UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI INSTITUTE OF DIPLOMACY AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES Militia Groups and National Security in Kenya: A Case Study of Eastland’s, Nairobi SAMUEL. M. WACHENJE SUPERVISOR: DR MARTIN. O. OUMA A PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL STUDIES AT THE INSTITUTE OF DIPLOMACY AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES (IDIS), UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI March, 2015 Declaration I hereby declare that this research project is my original work and has not been submitted for a degree award in any other university. Samuel. M. Wachenje Signed…………………………… Date…………............................... This project has been submitted for examination with my approval as University Supervisor Dr Martin. O. Ouma Signed..............…………………… Date…...........…………….. i Dedication I dedicate this work to all those who gallantly put their lives on the line as they strive to protect/save lives, alleviate human suffering and promote peace in an environment rife with conflict and violence as well as to those who have longed for security, stability and peace which has often proven elusive. May their yearnings materialize and live to cherish good tidings in secure, stable and peaceful environment. ii Acknowledgement The writing of this dissertation has been very challenging and without the support, patience and guidance of the following people, this study could not have been completed. To them I owe my deepest gratitude. To my supervisor Dr. Martin Ouma who found time to guide me despite many other academic and professional commitments. His wisdom, knowledge, commitment to the highest standards inspired and motivated me. Also, great appreciation goes to my colleagues at NDC and my family who in various ways inspired and encourage me throughout the process. To all I say may God bless you. iii Abstract There is a negative relationship between militias and national security. Militias tend to challenge the operations of a state in many ways. This ranges from undermining state‟s monopoly in the use of force to illegal taxation, serious intimidation and predation of citizens. Consequently, there has been sustained global and national scholarly and policy focus on specific ways militias emerge, their practices and how they undermine national security. This study falls within this terrain of militias and national security. It has examined the question of militias and their impact on Kenya‟s national security with particular focus on militia activities in the Eastlands parts of Kenya‟s capital city Nairobi. The area has witnessed high concentration of militias cum organized criminal groups. Special attention has being given to Mungiki which has been dominant. Theoretically, the study has been guided by multi-sectoral and multilevel approach to security and securitization theory. Multi-sectoral and multilevel approach is based on the argument that threats to security are both militarized and non-militarized. Also, they affect various sectors notably military, political, economic, societal and environmental. Securitization theory which is closely associated with Copenhagen and Paris schools of security acknowledges the reality that different states have varied security priorities. Significantly, the theory moves security agenda from been an objective phenomenon to being subjective and contextual depending on these priorities. These way many issues can be brought under the umbrella of security. Methodologically, the study is both qualitative and quantitative owing to the nature of data the researcher sought. It used both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected through interviews and informal conversations whereas qualitative data was mainly collected through desk study review. The main finding of the study is that militias have undermined Kenya‟s national security. They have challenged state‟s monopoly in the use of force, corrupted its institutions, are used as tools of violence by political and economic actors, created an architecture of fear in the areas they operate severely weakening human security, have exacerbated poverty and unemployment. However, despite the challenges they pose, they have also played a key role in provision of public services and security in ungoverned urban spaces long neglected by the government. iv Table of Contents Declaration ..................................................................................................................................................... i Dedication ..................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ iv Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................. ix List of Tables and Charts .............................................................................................................................. x CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .................................................................... 1 1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Background to the Study ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.3. Statement of the Research Problem ....................................................................................................... 6 1.4. Objectives of the Study .......................................................................................................................... 7 1.5. Research Questions ................................................................................................................................ 7 1.6. Justification of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 8 1.7. Literature Review ................................................................................................................................... 8 1.7.1. Evolution of the Concept of Security .................................................................................................. 9 1.7.2. Militia Groups, their Development and National Security ............................................................... 15 1.7.3: Militia Groups in Kenya ................................................................................................................... 21 1.7.4. Gaps in Literature ............................................................................................................................. 29 1.7.5. Operationalization of Key Terms and Concepts ............................................................................... 29 1.8. Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................................ 30 1.9. Methodology ........................................................................................................................................ 33 1.9.1 Methods of data Collection ......................................................................................................... 34 1.9.2 Methods of Data Analysis ........................................................................................................... 34 1.10. Study Layout ...................................................................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 36 FACTORS UNDERLYING THE RISE AND CONTINUED GROWTH OF MILITIA GROUPS IN KENYA ...................................................................................................................................................... 36 2.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 36 2.2. Definition of the Term Militia ............................................................................................................. 36 2.3. Types of Militias .................................................................................................................................. 38 v 2.4. Evolution of Militias in Kenya............................................................................................................. 39 2.5. Factors behind the Rise of Militias in Kenya ....................................................................................... 44 2.5.1. Negative Ethnicity and Political Competition................................................................................... 45 2.5.2. Political Culture of Impunity and Extra State Violence .................................................................... 48 2.5.3. Socio-economic Factors: Underdevelopment, Poverty,