Holocene Survival of Late Pleistocene Megafauna in China: a Critical Review of the Evidence

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Holocene Survival of Late Pleistocene Megafauna in China: a Critical Review of the Evidence Quaternary Science Reviews 76 (2013) 156e166 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Quaternary Science Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quascirev Holocene survival of Late Pleistocene megafauna in China: a critical review of the evidence Samuel T. Turvey a,*, Haowen Tong b, Anthony J. Stuart c, Adrian M. Lister d a Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, London NW1 4RY, UK b Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origin of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100044, China c School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK d Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK article info abstract Article history: Late Quaternary megafaunal extinction chronologies are poorly understood across eastern and south- Received 24 November 2012 east Asia. Previous radiometric studies suggested that surprisingly many extinct Late Pleistocene large Received in revised form mammal species survived into the Holocene in northern China (Bos primigenius, Coelodonta antiquitatis, 22 April 2013 Mammuthus primigenius) and southern China (Ailuropoda baconi, Crocuta [crocuta] ultima, Megatapirus Accepted 29 June 2013 augustus, Stegodon orientalis, Sus cf. xiaozhu), indicating that Chinese megafaunal extinctions may have Available online been “staggered” across the Late Quaternary. We critically re-examined all radiometric evidence sug- gesting Holocene survival of Chinese Late Quaternary megafauna, and conducted new dating of mammal Keywords: 14C Dates material from reportedly Holocene sites containing characteristically Late Pleistocene faunas. Evidence Extinct mammal for Holocene survival of any Chinese Late Pleistocene megafaunal species is weak or untenable. No Late Quaternary extinction previous radiometric dates used to support Holocene megafaunal survival represent direct bone dates for Mammoth species of interest, and stratigraphic association between material yielding Holocene dates and mega- Palaeoloxodon faunal remains is dubious at most sites. Concerns over accurate identification of faunal material further Radiocarbon dating confuse claims for Holocene survival of many species. Robust radiometric last-occurrence dates for Stegodon extinct Chinese megafauna are all restricted to the Late Pleistocene, similar to the timing of many other Late Quaternary megafaunal species extinctions elsewhere in Eurasia and the Americas. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction poorly constrained elsewhere, notably across much of eastern and south-east Asia (Louys et al., 2007; Turvey, 2009). Clarifying the The disappearance of a large proportion of the world’s mega- magnitude, timing and causation of Late Quaternary extinctions in faunal mammal taxa during the Late Quaternary (two-thirds of all this region is of particular significance because, apart from Africa, it mammal genera, and half of all species, with body masses >44 kg) is the only part of the world with surviving representatives of is the subject of considerable scientific interest (Martin and Klein, “truly” megafaunal (sensu Owen-Smith, 1988, i.e. >1000 kg) pro- 1984; MacPhee, 1999; Barnosky et al., 2004). The great majority boscidean and rhinocerotid taxa (Dicerorhinus, Elephas, Rhinoceros). of research into Late Quaternary extinctions has focused on It is also recognized as having the world’s highest number of megafaunal species losses in the continental regions of North currently threatened large land mammal species, making attempts America, northern Eurasia, and Australia. Although many questions to understand the dynamics and drivers of past regional mammal remain, this research has led to an increasingly sophisticated un- extinction of considerable conservation relevance (Schipper et al., derstanding of the timing and dynamics of megafaunal extinction 2008). in response to both anthropogenic impacts and environmental China possesses the richest known Late Quaternary palae- change in each of these regions (e.g. Stuart et al., 2004; Turney et al., ontological and zooarchaeological record in the eastern/south-east 2008; Gill et al., 2009; Rule et al., 2012; Stuart and Lister, 2012). In Asian region, and spatial and temporal variation in the species contrast, megafaunal extinction chronologies remain far more composition of Chinese Late Quaternary mammal faunas has long been recognized. This vast country spans substantial portions of both the Palaearctic and Oriental zoogeographic realms. The * Corresponding author. Tel.: 44 207 449 6326; fax: 44 207 586 2870. northeastern Chinese Late Pleistocene mammal fauna is interpreted þ þ E-mail address: [email protected] (S.T. Turvey). as an extension of the northern Eurasian fauna that was also 0277-3791/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.06.030 S.T. Turvey et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 76 (2013) 156e166 157 distributed in Europe, the Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, extirpations and global extinctions of Chinese large mammals, Mongolia and Japan, and contained several characteristic repre- including elephants (Xu, 2000; Elvin, 2004), ungulates (Yang et al., sentatives of this fauna such as woolly mammoth Mammuthus 2005; Wen, 2009), carnivores (Tilson et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2005; primigenius and woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis (Dong Jablonski et al., 2012), primates (Zhang et al., 1989; Li et al., 2002; et al., 1996; Tong and Patou-Mathis, 2003; Stuart and Lister, 2012), Grueter et al., 2009; Chatterjee et al., 2012), and endemic fresh- with mammoths occurring as far south as Shandong Province dur- water cetaceans (Turvey et al., 2007), associated with extreme ing Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 3a (Takahashi et al., 2007). The levels of human overpopulation, natural resource overexploitation more warm-adapted straight-tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon nau- and habitat modification throughout the development of Chinese manni was also distributed in northeastern China during the Late civilization. Pleistocene, where it is known from more than 30 localities, often in Only one globally extinct and taxonomically valid Chinese apparent stratigraphic association with Coelodonta (Xue et al., 2000; mammal species, the short-horned water buffalo Bubalus mephis- Tong and Patou-Mathis, 2003). Other extinct megafaunal taxa topheles, is known with certainty to have disappeared during the associated with the Eurasian Palaeoloxodon assemblage (e.g. Bos Holocene before the recent historical era. Although no direct primigenius, Stephanorhinus, megacerine deer) are also known from radiometric dates are available, this species is present in a series of northeastern China during the Late Pleistocene (Dong et al., 1996; well-dated earlyemiddle Holocene (NeolithiceBronze Age) Pushkina, 2007; Tong and Wu, 2010). The subtropical area of zooarchaeological deposits across southern, central and eastern China and neighbouring south-east Asia south of the Yellow Rivere China (from Yunnan to northern Henan), in association with rep- Qinling Mountains, the traditional biogeographic boundary be- resentatives of the modern Holocene Chinese large mammal fauna tween the Palaearctic and Oriental Realms (Tong, 2007), was (Teilhard de Chardin and Young, 1936; Wei et al., 1990; Zhang et al., defined during much of the Pleistocene by the regionally distinctive 1992; Ji et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2004). Ancient DNA analysis demon- StegodoneAiluropoda fauna (Colbert and Hooijer, 1953; Kahlke, strates that it is phylogenetically distinct from domesticated water 1961; Wang and Ouyang, 1982; Yang et al., 1995; Long et al., 1996; buffalo Bubalus bubalis present in China today (Yang et al., 2008). Louys et al., 2007). This fauna was characterized by the extinct However, it has also been suggested that a surprisingly large proboscidean Stegodon orientalis and the “giant” giant panda number of globally extinct representatives of China’s Late Pleisto- Ailuropoda baconi, formerly considered to be a subspecies of the cene megafauna survived well beyond the PleistoceneeHolocene extant Ailuropoda melanoleuca but now often interpreted as a transition in both northern and southern China (Table 1; Figs. 1 distinct chronospecies (Jin et al., 2007). It also contained a relatively and 2). A series of radiometric dates was put forward by Ma and high diversity of anthropoid primates (including archaic hominins Tang (1992) and Tong and Liu (2004) as evidence for the earlye that may be specifically distinct from Homo sapiens; Curnoe et al., middle Holocene persistence of Bos primigenius, Coelodonta anti- 2012), as well as several other regionally endemic extinct large quitatis and Mammuthus primigenius in northern China, and Ailur- mammals such as Megatapirus augustus, Rhinoceros sinensis, Sus opoda baconi, Crocuta [crocuta] ultima, Megatapirus augustus, xiaozhu, and Crocuta [crocuta] ultima (which may also represent a Stegodon orientalis and Sus cf. xiaozhu in southern China. More distinct species; Rohland et al., 2005) and also extant taxa such as recently, Li et al. (2012) reassigned two allegedly mid-Holocene the Asian elephant Elephas maximus. elephant molars from northern China from Elephas maximus to The StegodoneAiluropoda fauna has been interpreted as a gen- Palaeoloxodon sp., and proposed that this extinct proboscidean also eral category of fossil assemblages rather than an
Recommended publications
  • Asia's Wicked Environmental Problems
    ADBI Working Paper Series Asia’s Wicked Environmental Problems Stephen Howes and Paul Wyrwoll No. 348 February 2012 Asian Development Bank Institute Stephen Howes and Paul Wyrwoll are director and researcher, respectively, at the Development Policy Centre, Crawford School, Australian National University. This paper was prepared as a background paper for the Asian Development Bank (ADB)/Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI) study Role of Key Emerging Economies—ASEAN, the People Republic of China, and India—for a Balanced, Resilient and Sustainable Asia. The views expressed in this paper are the views of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of ADBI, the ADB, its Board of Directors, or the governments they represent. ADBI does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility for any consequences of their use. Terminology used may not necessarily be consistent with ADB official terms. The Working Paper series is a continuation of the formerly named Discussion Paper series; the numbering of the papers continued without interruption or change. ADBI’s working papers reflect initial ideas on a topic and are posted online for discussion. ADBI encourages readers to post their comments on the main page for each working paper (given in the citation below). Some working papers may develop into other forms of publication. Suggested citation: Howes, S. and P. Wyrwoll. 2012. Asia’s Wicked Environmental Problems. ADBI Working Paper 348. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute. Available: http://www.adbi.org/working- paper/2012/02/28/5009.asia.wicked.environmental.problems/ Please contact the author(s) for information about this paper.
    [Show full text]
  • The Impact of Large Terrestrial Carnivores on Pleistocene Ecosystems Blaire Van Valkenburgh, Matthew W
    The impact of large terrestrial carnivores on SPECIAL FEATURE Pleistocene ecosystems Blaire Van Valkenburgha,1, Matthew W. Haywardb,c,d, William J. Ripplee, Carlo Melorof, and V. Louise Rothg aDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095; bCollege of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, United Kingdom; cCentre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa; dCentre for Wildlife Management, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa; eTrophic Cascades Program, Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331; fResearch Centre in Evolutionary Anthropology and Palaeoecology, School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom; and gDepartment of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0338 Edited by Yadvinder Malhi, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom, and accepted by the Editorial Board August 6, 2015 (received for review February 28, 2015) Large mammalian terrestrial herbivores, such as elephants, have analogs, making their prey preferences a matter of inference, dramatic effects on the ecosystems they inhabit and at high rather than observation. population densities their environmental impacts can be devas- In this article, we estimate the predatory impact of large (>21 tating. Pleistocene terrestrial ecosystems included a much greater kg, ref. 11) Pleistocene carnivores using a variety of data from diversity of megaherbivores (e.g., mammoths, mastodons, giant the fossil record, including species richness within guilds, pop- ground sloths) and thus a greater potential for widespread habitat ulation density inferences based on tooth wear, and dietary in- degradation if population sizes were not limited.
    [Show full text]
  • Molecular and Functional Evolution of Hemoglobin in Perissodactyl
    Molecular and functional evolution of hemoglobin in perissodactyl mammals (equids, tapirs, and rhinos) by Margaret Clapin A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of the University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Biological Sciences University of Manitoba Winnipeg, Manitoba Canada © 2019 Abstract: In this thesis, the oxygen binding characteristics of recombinant hemoglobin (Hb) isoforms (HbA [α2β2] and HbA2 [α2δ2]) from the extinct woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) are compared with Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) and black rhino (Diceros bicornis) Hb. The major Hb component (HbA) of horses (Equus caballus) was also examined, as its blood O2 affinity has a low thermal sensitivity. This trait is commonly associated with cold-adaptation as it permits O2 to be offloaded at the cool peripheral tissues of regionally endothermic mammals, though the mechanism(s) by which the oxygenation enthalpy is reduced in horse Hb is unknown. It was hypothesized that the woolly rhino Hb isoforms would have similarly low thermal sensitivities to that of horses, either through enhanced effector binding or by altering the energetic transition from the tense to the relaxed state of hemoglobin. To test this hypothesis the hemoglobin coding sequences for each of the above species were determined and their Hb isoforms expressed using E. coli and purified. Oxygen equilibrium curves were then determined in the presence and absence of allosteric effectors at 25 and 37°C. Horse HbA had a low sensitivity to 2,3- diphosphoglycerate (DPG), though its low temperature sensitivity was primarily driven by increased DPG binding at the lower test temperature.
    [Show full text]
  • Megafauna Extinction, Tree Species Range Reduction, and Carbon Storage in Amazonian Forests
    Ecography 39: 194–203, 2016 doi: 10.1111/ecog.01587 © 2015 The Authors. Ecography © 2015 Nordic Society Oikos Subject Editor: Yadvinder Mahli. Editor-in-Chief: Nathan J. Sanders. Accepted 27 September 2015 Megafauna extinction, tree species range reduction, and carbon storage in Amazonian forests Christopher E. Doughty, Adam Wolf, Naia Morueta-Holme, Peter M. Jørgensen, Brody Sandel, Cyrille Violle, Brad Boyle, Nathan J. B. Kraft, Robert K. Peet, Brian J. Enquist, Jens-Christian Svenning, Stephen Blake and Mauro Galetti C. E. Doughty ([email protected]), Environmental Change Inst., School of Geography and the Environment, Univ. of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK. – A. Wolf, Dept of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton Univ., Princeton, NJ 08544, USA. – N. Morueta-Holme, Dept of Integrative Biology, Univ. of California – Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. – B. Sandel, J.-C. Svenning and NM-H, Section for Ecoinformatics and Biodiversity, Dept of Bioscience, Aarhus Univ., Ny Munkegade 114, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark. – P. M. Jørgensen, Missouri Botanical Garden, PO Box 299, St Louis, MO 63166-0299, USA. – C. Violle, CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS – Univ. de Montpellier – Univ. Paul-Valéry Montpellier – EPHE – 1919 route de Mende, FR-34293 Montpellier Cedex 5, France. – B. Boyle and B. J. Enquist, Dept of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA. – N. J. B. Kraft, Dept of Biology, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA. BJE also at: The Santa Fe inst., 1399 Hyde Park Road, Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA. – R. K. Peet, Dept of Biology, Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3280, USA.
    [Show full text]
  • Statistical Analysis of Human Overpopulation and Its Impact on Sustainability
    Statistical Analysis of Human Overpopulation and its Impact on Sustainability Susanne Bradley Abstract In this project, I examine the relationship between population size and resource use, with particular emphasis on carbon emissions. I use a combination of time series methods and regression analysis to obtain forecasts for global carbon emissions and energy use to the year 2060, taking into account population growth and economic development. In general, my predictions are consistent with predictions already made by different experts, though mine tend to be slightly more pessimistic. I end by addressing some potential ways to decrease population growth rates. 1 Introduction In the twentieth century, human population nearly quadrupled from 1.6 billion to 6.1 billion. Over that same period of time, global carbon consumption increased by a factor of twelve [1]. Population growth has begun to slow, especially in developed countries, but global population is not expected to reach peak levels for at least thirty years [2][3]. In light of these trends, a natural question to ask is whether the Earth can support these kinds of increases in both population and per capita consumption. The population aspect of this is important because if we assume that available resources are finite, then a smaller population size may not solve the problem of overconsumption but it will slow demand for resources and give us more time to develop sustainable long-term solutions. Despite the intuitively clear relationship between population and resource consumption, the issue of overpopulation is one that has been largely ignored in scientific circles since the 1970s [4].
    [Show full text]
  • Uma Perspectiva Macroecológica Sobre O Risco De Extinção Em Mamíferos
    Universidade Federal de Goiás Instituto de Ciências Biológicas Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia e Evolução Uma Perspectiva Macroecológica sobre o Risco de Extinção em Mamíferos VINÍCIUS SILVA REIS Goiânia 2019 VINÍCIUS SILVA REIS Uma Perspectiva Macroecológica sobre o Risco de Extinção em Mamíferos Tese apresentada ao Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia e Evolução do Departamento de Ecologia do Instituto de Ciências Biológicas da Universidade Federal de Goiás como requisito parcial para a obtenção do título de Doutor em Ecologia e Evolução. Orientador: Profº Drº Matheus de Souza Lima- Ribeiro Co-orientadora: Profª Drª Levi Carina Terribile Goiânia 2019 DEDI CATÓRIA Ao meu pai Wilson e à minha mãe Iris por sempre acreditarem em mim. “Esper o que próxima vez que eu te veja, você s eja um novo homem com uma vasta gama de novas experiências e aventuras. Não he site, nem se permita dar desculpas. Apenas vá e faça. Vá e faça. Você ficará muito, muito feliz por ter feito”. Trecho da carta escrita por Christopher McCandless a Ron Franz contida em Into the Wild de Jon Krakauer (Livre tradução) . AGRADECIMENTOS Eis que a aventura do doutoramento esteve bem longe de ser um caminho solitário. Não poderia ter sido um caminho tão feliz se eu não tivesse encontrado pessoas que me ensinaram desde método científico até como se bebe cerveja de verdade. São aos que estiveram comigo desde sempre, aos que permaneceram comigo e às novas amizades que eu construí quando me mudei pra Goiás que quero agradecer por terem me apoiado no nascimento desta tese: À minha família, em especial meu pai Wilson, minha mãe Iris e minha irmã Flora, por me apoiarem e me incentivarem em cada conquista diária.
    [Show full text]
  • Ancient Metaproteomics: a Novel Approach for Understanding Disease And
    Ancient metaproteomics: a novel approach for understanding disease and diet in the archaeological record Jessica Hendy PhD University of York Archaeology August, 2015 ii Abstract Proteomics is increasingly being applied to archaeological samples following technological developments in mass spectrometry. This thesis explores how these developments may contribute to the characterisation of disease and diet in the archaeological record. This thesis has a three-fold aim; a) to evaluate the potential of shotgun proteomics as a method for characterising ancient disease, b) to develop the metaproteomic analysis of dental calculus as a tool for understanding both ancient oral health and patterns of individual food consumption and c) to apply these methodological developments to understanding individual lifeways of people enslaved during the 19th century transatlantic slave trade. This thesis demonstrates that ancient metaproteomics can be a powerful tool for identifying microorganisms in the archaeological record, characterising the functional profile of ancient proteomes and accessing individual patterns of food consumption with high taxonomic specificity. In particular, analysis of dental calculus may be an extremely valuable tool for understanding the aetiology of past oral diseases. Results of this study highlight the value of revisiting previous studies with more recent methodological approaches and demonstrate that biomolecular preservation can have a significant impact on the effectiveness of ancient proteins as an archaeological tool for this characterisation. Using the approaches developed in this study we have the opportunity to increase the visibility of past diseases and their aetiology, as well as develop a richer understanding of individual lifeways through the production of molecular life histories. iii iv List of Contents Abstract ...............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Asymmetry in the Great American Biotic Interchange in Mammals Is Consistent with Differential Susceptibility to Mammalian Predation
    Coversheet This is the accepted manuscript (post-print version) of the article. Contentwise, the accepted manuscript version is identical to the final published version, but there may be differences in typography and layout. How to cite this publication Please cite the final published version: Faurby, S. and Svenning, J.-C. (2016), The asymmetry in the Great American Biotic Interchange in mammals is consistent with differential susceptibility to mammalian predation. Global Ecol. Biogeogr., 25: 1443–1453. doi:10.1111/geb.12504 Publication metadata Title: The asymmetry in the Great American Biotic Interchange in mammals is consistent with differential susceptibility to mammalian predation Author(s): Faurby, S. and Svenning, J.-C. Journal: Global Ecology and Biogeography DOI/Link: https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12504 Document version: Accepted manuscript (post-print) This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: [Faurby, S. and Svenning, J.-C. (2016), The asymmetry in the Great American Biotic Interchange in mammals is consistent with differential susceptibility to mammalian predation. Global Ecol. Biogeogr., 25: 1443–1453. doi:10.1111/geb.12504], which has been published in final form at [https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12504]. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Self-Archiving. General Rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognize and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research.
    [Show full text]
  • The North American Mosaic: an Overview of Key Environmental Issues 3
    The North American Mosaic An Overview of Key Environmental Issues June 2008 Commission for Environmental Cooperation section title A This report addresses the state of the environment in the territories of the Parties to the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation by providing an overview of key environmental issues. It provides an objective appraisal of environmental trends and conditions to inform the Council’s deliberations on strategic planning and future cooperative activities. This publication was prepared by the Secretariat of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation. The design and implementation of this report benefited from the participation of the State of the Environment Advisory Group, which is composed of environmental reporting experts from the Parties. The views contained herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the governments of Canada, Mexico or the United States of America. In general, this report does not address the wide variety of responses to the environmental issues described herein. Likewise, an evaluation of the efficacy of these responses is beyond its scope. More information, including detailed references for the findings in this report, is available on the CEC website: <http://www.cec.org/soe>. Publication details Type: Project report Date: June 2008 Original language: English Review and Quality Assurance Procedures • Review by the Parties: February – April 2008; April – May 2008 • For more information please consult the Acknowledgements. Published by the Communications Department
    [Show full text]
  • Archaeology Resources
    Archaeology Resources Page Intentionally Left Blank Archaeological Resources Background Archaeological Resources are defined as “any prehistoric or historic district, site, building, structure, or object [including shipwrecks]…Such term includes artifacts, records, and remains which are related to such a district, site, building, structure, or object” (National Historic Preservation Act, Sec. 301 (5) as amended, 16 USC 470w(5)). Archaeological resources are either historic or prehistoric and generally include properties that are 50 years old or older and are any of the following: • Associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history • Associated with the lives of persons significant in the past • Embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction • Represent the work of a master • Possess high artistic values • Present a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction • Have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important in history These resources represent the material culture of past generations of a region’s prehistoric and historic inhabitants, and are basic to our understanding of the knowledge, beliefs, art, customs, property systems, and other aspects of the nonmaterial culture. Further, they are subject to National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) review if they are historic properties, meaning those that are on, or eligible for placement on, the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). These sites are referred to as historic properties. Section 106 requires agencies to make a reasonable and good faith efforts to identify historic properties. Archaeological resources may be found in the Proposed Project Area both offshore and onshore.
    [Show full text]
  • The Giant Sea Mammal That Went Extinct in Less Than Three Decades
    The Giant Sea Mammal That Went Extinct in Less Than Three Decades The quick disappearance of the 30-foot animal helped to usher in the modern science of human-caused extinctions. JACOB MIKANOWSKI, THE ATLANTIC 4/19/17 HTTPS://WWW.THEATLANTIC.COM/SCIENCE/ARCHIVE/2017/04/PLEIST OSEACOW/522831/ The Pleistocene, the geologic era immediately preceding our own, was an age of giants. North America was home to mastodons and saber-tooth cats; mammoths and wooly rhinos roamed Eurasia; giant lizards and bear-sized wombats strode across the Australian outback. Most of these giants died at the by the end of the last Ice Age, some 14,000 years ago. Whether this wave of extinctions was caused by climate change, overhunting by humans, or some combination of both remains a subject of intense debate among scientists. Complicating the picture, though, is the fact that a few Pleistocene giants survived the Quaternary extinction event and nearly made it intact to the present. Most of these survivor species found refuge on islands. Giant sloths were still living on Cuba 6,000 years ago, long after their relatives on the mainland had died out. The last wooly mammoths died out just 4,000 years ago. They lived in a small herd on Wrangel Island north of the Bering Strait between the Chukchi and East Siberian Seas. Two-thousand years ago, gorilla-sized lemurs were still living on Madagascar. A thousand years ago, 12-foot-tall moa birds were still foraging in the forests of New Zealand. Unlike the other long-lived megafauna, Steller’s sea cows, one of the last of the Pleistocene survivors to die out, found their refuge in a remote scrape of the ocean instead of on land.
    [Show full text]
  • An Essay on the Ecological and Socio-Economic Effects of the Current and Future Global Human Population Size
    An essay on the ecological and socio-economic effects of the current and future global human population size “The global human population is and will probably remain too large to allow for a sustainable use of the earth’s resources and an acceptable distribution of welfare” MSc Thesis By Jasper A.J. Eikelboom Supervised by dr. M. van Kuijk and prof. ir. N.D. van Egmond Utrecht University 27-09-2013 Abstract Since the dawn of civilization the world population has grown very slowly, but since the Industrial Revolution in 1750 and especially the Green Revolution around 1950 the growth rate increased dramatically. At the moment there are 7 billion people and in 2100 it is expected that there will be between 8.5 and 12 billion people. Currently we already overshoot the earth’s carrying capacity and this problem will become even larger in the future. Because of the global overpopulation many negative ecological and socio-economic effects occur at the moment. Land-use change, climate change, biodiversity loss, risk of epidemics, poor welfare distribution, resource scarcity and subsequent indirect effects such as factory farming and armed struggles for resources are caused by overpopulation. All these effects are long-lasting and many are irreversible. The longer we overshoot the carrying capacity of the earth and the larger the human population becomes, the worse the effects will be. It can thus be concluded that the global human population is and will probably remain too large to allow for a sustainable use of the earth’s resources and an equal distribution of the use of these resources.
    [Show full text]