Indian: Native

TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology Americans in Canadian Historical Writing from Charlevoix to the Present." In Out of the Background: Readings on Native History. Robin Fisher and Kenneth Coates, (eds.). pp. 19-44. Toronto: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd.