humour as a coping mechanism. I will take the information obtained from these sources, and use it to argue that humour is an effective method of coping with racism for First Nations Racism against First Nations people. People and First Nations Humour Overview of First Nations Racism as a Coping Mechanism Racism against First Nations people began soon after European settlement in North America. As the importance of First Nations Introduction contributions to the fur trade and their As prevalent as racism is against value as allies began to decline, so did First Nations, so is the use of humour by too the positive view of First Nations First Nations people as a coping response. people in the eyes of the colonialists Racism against First Nations people is still (Trigger 1988:19-20). The First widespread in contemporary society, and Nations people became less "noble is reflected in both government policies savages" and became just savages. and in public perception. Continued This change in perspective about First attempts to reduce or eliminate treaty Nations people is apparent as early as rights and the incessant attempts to first contact with Christopher appropriate and exploit what little land the Columbus. Columbus initially viewed First Nations still possess are justified First Nations people as 'generous and through this racism. With their culture, docile', but as they began to resist the language, land ownership, and treaty 'gifts' of colonization and progress rights continuously under attack for the brought by Columbus, they quickly last 500 years, it is of little wonder that became viewed as 'cannibalistic First Nations people as a whole have savages' (Ransby 1992:84). According problems with stress and coping. While to Ransby (ibid.), " ... deeming them some First Nations people have 'racially', socially and culturally succumbed to the temptations of unhealthy inferior served as a convenient coping mechanisms such as alcohol and rationale for confiscating their land, drug use, others use the most powerful usurping their labour, and, eventually, weapon in their arsenal- the First Nations annihilating them as a people." sense of humour. Canadian anthropologist Stanley In this paper, I do not intend to Barrett (1987 :221) stated that "racism offer a thorough examination of racism has been endemic in Canada [and against First Nations people, but rather to that]... the degree, scope, and provide a brief overview of a few aspects persistence of the phenomenon lead to of racism against First Nations people, the a single conclusion; racism in Canada effects of this racism on them, and the use has been institutionalized ... racism of humour as a coping mechanism. As that is intrinsic to the structure of such, I draw on a wide variety of existing society." studies in the areas of racism, assimilation, There is no aspect of First culture loss, First Nations humour, coping Nations culture and life that was mechanisms, and the psychology of TOTEM vol 15 2006·2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology untouched by racism. Canadian and languages were outlawed, and the government and society saw First Nations education of their children was taken people as children, unable to think for or out of their hands. First Nations protect themselves. In 1918, Arthur children were taken away to be Meighen, Minister of the Interior for educated in the residential schools in Canada, told Parliament that "the order for them to be assimilated into presumption of the law is that he [the mainstream Canada. It was made Indian] has not the capacity to decide what illegal for First Nations to file land is for his ultimate benefit in the same claims or to enlist the help of lawyers degree as his guardian, the Government of to pursue land claims. Hunting and Canada" (Meighen in Francis 1992:202). fishing rights were taken away, their Any positive aspects of First Nations means of livelihood left entirely under culture were attributed entirely to the the control of the government. First influences of European civilization, and of Nations were not able to decide course, any failures were their own whether an individual was a member (Francis 1992: 199). Ultimately, racism of their tribe, and until 1951 were and misinformation about First Nations unable to even leave reserves without a people and their culture serves the primary pass (RCAP Vol. 1. 1996). purpose of maintaining government Despi te the Canadian control over First Nations. This trend government's assertion that bringing continues into the present. In June 2006, this 'civilization' to the First Nations Canada refused to support the United has always been for the benefit of the Nations Declaration on the Rights of First Nations people, it has always Indigenous Peoples. Furthermore, in been about the assimilation of First November 2006, the government cut $170 Nations people into mainstream million in funding for First Nations culture (Francis 1992:203). language training (CBC News 2006) while Assimilation is a strategy used by the increasing funding for French language Canadian government to deal with the training in Ontario alone by over $300 'Native Problem', as it eliminates the million (Newswire 2006). By refusing to need for the treaties and opens all support international Indigenous rights and remaining land owned by First Nations canceling funding for First Nations to exploitation by Canada. language training, the Canadian Unfortunately for the Canadian government demonstrates their continued government, First Nations people have paternalistic attitude towards First Nations not been so obliging; First Nations people. continue to fight for their treaty rights Because the Canadian government and for the preservation of their historically viewed First Nations people as culture. children, no part of First Nations life fell In addition to government under their own jurisdiction. For example, policies, racism is also prevalent in First Nations systems of government and mainstream Canadian society. First law were replaced by European systems of Nations stereotypes are still prevalent governance. Until 1960 in Canada, First today and are easily enumerated. In an Nations people could not vote. It was informal survey of a group of non-First illegal for First Nations people to drink Nations students conducted by me at alcohol. First Nations religious practices the University of Western Ontario in TOTEM vol 15 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology November, 2006, the students were asked newspaper from the University of to identify stereotypes of First Nations Western Ontario, entitled 'Canada has people. The following stereotypes were done enough for its Aboriginals' immediately identified: drunken Indian; (Hayes 2005) is a good indicator that lazy Indian; dumb Indian; dirty Indian; racist viewpoints are still widespread gasoline huffing Indian; useless Indian; and that Canadians are not adequately gambling Indian; thieving Indian; heathen educated about First Nations issues. Indian; welfare Indian; Indian giver; poor While some of the above Indian; uncivilized Indian; treacherous policies are no longer enforced, many Indian; Chief; Squaw; Indian time; and others are. First Nations are still perhaps most relevant to this essay, the fighting for self-government and for stoic, humourless Indian. While this was the right to control their own land. not a formal survey, it is a question Land claims are still unsettled; First perhaps deserving more serious study in Nations traditional religions are still the future. When asked the same question seen as heathen and ungodly; hunting in regards to a variety of other cultures, and fishing rights are still not the same group was unable to come up honoured; Canadian law still takes with even half the number of stereotypes. precedence over First Nations justice It is also important to note that all of the systems; First Nations are just stereotypes listed were negative; I had beginning to gain control of their only asked for stereotypes in general. education, and most First Nations still When asked for positive stereotypes, I have no control over who is or is not received blank stares and after five defined as a member of their tribe. As minutes, had only two - the loyal Indian will be made evident in the following and the resourceful Indian. section, the attacks past and present on A more formal study in 2005 by First Nations culture have had negative Russel Barsh examined the results of reperCUSSIons. numerous surveys of Canadian attitudes about First Nations people, and came up Effects of Racism on First Nations with several conclusions. Between 1976 People and 1986, Canadian support for increased The negative effects of racism economic well being of First Nations, for on First Nations people are expressed First Nations control of school programs, in a variety of ways. Disillusionment for cultural protection, and for settlement and distrust with the Canadian of land claims all decreased, and support government and with Canadian society for First Nations self-government was at large is common. Lack of cultural opposed by one third of respondents identity enforces feelings of alienation (Barsh 2005:282). Support for First within society. Furthermore, Nations self-government was still strongly stereotypes have lead to a lack of self- opposed in 1997 (Barsh 2005:283). confidence and to feelings of being Another study examined by Barsh demeaned. These factors, combined (2005:283) showed that 55% of Canadians with land appropriation and cultural believed First Nations people would be alienation have caused frustration, better off if they were assimilated into depression, and anger. "When you take mainstream culture. The recent publication away from Native people their culture, of an editorial in the Gazette, a student their language, and their land, it TOTEM vollS 2006-2007 Copyright © 2007 TOTEM: The UWO Journal of Anthropology creates a vacuum ... anger and frustration hope for future" (Lester 1997:47). at what has been lost or taken rushes into Finally, while some aspects of that vacuum" (Taylor 1998:32).