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THE OF THOMAS KUHN AND THEIR RELEVANCES FOR HUMANIZATION OF ISLAMIC LAW By: Muhamad Ali Mustofa Kamal Lecturer in Major of Qur’anic Studies Faculty of Syari’ah and Law in University of Qur’anic (UNSIQ) Email: [email protected]

Abstract This paper tries to explore the views of Thomas Kuhn that science is moving through the stages that will culminate in normal conditions and then "rot" because it has been replaced by science or new . So next. The new paradigm threatens the old paradigm that had previously become the new paradigm. With this thinking concept, Thomas Kuhn is not just a major contribution in the history and , but more than that, he has initiated the theories that have broad implications in the social , arts, politics, education and even religious sciences , provide an important contribution in order to project humanization Islamic sciences. in showing Islamic humanist deconstruction re the primary sources of Islam, namely the Qur'an and Tafseer already should keep abreast of the needs of Muslim humanist paradigm so that the functional interpretation theories and theories of literacy is very possible to grow, to challenge the needs of the times.

Keyword: Paradigm, Humanization, Interpretation.

A. Introduction are created by a man who was born in Still fresh in our minds that there Cincinnati, Ohaio. He is Thomas Kuhn. is shifting in the discourse He studied at of and . Logical in 1922, then continued his studies in thinking has evolved from 's graduate school, and decided to move formal logic, , into the field of the . Descartes, Kant's transcendental logic, "Structure of Scientific symbolic logic to Pierce. In metaphysics Revolutions", a lot of changing people's eruptions also occur the ideas of being perceptions of what is called science. If qua being (), being perceived some people say that the movement is as a being (), being nothing linear science-accumulative, it is not the and Becoming (phenomenology), being case in vision Kuhn. According to Kuhn, and time (existentialism), to being as science is moving through the stages that process () (AC Ewing, 2003: will culminate in normal conditions and 11-14; and Noeng Muhadjir, 1998). then "rot" because it has been replaced by The emergence of a book "Structure science or a new paradigm. Similarly of Scientific Revolutions" in 1962, which further. Paradigm a new threat to the old Vol. II No. 02, November 2016 paradigm that had previously become the starting point and the main spectacles new paradigm (John Cottingham, 1996: highlighting the fundamental issues in 349-350). that is still an enigma. The The paradigm of positivistic clarity and intelligence of his mind, he epistemology has been entrenched for asserts that science is basically over and decades in the history of the development paradigm characterized by the revolution of (epistemology), until after that followed. about two or three decades emerging new This thinking concept, Thomas Kuhn developments in the philosophy of is not just a major contribution in the science as an effort to break-up the old history and philosophy of science, but theories. Break-up of knowledge the more than that, he has initiated the positivistic philosophy of science was theories that have broad implications in pioneered by figures such as Thomas the social sciences, arts, politics, Kuhn, Toulmin Stepehen and Imre education and even religious sciences etc. Lakatos (Zubaedi et.al, 2007: 198). The Therefore, discussion of this paper, I characteristics that distinguish this new will focus on the scientific revolution that model of the philosophy of science with has made Thomas Kuhn and relevance for the previous models is that there is great humanization of Islamic religious attention to the history of science and the sciences. role of science in an effort to get as well as constructing forms of science and B. Discussion scientific events that actually happened. 1. Biography of Thomas Kuhn The history of science is basically a Thomas Kuhn was born in discipline relative still new. Its Cincinnati, to Samuel L. Kuhn, an development at the beginning of the field industrial engineer, and Minette Stroock is handled and developed by experts from Kuhn. He holds a BS in the field of other disciplines, such as physics, wich in physics from Harvard University in 1943, recent decades the field of the history of and the MS and Ph.D. degree in physics science has been handled by people who in 1946 and 1949, respectively. As he are particularly concerned in this field. states in the first few pages of the preface (Verhak and Imam R. Haryono, 1989: of the second edition of The Structure of 163). Thomas Kuhn himself with his Scientific Revolutions, three years of physics background trying to give total academic freedom as a Junior discourses on the history of science as the Fellow at Harvard was crucial in allowing

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him to switch from physics to history (and a. Science History Of Urgency. philosophy) of science. He then taught In the introduction I mentioned courses in history of science at Harvard above that the figure of Thomas Kuhn from 1948 to 1956 at the university was initially as a physicist in the presidents suggestion James Conant. development steeped in the history of Upon leaving Harvard, Kuhn taught at the science and philosophy of science. University of California, Berkeley, both Because so enthusiastically to the in the department of history and awareness of the importance of the philosophy department, named Professor history of science, he even claimed that of History of Science in 1961. At philosophy of science should be studied Berkeley, he wrote and published (in to a new history of science. 1962) of the best known and most In the 1950's, when Kuhn began the influential: The Structure of Scientific study of history of science, history of Revolutions (Alexander Burung, 2004). science is still young academic In 1964, he joined discipline. Nonetheless, it became clear as Professor M. Taylor Pyne History of that scientific change is not always Philosophy and Science. directly as a standard, the traditional He joined the Institute view would have it. Kuhn is the first and of Technology (MIT) as S. Laurance most important writer to articulate an Rockefeller Professor of Philosophy In alternative developed value in the 1979, staying there until 1991. Kuhn philosophy of science. Kuhn fully aware interviewed and taped Danish physicist of the importance of innovation to his Bohr days before death. philosophy, and work is called 'history Records containing the last words of for philosophical purposes' (Thomas Niels Bohr caught on tape. In 1994, Kuhn Kuhn, 1970: 276). was diagnosed with cancer of the Thomas Kuhn's notion is both a bronchial tubes, where he died in 1996. response to the approach of Popper's Thomas Kuhn has been married twice, philosophy of science. According to first to Kathryn Muhs (with whom he has Kuhn, poppers distort by first three children) and then to Jehane Barton outlining the empirical sciences with the (Jehane R. Kuhn). hypothesis that followed the attempts of falsification. But Popper instead put the 2. Framework of Thomas Kuhn's epistemology. history of science as an example to

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justify his theory (Verhak and Imam Explanation this phase is generally R.Haryono, 1989: 165). characterized by some theories those This is in sharp contrast with the do not fit and are not exhaustive. mindset of Thomas Kuhn who prefers Finally, one of these theories are the history of science as the starting "winning". point for any . Thus the 2) The second phase, . philosophy of science is expected to be A who works in this phase getting closer to the reality of science has overriding theory (set theory) and scientific activity of real. The which Kuhn called a paradigm. In urgency of history of science proves normal science, the scientist's job is theories or systems, can deliver complicated, expand, and further of scientific revolutions. According to justify paradigm. Eventually, Thomas Kuhn that scientific advances however, problems arise, and the that are revolutionary in the first place, theory is modified in an ad hoc not forward cumulatively. manner to accommodate experimental that might b. Paradigm and Normal Science seem to contradict the original Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1922-1996) theory. Finally, the current once wrote extensively about the history explanation of the theory fails to of science and developed several explain some phenomenon or group important ideas in the philosophy of thereof, and someone suggested science. He is most famous for his book replacement or redefinition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions theory. in which he expressed the idea that 3) The third stage, a , science does not "evolve gradually ushered in a new period of towards the ", but instead undergo revolutionary science. Kuhn believes periodic revolution, which he called a that all scientific fields through this paradigm shift. Kuhn's analysis of the paradigm shift numerous times, as history of science to show him that the new theories replace old ones. practice of science comes take into three For instance the phenomenon of a phases, namely: shift in paradigm is about suggestion

1) The first stage, pre-scientific, which Copernicus that the earth revolved experienced only once where there is around the sun, not the suggestion of no consensus on any theory. Ptolemy that the sun (and the other

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planets and stars) revolve around the are considered valid, and the rules used earth. Before Copernicus was a complex to determine the truth of a particular set of epicycles (circles upon circles) are theory. used to predict the movement of the Another example of a paradigm 'heavens'. Epicyclical original Ptolemy shift in the natural sciences is some combination, by the Middle Ages, being "classic cases" of Kuhn's paradigm seen less than adequate, and the 'fix'; by shifts in science are: astronomers then more and more 1) Acceptance of the theory of complicated. Copernicus offers a return biogenesis, that all life comes from to the alternative view (suggested by life, as opposed to the theory of many people in Antiquity), but the more spontaneous generation, which data the better to support it; account began in the 17th century, and not lowers the complexity of this new until the 19th century with Pasteur. theory is needed to explain the 2) Acceptance of the theory of natural available. course, once by selection Charles Darwin was Copernicus 'theory was accepted by replaced Lamarckism as a other astronomers, it is the period mechanism of evolution. between the entry of new 'normal 3) The transition between the science'. Refinement added by Kepler worldview of Newtonian physics and and Newton adhered to the new Einstein's relativistic worldview. paradigm. Other examples are more As for example in the field of social recent acceptance of Einstein's general sciences such as about: The Keynesian relativity to replace Newton about Revolution is usually seen as a major gravity in 1920 and 1930, and shift in macroeconomics. According to Wegener's plate tectonics in 1960 by John Kenneth Galbraith said, Law geologists. before Keynes dominated economic According to Kuhn, the science thinking for more than a century, and a before and after a paradigm shift is so very difficult transition to much different to see their theories Keynesianism. Economists are contrary unrivaled - a paradigm shift not only to the law, which concluded that changed one theory, it will change the underemployment and lack of way that the words are defined, the way investment (plus over saving) is not look at their subject, and possible, risk losing their careers. In his perhaps The most important questions magnum opus, Keynes cited one of his

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predecessors, JA Hobson, who to explicitly study based on one or more repeatedly denied the position at the past scientific achievements, University for the False Theory. achievements that the scientific Monetarists found that fiscal policy is community to recognize certain while as not important for the stabilization of the providing a basis for further practice. economy, in contrast with the "In this stage, a scientist was not being Keynesian view that both fiscal and critical of the paradigms that guide monetary policies are essential. scientific activity, and during the run of The central concept of the theory this research, scientists can find a epistemology, philosophy of Thomas variety of phenomena that can’t be Kuhn was named to the term explained by the theory. This is called "paradigm". The term is not defined anomaly. The concept of paradigm to consistently, resulting in a variety of help the to tie their frequently changing his statement discipline in helping scientists to: context and meaning (Thomas S. Kuhn, (Thomas S. Kuhn, 1970: 10) 1970: 10). There are two fundamental 1) Make the inquiry. differences in the terms used by Kuhn's 2) Formulate a question paradigm, namely: 3) Choosing the methods used to 1) The paradigm is what we would examine these questions describe the behavior of the test 4) Defining areas of relevance members of the scientific community 5) / create meaning. that had been predetermined. A research paradigm guiding the 2) The paradigm is used as a whole whole group and this is most clearly constellation of beliefs, values, stated criteria fields. Various techniques, and others who have transformation paradigms of revolutions done community members who have from the part of science, while the been recognized (Alan E. Musgrave, successive transition from one paradigm 1980: 44). to another paradigm through a revolution This paradigm guiding scientific is the development of a common and a activities during normal science [16] , mature science. where the scientists the opportunity to c. Anomaly and The Emergence define and develop a detailed and in- of New Discovery. depth, as preoccupied with the basic stuff. At normal science "gives meaning

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Data anomalies plays a major role What is meant is the novelty factual in bringing about a new discovery that discovery (discovery), while begins with scientific activities. In this invention is a novelty theory connection, Kuhn describes the two (creation) both of which are closely kinds of scientific activity, namely: intertwined with each other (Thomas 1) Puzzle solving S. Kuhn, 1970: 53). In solving the puzzle, the scientists d. Scientific Revolution: Issues make observations and conduct And Preferment experiments that aim to suss out the In the above I have puzzle, not the search for truth. If the mentioned about the revolution of paradigm can not be used to solve the science (scientific revolution) that arise important issues or even the effect of due to the presence of anomalies in the conflict, then a new paradigm scientific research felt worse, and the must be created / generated. crisis can’t be solved by the paradigm of 2) Discovery of a new paradigm research referenced. Revolutionary The new findings are not isolated science here is a non-cumulative events, but extended episodes with a developmental episode in which regularly repeating structure. The summarized an old paradigm is replaced discovery begins with the awareness in part or whole by the new paradigm (as of anomaly, ie, with the recognition opposed to). A revolution of science is that has somehow violated not running smoothly without a hitch, expectations driven by the paradigm but often times there are pros and cons of normal science master. Then he as well as the friction of the people continues with a more or less attached to them. For example: for extended exploration of the example, the debate between supporters anomalous region. And he only of Aristotle to Galileo supporters in ended when the theory or paradigm seeing objects swinging. Aristotle that has been adjusted so that it theorized that it was swinging object becomes distorted expected. So, the falls with difficulty because restrained point that the invention must be no by chains. Medium Galileo looked at the adjustment between the of the object from the side of the pendulum new theory. Of Thomas Kuhn's swing. (Thomas S. Kuhn, 1970: 116). theory gives a different definition between discovery and invention.

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In the selection paradigm there is no gold standard but just adapt to e. Scientific Revolution of Thomas Khun: Their community approval. Existence of Relevance for Humanization scientific revolutions with of Islamic Law argumentative theory will form the Some Ideas for Development science community. Therefore, the issue Discourse sciences Religion and of paradigm / new paradigm emergence Science to de pan with a paradigm is as a result of the scientific revolution something that is necessary to nothing but a consensus or agreement understand the demands of the people that is determined by the rhetoric in and the times. Needs a shifting academic circles or the community itself paradigm in the field of Islamic (Zubaedi et.al, 2007: 205). The extent to scientific epistemology of normative which the new paradigm is accepted by Islamic epistemology-textual-bayani the majority of the science community, resulting in difficulty adopting and then that is where the revolution of elaborating insights and new findings in science (scientific revolution) will be the field of science; into scientific realized. During the revolution, epistemology of contemporary Islam is scientists see new things and different patterned intuitive-spiritual-irfani (the when using the instrument-an axiological) that many ethical instrument that is very familiar to see dimensions related to the development the places he had ever seen. As if the of science; nor is patterned empirical- professional community had suddenly historical-Burhani (epistemological) moved to another area where the objects that impact on the new findings (the are very well known previously seen in context of discovery/ “qira'ah a different light and also mingle with muntijah” / production of meaning) in objects that are not known. Even if there science. are scientists or fraction scientists who This shifting paradigm is a new did not accept the new paradigm as the synthesis between style Ghazalian basis for his research, and he remained (West Al-Ghazali/ the school science: on the paradigm that has not been al-Ghazl) with Rusydian (Ibn Rushd dismantled legitimacy of the science, school/ the West: ). the research activities are not only a skill Epistemology of classical Islamic catalog has benefit at all. This is called scholarship that hinder the progress of the need for a scientific revolution. the world sa ins findings need to be

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reviewed again soon. Understanding of interpretations. When viewed from the ijtihad as mentioned Sir Mohammad perspective of Thomas Kuhn in Iqbal (1981: 148) as the principle of dialectical and revolutionary movement can be used as a reference for interpretation of the two periods were efforts philosophical this paradigmatic developed using the paradigm. shift (Mohammad Iqbal, 1981: 148). Paradigm is a fundamental view of the Because essentially every outcome of subject matter (subject matter) of the ijtihâd has been imprisoned by the object under study. In the historicity surrounding the palace commentaries, the object is al-Qur 'an. dimensions, space and time, and So the paradigm of interpretation that is therefore any scientific understanding fundamental view of the Qur'an which of religion (including Islam) and the are interpreted, with regard to what discourse of science will have stability, should be studied from the holy book. which Thomas Kuhn called normal The exegete of the Qur'an must use science, and gradually crisis and push the paradigm of interpretation is done, for the birth of a new scientific because it inhere tone in interpretation perspective (revolutionary science). theory that consciously or Thomas Kuhn thought building the unconsciously used in the interpretation. scientific revolution and slogan of Till the pre-modern era, there are three paradigm, more comprehensively can interpretations of the dominant theories, be applied in light of the fundamental each with side of own paradigm, and essence or structure of the religious produce normal interpretation abundant sciences; within Islamic theology can and influential science that is composed cover the study area tafsir, hadith, fiqh, of three theories : (Hamim Ilyas, 2004: theology and morals of others that viii-xiii) contain various scientific argument in 1) Technical theory; formulated in the practice in the community. definition which states that the In the map of Islamic sciences, interpretation is the study of how to including the science of Tafsir immature pronounce the words of the Qur'an, (ghair an-Nadli), so it is always open to meaning, the provisions applicable to be developed. Historical development it as a standalone and when in the of interpretation of the Qur'an can be arrangement, which meant in the broadly divided into pre-modern sense of sentence structure al-Quran interpretation of (classical) and modern study complements about it. Theory

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in emphasizing the technical stuff in view that the Qur'an in Islam is a the Qur'an which includes language, proposition which has the ultimate reading procedures, process of authority, so that the schools could revelation. Examples of the have the power among the people application of this theory spawned and then he should have the many interpretations of the book are: legitimacy of al-Qur'an, by doing the Tafsir al-Baidhowi and Kasyaf verses ta’weel desired. Thus, the (patterned language). theory is essentially built on the 2) Accommodation theory: it is paradigm legitimacy of the Qur'an. formulated in the definition which Example of the application of this states that it is the interpretation of theory has produced many works that the study to explain the meaning of partisan commentators, both in the Qur'an according to human Kalam, fiqh, politics, and as a ability. In this theory emphasized commentary ar-Razi. In history, this that the authority entitled to explain theory could lead to mercy for the the Qur'an not only Prophet, Friend schools and a curse for the other and tabi'in alone, but the clergy-end schools and vice versa so it can not side dish (later) also have the right to be a solution to the problem of time. the same authority. The emphasis of this theory is based on the Pre-modern interpretations explanation of the Qur'an. Examples generated by using the three theories of the application of this theory has and paradigms, as normal science, have resulted in a patterned Isyari undergone a crisis that can’t be used as interpretations, and philosophical. a reference for Muslims to answer the 3) Ta'weel theory: in theory this challenges of the times are always formulation can’t be expressed dynamic. Therefore, it is important to takwil said definitively. But respond to the new paradigm emerged according to the approach of the that society demands in interpreting the Qur'an surah Ali Imran verse 7 Qur'an that the Qur'an continues to ta’weel meaning of this is the ability function “shalihun fi kulli zaman wa to understand these verses that are makan”. By the reformers of Islam have mutasyabihat (vaguely) among the developed new theories and paradigms special scholar’s (al-fil Raasikhun in qur’anic interpretation, namely: ilmi). Emphasis on theory is set of the

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1) Functional theory paradigm with deconstruction of the Qur'an also instructions of the Koran. This theory uses this approach to literacy theory. emphasizes the operational definition in the holy book the C. Conclusion Koran. Examples of the application Seeing the development of of this theory have produced a book epistemology of Thomas Kuhn on of tafsir al-Manar work of diversification, especially in the study of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida. Islam as an example is the problem of This theory is also used by Fazlur interpretation of the Koran that once the Rahman in the method principle; certainly a scientific revolution hermeneutiknya.Spirit interpretation that has been developed changing of afforded in this theory is the Thomas Kuhn has brought major human understanding of the Qur'an as a civilization and Islamic law. Kuhn has religious show that brought people to drawn the that the philosophers of the teachings of their happiness in science generally ignore the fundamental this world and the hereafter. Study hermeneutical issues such as the question beyond it just being consistent or tool of what is actually done by a scientist. to achieve it. According to Kuhn, the rasionality of 2) Literacy with literary theory scientific actually ambiguous it's paradigm developed Qur'an by Amin basically not merely a matter of induction al-Khuli. This theory emphasizes or deduction rasioanalits nor objective, interpretation as set out in the but rather on matters of interpretation definition of Amin al-Khuli that it is (hermeneutical) and persuasion which a literary interpretation (of the tends to be more subjective. Qur'an) the correct method, complete Therefore, everything that is said its aspects and systematic about the world of science and the reality distribution. This theory departs is actually closely related to the paradigm from the paradigm that the Qur'an is and model or a particular interpretation a book of great Arabic. Application schemes used by scientists. The Method of this theory raises interpretation of scientists view the world determines applied by Bint al-Syati 'and Ahmad what kind of world he sees. So, Khalafullah. Muhammad Arkoun knowledge is not a copy of a reality, but who accept the theory of the reality of the result of human construction. Paradigms underlying the

The Scientific Revolution 223 Vol. II No. 02, November 2016 construction was received and believed most member benefit and hope when it is the community of scientists, not because used for research and further study. the scientists knew that it was true, but because they believe that it's the best, ***

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