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Climate Change and Social Movements

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Climate Change and Social Movements Climate Change and Social Movements Climate Change and Social Movements Civil Society and the Development of National Climate Change Policy Eugene Nulman Lecturer, Birmingham City University, UK © Eugene Nulman 2015 Foreword © Chris Rootes 2015 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2015 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has com- panies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-55628-1 ISBN 978-1-137-46879-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137468796 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. To my parents, Vladimir and Florida Contents List of Tables and Figures ix List of Abbreviations and Acronyms x Acknowledgements xii Foreword by Professor Chris Rootes xiii 1 Introduction 1 The climate change movement and movement outcomes 2 The three campaigns 3 Research questions: what, when, and how 4 2 Brief History of Climate Change Policy and Activism 8 Margaret Thatcher and climate change 8 Early environmental movement activity on international climate change negotiations 12 UNFCCC and the Earth Summit 13 Conferences of the Parties and the Kyoto Protocol 15 International climate policy after COP 3 16 Copenhagen and beyond 19 Conclusion: the importance of national interests and national policies 20 3 Case Histories of Three Climate Campaigns 24 Campaigning for emissions targets: the case of the Climate Change Act 24 Campaigns against carbon-intensive infrastructure: the case of Heathrow’s third runway 32 Campaigning for clean investment: the case of the Green Investment Bank 46 Conclusion 56 4 Policy Outcomes 58 Climate Change Act 62 Heathrow third runway 71 Green Investment Bank 81 Conclusion 85 viii Contents 5 Political Opportunities 87 Climate change policy window 89 Closure of opportunities 101 Conclusion 105 6 Strategy, Leadership, and Outcomes 107 Strategic domains 109 Strategic questions 110 Conclusion 125 7 Mechanisms for Policy Change 128 Disruption mechanism 128 Public preference mechanism 130 Political access mechanism 133 Judicial mechanism 135 International politics mechanism 136 Conclusion 137 8 Conclusion 139 Findings 140 Implications 143 On strengthening subsequent research 145 Notes 147 Glossary 151 References 155 Index 175 List of Tables and Figures Tables 2.1 Kyoto emission reduction targets by country 16 3.1 Friends of the Earth activity during Big Autumn Push (Sept–Nov 2007) 30 4.1 Direction and desirability of movement outcomes 59 4.2 Policy outcomes model 60 4.3 Association between news articles, campaign activity, and EDM signatories 67 4.4 Policy outcomes model – Climate Change Act 70 4.5 Voting data on marginal constituencies near Heathrow Airport 76 4.6 Policy outcomes model – Heathrow third runway 81 4.7 Policy outcomes model – Green Investment Bank 85 4.8 Summary of policy outcome model results 86 5.1 Frequency of frames used by the GIB campaign 103 7.1 Effectiveness of mechanisms across cases 138 Figures 3.1 EDM 178, signatures by party (24 May–13 July 2005) 28 4.1 Climate Change Act EDM signatories 63 4.2 Climate Change Act news articles and EDM signatories 66 4.3 Newspaper articles on Heathrow activism prior to the 2010 election 74 5.1 Percentage of economic frames in the GIB campaign over time 105 6.1 Inputs and outputs of strategic decision-making 108 ix List of Abbreviations and Acronyms AOSIS Alliance of Small Island States BAA British Airport Authority BIS Department of Business, Innovation, and Skills CaCC Campaign against Climate Change CAN Climate Action Network CBI Confederation of British Industry CCC Committee on Climate Change CJN Climate Justice Network CO2 carbon dioxide COP Conference of the Parties DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change DfT Department for Transport EAC Environmental Audit Committee EC European Community EDM early day motion ENGO environmental non-governmental organization ERRB Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Bill EU European Union FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change FoE Friends of the Earth GIB Green Investment Bank HACAN Heathrow Association for the Control of Aircraft Noise INC Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ISA individual savings account MP Member of Parliament NGO non-governmental organization NIMBY Not In My Backyard NoTRAG No Third Runway Action Group ONS Office of National Statistics POS political opportunity structures PSNB public sector net borrowing PSND public sector net debt Quango Quasi-autonomous non-governmental organization x List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xi REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation UK United Kingdom UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change US United States of America WCC-2 Second World Climate Conference WMO World Meteorological Organization WWF World Wide Fund for Nature Acknowledgements I am indebted to a number of people who have helped me complete this research, from its early stages as a doctorate thesis to this final stage. First and foremost I would like to thank Chris Rootes for all of his assistance and inspiration as my supervisor during my masters and PhD studies. Chris has been there throughout all the stages of the process by intro- ducing me to social movement theory, helping to develop my research competencies, and providing me with continuous advice. Chris has always provided me with the support I needed to complete this pro- ject by being both meticulous in editing and scrutinizing my work and allowing me the space to develop my ideas and make my thesis my own. Chris has also been helpful in examining some of the many changes I have made to the thesis for this book and in assisting me in finding employment, without which I may have given up on the book. I must also thank other colleagues for their helpful comments on the thesis, book, and specific chapters, including Clare Saunders, Neil Carter, Ben Seyd, Loraine Bussard, and Alex Norman. I would like to thank many others including anonymous peer reviewers for the book and related publications, as well as those who provided constructive criticisms during conference presentations on the subject. I should also use this space to thank the various campaigners, policymakers, and busi- ness representatives that took time away from their busy schedules to speak to me. I would like thank my family for offering their help and support whenever I needed it and my friends for dragging me away from my work to ensure I enjoyed my experience and was not holed up in my office with only my books to keep me company. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my partner, Francesca Comparone, who was always there for me despite living in another country and whose love has always sustained me. xii Foreword Climate change is widely, if not universally, acknowledged to be the greatest challenge that we face. It is not surprising, then, that it should be a prominent object of public policy, nor that environmental move- ments and NGOs should have mobilized to make it and keep it so. Yet it would be wrong to assume that policy on climate change is a simple product of pressure by organized environmental activists. Climate change is unusual among environmental issues in that it was not placed on the agenda by environmental movements or NGOs but by scientists, who by the 1970s had begun to notice a sustained rise in average global surface temperatures and were concerned about its possible impacts upon global weather patterns. The World Meteoro- logical Organization, a specialized agency of the United Nations, served as a conduit by which scientists’ concerns might be communicated to national governments, and in 1988 an Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- mate Change (IPCC) was set up to evaluate the scientific evidence on climate change. This, in due course, led to the United Nations Frame- work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 and thence to the Kyoto Protocol. If climate change is a ‘super-wicked’ issue for governments, it is also a difficult issue for environmental movements and NGOs. Environmen- tal NGOs and campaigns have mostly attracted attention, and achieved results, by focusing upon particular issues neglected by governments and by seeking specific remedies to the particular problems they identi- fied. They were not accustomed to demanding, or seeking to mobilize the public to demand, systemic change. For that reason, they were often denounced as ‘merely reformist’, especially by the dwindling band of devout socialists and other leftists for whom capitalism is the root of all evil, and its abolition or transcendence the necessary condition of any meaningful assault on our environmental predicament.
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