A STUDY ON PROFESSIONAL STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES OF CHENNAI BASED ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS
A Thesis submitted to the Bharathidhasan University for the award of the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHYLOSOPHY IN MANAGEMENT
By Mr. T. MANVEL RAJ, M.Tech., MBA., Principal, Sri Krishna Engineering College Panapakkam, Near Padappai, Via. Tambaram, Sriperumpudur Taluk and District Chennai-601 301
Under the Guidance and Supervision of Dr. A. MOHAMED SIDDIQUE, MBA., M.Phil., Ph.D Associate Professor & Research Advisor in Management KHADIR MOHIDEEN COLLEGE (Nationally Accredited with B++ Grade by NACC) ADHIRAMPATTINAM -614 701
BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY (Accredited with ‗A‘ Grade by NACC) Tiruchirappalli-620 024
APRIL – 2013 2
Dr. A. MOHAMED SIDDIQUE, MBA., M.Phil., Ph.D Associate Professor & Research Advisor in Management KHADIR MOHIDEEN COLLEGE (Nationally Accredited with B++ Grade by NACC) Adhirampattinam -614 701, Thanjavur District, Tamilnadu, India Phone: [College]: 0091-4373-242236 [Res.]: Cell: 9994449144
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this thesis entitled “A STUDY ON PROFESSIONAL STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES OF CHENNAI BASED ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS” submitted to the Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli as a partial fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Management, is an original and independent research work carried out by Mr. T. Manvel Raj under my supervision and guidance and this work or any part thereof has not been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose or degree.
Place: Adhirampattinam, Dr. A. MOHAMED SIDDIQUE
Date: Research Supervisor
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T. MANVEL RAJ Principal, Sri Krishna Engineering College Panapakkam, Near Padappai, Via.Tambaram, Sriperumpudur Taluk and District, Chennai-601 301 Tamil Nadu, India.
DECLARATION
I do hereby declare that this thesis entitled “A STUDY ON PROFESSIONAL STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES OF CHENNAI BASED ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS” has been originally carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of Dr. A. MOHAMED SIDDIQUE, MBA., M.Phil.,Ph.D., Associate Professor & Research Advisor in Management, KHADIR MOHIDEEN COLLEGE, Adhirampattinam - 614 701. It is my original work and it has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship or other similar titles and that the thesis is an independent work on the part of the candidate.
Place: Adhirampattinam, Date: T. MANVEL RAJ Research Scholar
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER DETAILS PAGE NO ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i LIST OF TABLES iii LIST OF FIGURES ix 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRESS 1 1.2 THE UNDERSTANDING OF STRESS 2 1.3 NIOSH APPROACH TO OCCUPATIONAL STRESS 6 1.4 THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESS 6 1.4.1 Acute stress 6 1.4.2 Episodic acute stress 8 1.4.3 Chronic stress 9 1.5 EFFECTS OF STRESS ON YOUR BODY, 11 FEELINGS AND BEHAVIOR 1.6 CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND DISORDERS 13
1.7 HEALTH RISK FACTORS 15
1.8 GENERAL ADAPTIVE SYNDROME 16 1.8.1 Alarm phase 17 1.8.2 Resistance phase 17 1.8.3 Exhaustion phase 17 1.9 POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER 18 (PTSD) 1.9.1 The areas of the brain affected in post-traumatic stress 18 disorder 1.9.2 Memory 19
1.9.3 Atrophy of the hippocampus in posttraumatic stress 19 5
disorder 1.10 CAUSES OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS 19 1.11 THE SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF STRESS 20 1.12 EFFECTS OF STRESS 22
1.12.1 Immune response 25
1.12.2 Effect of stress on the immune system 26
1.12.3 Effects of chronic stress 26
1.12.4 Mechanisms of chronic stress 27
1.12.5 Chronic stress and wound healing 28
1.12.6 Chronic stress and development 28
1.12.7 Chronic stress and memory 28
1.12.8 Stress and visceral fat 28
1.13 EUSTRESS AND DISTRESS 29
1.14 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY 29
1.15 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 31 1.16 NEED OF THE STUDY 32 1.17 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 32
1.18 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 34 1.19 PERIOD OF STUDY 34 1.20 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 34 1.21 SCHEME OF REPORTING 35 2.0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 38 2.1 INTRODUCTION 38 2.2 THE CONCEPTS OF STRESS 38 2.2.1 Biological concept of stress 43 2.2.2 Cognitive concept of Stress 45 2.2.3 Social concept of stress 51 2.3 DEFINITION OF STRESS 54 2.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING STRESS 55 6
2.4.1 Demographic factors and stress 55 2.4.1.1 Age 55 2.4.1.2 Education 58 2.4.1.3 Occupation and position 58 2.4.1.4 Experience 61 2.4.1.5 Type of family 63 2.4.2 Organizational factors and stress 63 2.4.2.1 Work stressors 64 2.4.2.2 Role stressors 65 2.4.2.3 Personal development stressors 67 2.4.2.4 Interpersonal relationship stressors 68 2.4.2.5 Organizational climate 69 2.4.2.6 Organisational structure, leadership 72 2.4.2.7 Stressors and Work 72 2.4.2.8 Leadership 74 2.4.2.9 Lack of influence 75 2.4.2.10 Colleagues 77 2.4.3 Task Demands 78 2.4.3.1 Work Conditions - Quantitative Overload 78 2.4.3.2 Understaffing 79 2.4.3.3 Overtime 79 2.4.3.4 Qualitative Overload/ underload 80 2.4.3.5 Role of Administration 80 2.4.4 Stress Sources relating to Role in 81 Organisation 2.4.4.1 Role Overload and Responsibility 81 2.4.4.2 Role Ambiguity 82 2.4.4.3 Role Conflict 83 2.4.5 Individual factors and Extra-Organisational 84 Stress 2.4.5.1 Type - A Behavioural style 84 2.4.5.2 Negative Affectivity 85 2.4.5.3 Self-efficacy 85 2.4.5.4 Locus of control 85 7
2.4.5.5 Social support 86 2.5 SOURCES OF STRESS WITHIN AN INCLUSIVE 87 ENVIRONMENT 2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 89 2.6.1 Violence and Danger caused by pupils 90 2.6.2 Lack of Reward/Recognition 90 2.6.3 Negative publicity 91 2.7 CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS 92 2.7.1 Physiological effects of stress 93 2.7.2 Psychological Problems and Behavioural 94 problems 2.7.3 Teacher Stress, Strain, and Burnout 97 2.7.4 Causes of Teacher Stress 103 2.7.8 Teacher Responses to Stress 107 2.8 LEVEL OF STRESS 112 2.9 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN RELATION TO 116 STRESS 2.10 COLLEGE TEACHER‘S STRESS 119 2.11 FACTS AND FIGURES OF STRESS 141 2.12 CONCLUSION BASED ON REVIEW 148 2.13 SUMMARY 148 3.0 ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND 149 PROFESSIONAL STRESS – AN OVERVIEW 3.1 INTRODUCTION 149 3.2 EVOLUTION OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN INDIA AND ITS CURRENT STATUS 151 3.3 STATE OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN 164 TAMIL NADU 3.3.1 Quality of engineering education 165 3.3.2 Equality of opportunity in engineering 173 education 3.3.3 Financing of engineering education 177 3.3.4 Placement of engineering graduates 183 8
3.3.5 Quality of the students 187 3.3.6 Scarcity of teachers 188 3.3.7 About management 188 3.3.8 Lack of job opportunities 189 3.3.9 Gullible and the poor students suffer 190 3.3.10 Responsibility of the government and All India 191 Council for Technical Education (AICTE) 3.3.11 Advise to students 191 3.4 FACTOR AFFECTING TEACHING 193 3.5` JOB SATISFACTION OF TEACHERS 197 3.6 TECHNOLOGY TEACHER SATISFACTION 200 3.7 TECHNOLOGY TEACHER TURNOVER 202 3.8 SUMMARY 205 4.0 COPING STRATEGIES WITH STRESS 206 4.1 INTRODUCTION 206 4.2 THE CONCEPT OF COPING 206 4.3 COPING STRATEGIES 207 4.3.1 Individual Level Strategy 215 4.3.2 Corporate Level Strategy 215 4.3.3 Corporate Stress Prevention Strategy 217 4.3.4 How to Change the Organization to Prevent 217 Job Stress 4.4 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN RELATION TO 218 STRESS COPING STRATEGIES 4.5 COPING WITH STRESS OF TEACHERS 222
4.5.1 Direct action 222 4.5.2 Palliative approaches 224 4.6 GENERAL COPING STRATEGIES 229 4.6.1 Social Support 229 4.6.2 Direct Action 229 4.6.3 Indirect Method 230 4.6.4 Coping Mechanisms 230 9
4.6.5 Gender difference in coping styles 234 4.6.6 Personality risk factor 236 4.7 THE CONCEPT OF STRESS MANAGEMENT 238 4.7.1 Minimizing the frequency of stress-inducing situation 240 4.7.2 Increasing resistance to stress 241 4.7.3 Counter-conditioning to avoid physiological arousal 243 4.8 244 STRESS COPING STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERS
4.8.1 244 Health Habits
4.8.2 246 Goodies for your Desk
4.8.3 248 Mottoes and Mantras
4.8.4 249 Organization Tools
4.8.5 251 Inspirational Podcasts and Sites
4.8.6 252 Getting the Support You Need
4.8.7 Tiny Tricks 253
4.8.8 When You Go Home 255
4.8.9 Diet, Exercise and Sleep 256
4.8.10 Improving Your Game 258
4.8.11 Staying Stress-Free Every day 259
4.8.12 Family Stress Management 273 10
4.8.13 Stress Reliever Games 276
4.8.14 Stress Relieving Exercises 278 4.8.15 Stress Management Tips 280
4.8.16 Other coping strategies 281 4.9 EASIEST METHOD TO COPE WITH STRESS 282 4.10 SUMMARY 283 5.0 METHODOLOGIES TO MEASURE AND 285 EVALUATE STRESS 5.1 INTRODUCTION 285 5.2 WAYS OF MEASURING STRESS 286 5.3 DESIGN OF THE STUDY 287 5.4 LOCALE OF THE STUDY 288 5.5 SELECTION OF SAMPLE 289 5.5.1 Primary Data 289 5.5.2 Secondary Data 289 5.5.3 Sample Size 290 5.5.4 Sample Collection 290 5.5.5 Pilot – testing 290 5.6 PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION 290 5.7 SELECTION AND USE OF THE TOOLS FOR 291 STUDY 5.7.1 Demographic characteristics questionnaire 291 5.7.2 Employment Organization Sources of Stressors 292 (EOSS) scale 5.7.3 Coping strategy questionnaire 293 5.8 VARIABLES AND THEIR MEASUREMENTS 294 5.8.1 Independent variables 294 5.8.1.1 Age 294 5.8.1.2 Gender 295 11
5.8.1.3 Education 295 5.8.1.4 Designation 295 5.8.1.5 Total Service 296 5.8.1.6 Monthly income 296 5.8.1.7 Marital status 297 5.8.1.8 Family Type 297 5.8.1.9 Family Size 297 5.8.1.10 Employment of the spouse 298 5.8.1.11 Annual income of the family 298 5.8.2 Dependent variables 299 5.9 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 299 5.9.1 Statistical Tools Used 299 5.9.2 Frequency and percentage 300 5.9.3 t-test 300 5.9.4 Step wise Regression analysis 301 5.10 INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF SAMPLE 303 6.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 304 6.1 INTRODUCTION 304 6.2 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS ON SAMPLE (t-test) 304 6.3 INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS ON SAMPLE 321 (ANOVA) 6.4 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS ON SAMPLE (Chi- 362 square test) 6.5 REGRESSION ANALYSIS 405 7.0 SUMMARY AND FINDINGS 409 7.1 INTRODUCTION 409 7.2 SUMMARY AND FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 411 7.3 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 419 SELECTED ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS 7.4 7.4 FACTORS CAUSING STRESS AMONG THE 422 ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS AS PER 12
EMPLOYMENT ORGANIZATION SOURCES OF STRESSORS (EOSS) SCALE 7.4.1 Work stressors among the engineering college 422 teachers 7.4.2 Role stressors among the engineering college teachers 424 7.4.3 Personal development stressors among the degree 425 college teachers 7.4.4 Interpersonal relation stressors among the engineering 428 college teachers 7.4.5 Organizational climate stressors among the 430 engineering college teachers 7.5 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS 432 ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF STRESS 7.6 GENDER WISE DIFFERENCE WITH THE 433 DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF EMPLOYMENT ORGANIZATION SOURCES OF STRESSORS 7.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEMOGRAPHIC 435 CHARACTERISTICS AND THE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF EMPLOYMENT ORGANIZATION SOURCES OF STRESSORS 7.8 INFLUENCE OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC 442 CHARACTERISTICS ON TOTAL STRESSORS 7.9 COPING STRATEGIES ADOPTED 443 BY THE ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS 7.9.1 Physical stress management strategies and therapies 443 adopted by the engineering college teachers 7.9.2 Mental stress management strategies and most liked 446 activities adopted by the engineering college teachers 7.10 GENDER WISE DIFFERENCE WITH REGARDS 450 13
TO COPING STRATEGIES AMONG THE ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS 7.11 STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 451 PRACTICED BY THE SELECTED TEACHERS IN THEIR DAILY LIVING 7.12 SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 452 8.0 CONCLUSIONS,RECOMMENDATIONS AND 455 SUGGESTIONS 8.1 INTRODUCTION 455 8.2 CONCLUSIONS 455 8.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 458 8.4 SUGGESTIONS 460 BIBLIOGRAPHY x APPENDIX – A: PROFESSIONAL STRESS QUESTIONAIRE FOR TEACHERS APPENDIX – B: MOST STRESSED OUT COUNTRIES APPENDIX – C: MOST STRESSFUL PROFFESSIONS APPENDIX – D: LIST OF COLLEGES IN AND AROUND CHENNAI CITY LIST OF PAPERS PUBLISHED
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I thank the Almighty for his creation. At the outset I would like to extend my graceful thanks to the administration of Bharathidasan University of Thiruchirappalli and Khadir Mohideen College of Adhirampattinum for giving me this opportunity of doing research work. I express my sincere and deep gratitude to Dr. A. Mohamed Siddique, MBA., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate Professor & Research Advisor in Management, Khadir Mohideen College, Adhirampattinam, my research supervisor, for his invaluable suggestions, constructive criticism, inspiring guidance and encouragement. He was kind enough to devote his unstinted attention to my work and place his precious time at my disposal for discussion. This study would not have been possible with out his immense help. I owe him much more than I can express in words. I wish to acknowledge my sincere thanks to Janab.S. Mohamed Aslam, Secretary and Correspondent, Khadir Mohideen College Adirampattinam for having given me an opportunity to do part time Ph.D., Research in the Department of Management. I take this opportunity to thank Dr. A. Mohamed Abdul Khadir, Principal and Dr. K. E. N. Nallamohamed, farmer Principal of Khadir Mohideen College, Adirampattinam who encouraged me throughout my research period by providing unstinted support and encouragement. 15
I owe my gratitude to Dr. O. M. Hajamohideen, Head of the Department of Business Administration, Khadir Mohideen College, Adirampattinam for his gesture of encouragement. I extend my sincere thanks and gratitude to my respected
Chairman Thiru. R. Vivekanandhan, M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., MBA., LL.B and advisor Dr. P. Ananthakrishnan of Sri Krishna Engineering College for their continuous encouragement and motivation in the success of my research work. I like to thank the Professors, Associate Professors and Assistant Professors of various self-financing engineering colleges in and around Chennai, those who directly and indirectly helped me for answering my questions while collecting data. I also wish to place on record and deep sense of appreciation and humble thanks to my Brothers, Sisters and their families, Mother and Father-in-laws Mrs. & Mr. P. Thankappan, and Mrs. Mercy Thanka Bai, and my brother-in-law Mr. T. Saju Raj and his family for their support and motivation to make this research a success. I am deeply indebted to my Wife Dr. T. Shalini Rani, Assistant Professor and Head, Department of Commerce, Government Arts and Science College for Women, Burgur, who have assisted me in many of my tasks and encouraged me to do Ph.D. My greatest debt of all is to my son Master S.M.R Nishok Taamas for my absence which he bears during this research period.
T. Manvel Raj
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Details Page No 6.2.1 Frequency Distribution of Gender 305 6.2.2 Frequency Distribution of Age Group in years 306 6.2.3 Frequency Distribution of Marital Status 307 6.2.4 Frequency Distribution of Educational 308 Qualification 6.2.5 Frequency Distribution of Occupation 309 6.2.6 Frequency Distribution of Working Department 310 6.2.7 Frequency Distribution of Number of years 312 working as a Teacher 6.2.8 Frequency Distribution of Number of years 313 working in present college 6.2.9 Frequency Distribution of Monthly salary 314 6.2.10 Frequency Distribution of Maximum number of 315 students in a class 6.2.11 Frequency Distribution of Number of periods 316 teach every day 6.2.12 Frequency Distribution of Safe in college 316 6.2.13 Frequency Distribution of College violence 316 policy 6.2.14 Frequency Distribution of Violence prevention 317 program 6.2.15 Frequency Distribution of Satisfied with job 317 Mean and SD of adjustment score of all samples 318 6.2.16 with respect to sources of stress Mean and SD of adjustment score of all samples 320 6.2.17 with respect to coping strategies 6.3.1 t - test for significant difference between male 322 and female with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.2 t - test for significant difference between male 323 and female with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.3 ANOVA for significant difference between age 324 group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 17
6.3.4 ANOVA for significant difference between age 326 group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.5 ANOVA for significant difference between 327 marital status of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.6 ANOVA for significant difference between 329 marital status of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.7 ANOVA for significant difference between 330 educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.8 ANOVA for significant difference between 332 Educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.9 ANOVA for significant difference between 333 Occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. 6.3.10 ANOVA for significant difference between 334 occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.11 ANOVA for significant difference between 336 working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.12 ANOVA for significant difference between 337 working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. 6.3.13 ANOVA for significant difference between 339 numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.14 ANOVA for significant difference between 340 numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.15 ANOVA for significant difference between 341 numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. 6.3.16 ANOVA for significant difference between 343 18
numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.17 ANOVA for significant difference between 345 monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.18 ANOVA for significant difference between 346 monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.19 ANOVA for significant difference between 347 number of periods teaching every day as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.20 ANOVA for significant difference between 349 numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.21 t - test for significant difference between 350 maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. 6.3.22 t - test for significant difference between 352 maximum number of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.23 t - test for significant difference between safety 353 in college with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.24 t - test for significant difference between safety 354 in college with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.25 t - test for significant difference between College 355 violence policy with respect to overall 6.3.26 t - test for significant difference between College 356 violence policy with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.27 t - test for significant difference between College 357 violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.28 t - test for significant difference between College 359 violence prevention program with respect to 19
overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.3.29 t - test for significant difference between the job 360 satisfaction with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.3.30 t test for significant difference between job 360 satisfaction with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.4.1 Level of source of stress 362 6.4.2 Level of coping strategy 363 Chi-square test for association between gender 363 6.4.3 and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.4.4 Chi-square test for association between age 364 group and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.4.5 Chi-square test for association between marital 366 status and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress Chi-square test for association between 367 6.4.6 educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of sources of Stress Chi-square test for association between 368 6.4.7 Occupation and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress Chi-square test for association between working 369 6.4.8 departments and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.4.9 Chi-square test for association between No. of 371 years of working and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress Chi-square test for association between No of 372 6.4.10 years working in the present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress Chi-square test for association between Monthly 374 6.4.11 Salary and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress Chi-square test for association between 375 6.4.12 maximum number of students in a class and level of overall 20
dimensions of sources of stress Chi-square test for association between number 6.4.13 of periods teaching every day and level of 376 overall dimensions of sources of stress Chi-square test for association between safety in 378 6.4.14 the college and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress Chi-square test for association between College 379 6.4.15 violence policy and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress 6.4.16 Chi-square test for association between college violence prevention program and level of overall 380 dimensions of sources of stress 6.4.17 Chi-square test for association between job 381 satisfaction and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress Chi-square test for association between gender 382 6.4.18 and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.4.19 Chi-square test for association between age 383 group and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Chi-square test for association between marital 385 6.4.20 status and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Chi-square test for association between 386 6.4.21 educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Chi-square test for association between 387 6.4.22 occupation and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Chi-square test for association between working 389 6.4.23 department and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Chi-square test for association between Number 390 6.4.24 of years working as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 21
Chi-square test for association between Number 6.4.25 of years working in present college as teacher 392 and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.4.26 Chi-square test for association between monthly 393 salary and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.4.27 Chi-square test for association between 395 Maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Chi-square test for association between number 396 6.4.28 of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Chi-square test for association between Safety in 397 6.4.29 the present college and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Chi-square test for association between College 398 6.4.30 violence policy and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Chi-square test for association between College 400 6.4.31 violence prevention program and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.4.32 Chi-square test for association between job 401 satisfaction and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 6.4.33 Level of source of stress * Level of coping 402 Strategy Chi-square test for association between monthly 403 6.4.34 income and level of satisfaction on quality of services
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE DETAILS PAGE NO
1.1 A diagram of the General Adaptation Syndrome 16 Model 1.2 Effects on various systems, organs and tissues all 24 over the body 3.1 Factors affecting teaching 193 6.2.1 Frequency Distribution of Gender 305 6.2.2 Frequency Distribution of Age Group in years 306 6.2.3 Frequency Distribution of Marital Status 307 6.2.4 Frequency Distribution of Educational Qualification 308 6.2.5 Frequency Distribution of Occupation 309 6.2.6 Frequency Distribution of Working Department 310 Frequency Distribution of Number of years working 312 6.2.7 as a Teacher 6.2.8 Frequency Distribution of Number of years working 313 in present college 6.2.9 Frequency Distribution of Monthly salary 314 Frequency Distribution of Maximum number of 315 6.2.10 students in a class
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRESS
Modern living has brought with it, not only innumerable means of comfort, but also a plethora of demands that tax human body and mind. Now-a-days everyone talks about stress. It is cutting across all socio- economic groups of population and becoming the great leveler. Not only just high pressure executives are its key victims but it also includes labourers, slum dwellers, working women, businessmen, professionals and even children. Stress is an inevitable and unavoidable component of life due to increasing complexities and competitiveness in living standards.
The speed at which change is taking place in the world today is certainly overwhelming and breathe taking. In the fast changing world of today, no individual is free from stress and no profession is stress free. Everyone experiences stress, whether it is within the family, business, organization, study, work, or any other social or economical activity. Thus in modern time, stress in general and job stress in particular has become a part of the life and has received considerable attention in recent years. Stress has become the core concern in the life of everyone, but everybody wants stress-free life. Stress is a subject which is hard to avoid. Stress is a part of day-to day living. Every individual is subjected to stress either 24 knowingly or unknowingly. Stress, long considered alien to Indian lifestyle, is now a major health problem / hazard.
To a scientist, stress is any action or situation that places special physical or psychological demands upon a person, anything that can unbalance his individual equilibrium. And while the physiological response to such demand is surprisingly uniform, the forms of stress are innumerable. Stress may be even but unconscious like the noise of a city or the daily chore of driving the car. Perhaps the one incontestable statement that can be made about stress is that it belongs to everyone-to businessmen and professors, to mother and their children, to factory workers. Stress is a part of fabric of life. Nothing can isolate stress from human beings as is evident from various researches and studies. Stress can be managed but not simply done away with. Today, widely accepted ideas about stress are challenged by new research, and conclusions once firmly established may be turned completely around. The latest evidence suggested (Ogden Tanner, 1979): Some stress is necessary to the well being and a lack can be harmful. - Stress definitely causes some serious ailments. Severe stress makes people accident-prone.
1.2 THE UNDERSTANDING OF STRESS
Stress has different meanings to different people. From a lay person's perspective, stress can variously be described as feeling tense, anxious, worried, or having the blues. Scientifically these feelings are manifestations of the stress experienced in intriguingly complex programmed response to the perceived threat that can have both positive 25 and negative results. There is general consensus however, that stress is a physical, mental or emotional reaction resulting from an individual's response to environmental tensions, conflicts, pressures and similar stimuli. As commonly understood, stress is a pattern of disruptive, physiological and psychological reactions to events that threaten a person's ability to cope.
The term ―stress‖ was first introduced into the fields of Personality traits as predictors of stress among female teachers in Osun state teaching service Popoola, B. I. & Ilugbo, E. A.
Stress can also be defined as, ―the condition that results when person environment transaction lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy - whether real or not- between the demands of a situation and the resources of a person's biological, psychological and social systems‖.
Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn (2005) defined stress as a state of tension experienced by individuals facing extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities.
Also, Gibson, John and James (1988) defined the concept as a person‘s adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological and physical demands on the person. This definition implies two components: first, is the notion of adaptation, which means that people adapt to stressful circumstances in any of several different ways. Second is the role of the stimulus. The stimulus is generally called a stressor. A stressor is anything that induces stress. Teacher stress is 26 specifically defined as a condition of negative effects, such as frustration and anxiety, which results from aspects of the job.
Stress is a complex phenomenon. It is very subjective experience. That may be challenge for one will be a stressor for another. It depends largely on background experiences, temperament and environmental conditions. Stress is a part of life and is generated by constantly changing situations that a person must face. The term stress refers to an internal state, which results from frustrating or unsatisfying conditions. A certain level of stress is unavoidable. Because of its complex nature stress has been studied for many years by researchers in psychology, sociology and medicine.
Stress is a term that is commonly used today but has become increasingly difficult to define precisely. It shares, to some extent, common meanings in both the biological and psychological sciences. Stress typically describes a negative concept that can have an impact on one‘s mental and physical well-being, but it is unclear what exactly defines stress and whether or not stress is a cause, an effect, or the process connecting the two. With organisms as complex as humans, stress can take on entirely concrete or abstract meanings with highly subjective qualities, satisfying definitions of both cause and effect in ways that can be both tangible and intangible.
The term stress had none of its contemporary connotations before 1920s. It is a form of the Middle English distress, derived via old French fr om the Latin stringer, ―to draw tight.‖ It had long been in use in physics to refer to the internal distribution of a force exerted on a material body, resulting in strain. 27
In the 1920s and 1930s, the term was occasionally being used in biological and psychological circles to refer to a mental strain, unwelcome happening, or, more medically, a harmful environmental agent that could cause illness.
Walter Cannon used it in 1926 to refer to external factors that disrupted what he called homeostasis. Homeostasis is a concept central to the idea of stress. In biology, most biochemical processes strive to maintain equilibrium, a steady state that exists more as an ideal and less as an achievable condition. Environmental factors, internal or external stimuli, continually disrupt homeostasis; an organism‘s present condition is a state in constant flux wavering about a homeostatic point that is that organism‘s optimal condition for living. Factors causing an organism‘s condition to waver away from homeostasis can be interpreted as stress. A life-threaten situation such as a physical insult or prolonged starvation can greatly disrupt homeostasis.
On the other hand, an organism‘s effortful attempt at restoring conditions back to or near homeostasis, oftentimes consuming energy and natural resources, can also be interpreted as stress. In such instances, an organism‘s fight-or-flight response recruits the body‘s energy stores and focuses attention to overcome the challenge at hand. The ambiguity in defining this phenomenon was first recognized by Hans Selye in 1926 who loosely described stress as something that ―in addition to being it were also the cause of itself, and the result of itself.‖ 28
1.3 NIOSH APPROACH TO OCCUPATIONAL STRESS
On the basis of experience and research, NIOSH favors the view that working conditions play a primary role in causing Occupational stress. However, the role of individual factors is not ignored.
According to the NIOSH view, exposure to stressful working conditions (called Occupational stressors) can have a direct influence on worker safety and health. But as shown below, individual and other situational factors can intervene to strengthen or weaken this influence. Theresa's need to care for her ill mother is an increasingly common example of an individual or situational factor that may intensify the effects of stressful working conditions. Examples of individual and situational factors that can help to reduce the effects of stressful working conditions include the following:
• Balance between work and family or personal life
• A support network of friends and coworkers
• A relaxed and positive outlook
1.4 THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESS
1.4.1 Acute stress
Acute stress is the most common form of stress. It comes from demands and pressures of the recent past and anticipated demands and pressures of the near future. Acute stress is thrilling and exciting in small doses, but too much is exhausting. A fast run down a challenging ski slope, 29 for example, is exhilarating early in the day. That same ski run late in the day is taxing and wearing. Skiing beyond your limits can lead to falls and broken bones. By the same token, overdoing on short-term stress can lead to psychological distress, tension headaches, upset stomach, and other symptoms.
Fortunately, acute stress symptoms are recognized by most people. It's a laundry list of what has gone awry in their lives: the auto accident that crumpled the car fender, the loss of an important contract, a deadline they're rushing to meet, their child's occasional problems at school, and so on.
Because it is short term, acute stress doesn't have enough time to do the extensive damage associated with long-term stress. The most common symptoms are:
emotional distress - some combination of anger or irritability, anxiety, and depression, the three stress emotions;
muscular problems including tension headache, back pain, jaw pain, and the muscular tensions that lead to pulled muscles and tendon and ligament problems;
stomach, gut and bowel problems such as heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence, diarrhea, constipation, and irritable bowel syndrome;
Transient over arousal leads to elevation in blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, sweaty palms, heart palpitations, dizziness, migraine headaches, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath, and chest pain.
Acute stress can crop up in anyone's life, and it is highly treatable and manageable. 30
1.4.2 Episodic Acute Stress
There are those, however, who suffer acute stress frequently, whose lives are so disordered that they are studies in chaos and crisis. They're always in a rush, but always late. If something can go wrong, it does. They take on too much, have too many irons in the fire, and can't organize the slew of self-inflicted demands and pressures clamoring for their attention. They seem perpetually in the clutches of acute stress.
It is common for people with acute stress reactions to be over aroused, short-tempered, irritable, anxious, and tense. Often, they describe themselves as having "a lot of nervous energy." Always in a hurry, they tend to be abrupt, and sometimes their irritability comes across as hostility. Interpersonal relationships deteriorate rapidly when others respond with real hostility. The work becomes a very stressful place for them.
The cardiac prone, "Type A" personality described by cardiologists, Meter Friedman and Ray Rosenman, is similar to an extreme case of episodic acute stress. Type A's have an "excessive competitive drive, aggressiveness, impatience, and a harrying sense of time urgency." In addition there is a "free-floating, but well-rationalized form of hostility, and almost always a deep-seated insecurity." Such personality characteristics would seem to create frequent episodes of acute stress for the Type a individual. Friedman and Rosenman found Type A's to be much more likely to develop coronary heat disease than Type B's, who show an opposite pattern of behavior.
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Another form of episodic acute stress comes from ceaseless worry. "Worry warts" see disaster around every corner and pessimistically forecast catastrophe in every situation. The world is a dangerous, unrewarding, punitive place where something awful is always about to happen. These "awfulizers" also tend to be over aroused and tense, but are more anxious and depressed than angry and hostile.
The symptoms of episodic acute stress are the symptoms of extended over arousal: persistent tension headaches, migraines, hypertension, chest pain, and heart disease. Treating episodic acute stress requires intervention on a number of levels, generally requiring professional help, which may take many months.
Often, lifestyle and personality issues are so ingrained and habitual with these individuals that they see nothing wrong with the way they conduct their lives. They blame their woes on other people and external events. Frequently, they see their lifestyle, their patterns of interacting with others, and their ways of perceiving the world as part and parcel of who and what they are.
Sufferers can be fiercely resistant to change. Only the promise of relief from pain and discomfort of their symptoms can keep them in treatment and on track in their recovery program.
1.4.3 Chronic Stress
While acute stress can be thrilling and exciting, chronic stress is not. This is the grinding stress that wears people away day after day, year after 32 year. Chronic stress destroys bodies, minds and lives. It wreaks havoc through long-term attrition. It's the stress of poverty, of dysfunctional families, of being trapped in an unhappy marriage or in a despised job or career. It's the stress that the never-ending "troubles" have brought to the people of Northern Ireland; the tensions of the Middle East have brought to the Arab and Jew, and the endless ethnic rivalries that have been brought to the people of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union.
Chronic stress comes when a person never sees a way out of a miserable situation. It's the stress of unrelenting demands and pressures for seemingly interminable periods of time. With no hope, the individual gives up searching for solutions. Some chronic stresses stem from traumatic, early childhood experiences that become internalized and remain forever painful and present. Some experiences profoundly affect personality. A view of the world, or a belief system, is created that causes unending stress for the individual (e.g., the world is a threatening place, people will find out you are a pretender, and you must be perfect at all times). When personality or deep-seated convictions and beliefs must be reformulated, recovery requires active self-examination, often with professional help.
The worst aspect of chronic stress is that people get used to it. They forget it's there. People are immediately aware of acute stress because it is new; they ignore chronic stress because it is old, familiar, and sometimes, almost comfortable. Chronic stress kills through suicide, violence, heart attack, stroke, and, perhaps, even cancer. People wear down to a final, fatal breakdown. Because physical and mental resources are depleted through long-term attrition, the symptoms of chronic stress are difficult to treat and 33 may require extended medical as well as behavioral treatment and stress management. Specific e-newsletters also include blogs, questions and answers with Mayo Clinic experts, and other useful information that will help you manage your health.
1.5 EFFECTS OF STRESS ON YOUR BODY, FEELINGS AND BEHAVIOR
Stress is considered as a human response to dangerous situation. When we face situation which our brain is incapable of handling, it puts the body on alert by producing hormones which are required in fight or flight situation, which are: Increase Blood Pressure. Repaid Heartbeat. Reduce blood supply to skin Cessation of digestive activities. Increase perspiration. Additional release of sugar and fast into the system to coup up with the additional energy requirement. All these actions which are mentioned above have a very long lasting negative effect if these stressful situations are to become frequently occurring feature. They may lead to the following serious and even fatal conditions: Depression and anxiety. Drug Dependency. Congenital heart diseases. Stress related Diabetes. 34
Stress symptoms may be affecting your health, even though you might not realize it. You may think illness is to blame for that nagging headache, your frequent insomnia or your decreased productivity at work. But stress may actually be the culprit.
Indeed, stress symptoms can affect your body, your thoughts and feelings, and your behavior. Being able to recognize common stress symptoms can give you a jump on managing them. Stress that's left unchecked can contribute to health problems such as high blood pressure, heart disease, obesity and diabetes.
Also, if you have chest pain, especially if it occurs during physical activity or is accompanied by shortness of breath, sweating, dizziness, nausea, or pain radiating into your shoulder and arm, get emergency help immediately. These may be warning of a heart attack and not simply stress symptoms.
Table 1.1 Common effects of stress
Common effects of stress
On your body On your mood On your behavior
Headache Anxiety Overeating or Muscle tension or Restlessness under eating pain Lack of motivation Angry outbursts Chest pain or focus Drug or alcohol Fatigue Irritability or anger abuse Change in sex Sadness or Tobacco use 35
drive depression Social withdrawal Stomach upset Sleep problems
Source: American Psychological Association's "Stress in America" report, 2010
If you do have stress symptoms, taking steps to manage your stress can have numerous health benefits. Explore stress management strategies such as:
Physical activity
Relaxation techniques
Meditation
Yoga
Tai chi
1.6 CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND DISORDERS
Symptoms Signs of stress may be cognitive, emotional, physical, or behavioral.
Cognitive symptoms
Memory problems
Inability to concentrate
Poor judgment
Pessimistic approach or thoughts
Anxious or racing thoughts 36
Constant worrying
Emotional symptoms
Moodiness
Irritability or short temper
Agitation, inability to relax
Feeling overwhelmed
Sense of loneliness and isolation
Depression or general unhappiness
Physical symptoms
Aches and pains
Diarrhea or constipation
Nausea, dizziness
Chest pain, rapid heartbeat
Loss of sex drive
Frequent colds
Behavioral symptoms
Eating more or less
Sleeping too much or too little
Isolating oneself from others
Procrastinating or neglecting responsibilities
Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to relax
Nervous habits (e.g. nail biting, pacing) 37
1.7 HEALTH RISK FACTORS
Both negative and positive stressors can lead to stress. The intensity and duration of stress changes depending on the circumstances and emotional condition of the person suffering from it (Arnold. E and Boggs. K. 2007). Some common categories and examples of stressors include:
Sensory input such as pain, bright light, noise, temperatures, or environmental issues such as a lack of control over environmental circumstances, such as food, air and/or water quality, housing, health, freedom, or mobility.
Social issues can also cause stress, such as struggles with nonspecific or difficult individuals and social defeat, or relationship conflict, deception, or break ups, and major events such as birth and deaths, marriage, and divorce.
Life experiences such as poverty, unemployment, clinical depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, heavy drinking, or insufficient sleep can also cause stress. Students and workers may face performance pressure stress from exams and project deadlines.
Adverse experiences during development (e.g. prenatal exposure to maternal stress, poor attachment histories, and sexual abuse) are thought to contribute to deficits in the maturity of an individual's stress response systems. One evaluation of the different stresses in people's lives is the Holmes and Rahe stress scale.
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1.8 GENERAL ADAPTIVE SYNDROME
Figure 1.1 A diagram of the General Adaptation Syndrome model Source: Brown & Blakeman (1983, p. 25) For the purpose of this research, Seyle‘s definition is focused on, as it encompasses the notion that stress is caused by physiological, psychological and environmental demands. Seyle (1974) indicated that when confronted with stressors, the body creates extra energy and it is when all the energy available is not utilised, that stress is a consequence.
This reaction to stress was first described in 1936 and was coined the General Adaptive Syndrome (GAS), which includes three distinct stages (Seyle, 1974; 1980): 1. Alarm reaction, 2. Stage of resistance, and 3. Stage of exhaustion.
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Response to stress is therefore deemed to be invariant to the nature of the stressor and followed a universal pattern- three stages, i.e. an alarm stage, a resistance stage and an exhaustion stage. Figure 1.1 provides an overview of this process.
1.8.1 Alarm Phase The alarm reaction is the immediate psycho-physiological response and at this time of the initial shock, resistance to stress is lowered. This process includes the secretion of hormones from the endocrine glands, causing for example, increased heart rate and blood pressure, muscle tension and a decrease in maintenance functions, e.g. digestion and sexual responsiveness. In cases where the stressor is continuous, the resistance phase starts where the body triggers the needed bodily system to deal with the stressor (Steenkamp, 2003). The body is alerted and activated and stress levels are at its highest during this stage (Hubert, 1984).
1.8.2 Resistance Phase According to Goldberger and Breznitz (1982, cited in Steenkamp, 2003) the resistance stage is characterised by an adaptation response of the body that is manifested with ―fight or flight‖ responses. The body endeavours to remedy the shock caused by the stress and to return the homeostasis of the body. If the stressors continue, the body will persevere in defending itself, thereby impeding any possibility of rest and repair.
1.8.3 Exhaustion Phase In the exhaustion phase, there is a resistance to a continued stressor, and where the adaptation response and /or return to equilibrium replace the 40 alarm reaction. If the alarm reaction is elicited too intensely or too frequently over an extended period of time, the energy required for adaptation becomes depleted, and the final stage of exhaustion, collapse or death occurs. It is during this stage that physical and mental breakdown occurs, the individual performance plummets and illness develops (Hubert, 1984).
1.9 POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)
PTSD is a severe anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to any event that results in psychological trauma. This event may involve the threat of death to oneself or to someone else, or to one's own or someone else's physical, sexual, or psychological integrity, overwhelming the individual's ability to cope. As an effect of psychological trauma, PTSD is less frequent and more enduring than the more commonly seen acute stress response. Diagnostic symptoms for PTSD include re-experiencing the original trauma(s) through flashbacks or nightmares, avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma, and increased arousal – such as difficulty falling or staying asleep, anger, and hyper vigilance. Formal diagnostic criteria (both DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10) require that the symptoms last more than one month and cause significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
1.9.1 The areas of the brain affected in post-traumatic stress disorder
Sensory input, memory formation and stress response mechanisms are affected in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The regions of the brain involved in memory processing that are implicated in 41
PTSD include the hippocampus, amygdala and frontal cortex. While the heightened stress response is likely to involve the thalamus, hypothalamus and locus coeruleus.
1.9.2 Memory
Cortisol works with epinephrine (adrenaline) to create memories of short-term emotional events; this is the proposed mechanism for storage of flash bulb memories, and may originate as a means to remember what to avoid in the future. However, long-term exposure to cortisol damages cells in the hippocampus; this damage results in impaired learning. Furthermore, it has been shown that cortisol inhibits memory retrieval of already stored information.
1.9.3 Atrophy of the hippocampus in posttraumatic stress disorder
There is consistent evidence from MRI volumetric studies that hippocampal volume is reduced in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This atrophy of the hippocampus is thought to represent decreased neuronal density. However, other studies suggest that hippocampal changes are explained by whole brain atrophy and generalised white matter atrophy is exhibited by people with PTSD.
1.10 CAUSES OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS
Work Related Stress; Job stress has been associated with poor mental and physical health. A useful model for understanding how the work environment affects individual health and well-being is provided by (Levi, 1996). In this model there are the following components: 42
1. Stressors: These are aspects of the working environment that cause stress for the individual.
2. Appraisal: The way a stressor is appraised will vary between individuals depending on such things as personality, customs and attitudes.
3. Stress: Stress is produced when the stressor interacts with the individual‘s appraisal of it to induce emotional, behavioral and physiological reactions. Emotional reactions include anxiety, depression, restlessness and fatigue. Behavioral reactions include increased smoking, overindulgence in food or drink and taking unnecessary risks. Physiological reactions include increased blood pressure, increased or irregular heartbeat, muscular tension and associated pain and heartburn.
4. Disease: The above reactions may result in suffering, illness and death (e.g. through suicide, diseases of the heart and blood vessels, or cancer). This sequence of events may be promoted or counteracted by interacting variables such as coping repertoire, social support, physical environment and nutrition. This process is summarized in figure below.
1.11 THE SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS OF STRESS
The symptoms and signs of stress may be cognitive, emotional, physical, or behavioral. i). Cognitive symptoms
Memory problems
Inability to concentrate
Poor judgment 43
Pessimistic approach or thoughts
Anxious or racing thoughts
Constant worrying ii). Emotional symptoms
Moodiness
Irritability or short temper
Agitation, inability to relax
Feeling overwhelmed
Sense of loneliness and isolation
Depression or general unhappiness iii). Physical symptoms
Aches and pains
Diarrhea or constipation
Nausea, dizziness
Chest pain, rapid heartbeat
Loss of sex drive
Frequent colds iv). Behavioral symptoms
Eating more or less
Sleeping too much or too little
Isolating oneself from others
Procrastinating or neglecting responsibilities
Using alcohol, cigarettes, or drugs to relax
Nervous habits (e.g. nail biting, pacing) 44
1.12 EFFECTS OF STRESS
Stress is difficult for scientists to define because it is a highly subjective phenomenon that differs for each of us. Things that are distressful for some individuals can be pleasurable for others. We also respond to stress differently. Some people blush, some eat more while others grow pale or eat less. There are numerous physical as well as emotional responses as illustrated by the following list of common signs and symptoms of stress.
1. Frequent headaches, jaw clenching or pain. 2. Gritting, grinding teeth. 3. Stuttering or stammering. 4. Tremors, trembling of lips, hands 5. Insomnia, nightmares, disturbing dreams 6. Difficulty concentrating, racing thoughts 7. Trouble learning new information 8. Forgetfulness, disorganization, confusion. 9. Neck ache, back pain, muscle spasms 10. Difficulty in making decisions. 11. Light headedness, faintness, dizziness 12. Feeling overloaded or overwhelmed. 13. Ringing, buzzing or popping sounds 14. Frequent crying spells or suicidal thoughts 15. Frequent blushing, sweating 16. Feelings of loneliness or worthlessness 17. Cold or sweaty hands, feet 18. Little interest in appearance, punctuality 45
19. Dry mouth, problems swallowing 20. Nervous habits, fidgeting, feet tapping 21. Frequent colds, infections, herpes sores 22. Increased frustration, irritability, edginess 23. Rashes, itching, hives, "goose bumps" 24. Overreaction to petty annoyances 25. Unexplained or frequent "allergy" attacks 26. Increased number of minor accidents 27. Heartburn, stomach pain, nausea 28. Obsessive or compulsive behavior 29. Excess belching, flatulence 30. Reduced work efficiency or productivity 31. Constipation, diarrhea 32. Lies or excuses to cover up poor work 33. Difficulty breathing, sighing 34. Rapid or mumbled speech 35. Sudden attacks of panic 36. Excessive defensiveness or suspiciousness 37. Chest pain, palpitations 38. Problems in communication, sharing 39. Frequent urination 40. Social withdrawal and isolation 41. Poor sexual desire or performance 42. Constant tiredness, weakness, fatigue 43. Excess anxiety, worry, guilt, nervousness 44. Frequent use of over-the-counter drugs 45. Increased anger, frustration, hostility 46
46. Weight gain or loss without diet 47. Depression, frequent or wild mood swings 48. Increased smoking, alcohol or drug use 49. Increased or decreased appetite 50. Excessive gambling or impulse buying
As demonstrated in the above list, stress can have wide ranging effects on emotions, mood and behavior. Equally important but often less appreciated are effects on various systems, organs and tissues all over the body, as illustrated by the following diagram.
Figure 1.2 Effects on various systems, organs and tissues all over the body 47
There are numerous emotional and physical disorders that have been linked to stress including depression, anxiety, heart attacks, stroke, hypertension, immune system disturbances that increase susceptibility to infections, a host of viral linked disorders ranging from the common cold and herpes to AIDS and certain cancers, as well as autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. In addition stress can have direct effects on the skin (rashes, hives, atopic dermatitis, the gastrointestinal system (GERD, peptic ulcer, irritable bowel syndrome, and ulcerative colitis) and can contribute to insomnia and degenerative neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease. In fact, it's hard to think of any disease in which stress cannot play an aggravating role or any part of the body that is not affected (see stress effects on the body stress diagram) or. This list will undoubtedly grow as the extensive ramifications of stress are increasingly being appreciated.
1.12.1 Immune response
Cortisol is a steroid hormone, belonging to a broader class of steroids called glucocorticoids, produced by the adrenal gland and secreted during a stress response. Its primary function is to redistribute energy (glucose) to regions of the body that need it most (i.e., the brain and major muscles during a fight-or-flight situation). As a part of the body‘s fight-or- flight response, cortisol also acts to suppress the body‘s immune system.
Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter released from locus coeruleus when stimulated by the hypothalamus during a stress response. Norepinephrine serves as the primary chemical messenger of the central nervous system‘s sympathetic branch that prepares the body for fight-or- flight response. 48
1.12.2 Effect of stress on the immune system
Stress is the body‘s reaction to any stimuli that disturb its equilibrium. When the equilibrium of various hormones is altered the effect of these changes can be detrimental to the immune system. Much research has shown a negative effect stress has on the immune system, mostly through studies where participants were subjected to a variety of viruses. In one study, individuals caring for a spouse with dementia, representing the stress group, saw a significant decrease in immune response when given an influenza-virus vaccine compared to a non- stressed control group. A similar study was conducted using a respiratory virus. Participants were infected with the virus and given a stress index. Results showed that an increase in score on the stress index correlated with greater severity of cold symptoms. Studies with HIV have also shown stress to speed up viral progression. Men with HIV were 2–3 times more likely to develop AIDS when under above average stress.
1.12.3 Effects of chronic stress
Chronic stress is defined as a ―state of prolonged tension from internal or external stressors, which may cause various physical manifestations; for example, asthma, back pain, arrhythmias, fatigue, headaches, irritable bowel syndrome, ulcers, and suppress the immune system‖. Chronic stress takes a more significant toll on your body than acute stress does. It can raise blood pressure, increase the risk of heart attack and stroke, increase vulnerability to anxiety and depression, contribute to infertility, and hasten the aging process. For example, results of one study demonstrated that individuals who reported relationship conflict lasting one month or longer have a greater risk of developing 49 illness and show slower wound healing. Similarly, the effects that acute stressors have on the immune system may be increased when there is perceived stress and/or anxiety due to other events. For example, students who are taking exams show weaker immune responses if they also report stress due to daily hassles.
1.12.4 Mechanisms of chronic stress
Studies revealing the relationship between the immune system and the central nervous system indicate that stress can alter the function of white blood cells involved in immune function, known as lymphocytes and macrophages. People undergoing stressful life events, such as marital turmoil or bereavement, have a weaker lympho-proliferative response. After antigens initiate an immune response, these white blood cells send signals, composed of cytokines and other hormonal proteins, to the brain and neuroendocrine system. Cytokines are molecules involved with cell signaling. Cortisol, a hormone released during stressful situations, affects the immune system greatly by preventing the production of cytokines. During chronic stress, cortisol is over produced, causing fewer receptors to be produced on immune cells so that inflammation cannot be ended. A study involving cancer patient‘s parents confirmed this finding. Blood samples were taken from the participants. Researchers treated the samples of the parents of cancer patients with a cortisol-like substance and stimulated cytokine production. Cancer patient parents‘ blood was significantly less effective at stopping cytokine from being produced.
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1.12.5 Chronic stress and wound healing
The immune system also plays a role in stress and the early stages of wound healing. It is responsible for preparing tissue for repair and promoting recruitment of certain cells to the wound area. Consistent with the fact that stress alters the production of cytokines, Graham et al. found that chronic stress associated with care giving for a person with Alzheimer‘s Disease leads to delayed wound healing. Results indicated that biopsy wounds healed 25% more slowly in the chronically stressed group, or those caring for a person with Alzheimer‘s disease.
1.12.6 Chronic stress and development
Chronic stress has also been shown to impair developmental growth in children by lowering the pituitary gland's production of growth hormone, as in children associated with a home environment involving serious marital discord, alcoholism, or child abuse.
1.12.7 Chronic stress and memory
Chronic stress is seen to affect parts of the brain where memories are processed through and stored. When people feel stressed, stress hormones get over-secreted, which affects the brain. This secretion is made up of glucocorticoids, including cortisol, which are steroid hormones that the adrenal gland releases.
1.12.8 Stress and visceral fat
Studies of female monkeys at Wake Forest University (2009) discovered that individuals suffering from higher stress have higher levels of visceral fat in their bodies. This suggests a possible cause-and-effect link between the two, wherein stress promotes the accumulation of visceral 51 fat, which in turn causes hormonal and metabolic changes that contribute to heart disease and other health problems.
1.13 EUSTRESS AND DISTRESS
Selye published in 1975 a model dividing stress into eustress and distress. Where stress enhances function (physical or mental, such as through strength training or challenging work), it may be considered eustress. Persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior.
The difference between experiences that result in eustress and those that result in distress is determined by the disparity between an experience (real or imagined) and personal expectations, and resources to cope with the stress. Alarming experiences, either real or imagined, can trigger a stress response.
1.14 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY
The system of engineering education as practiced in India has given raise to a number of issues, the major one being the problems of the engineering teachers. However, the policy makers and the researchers have neglected this field. The Government policies are tailored to enhance the education of children of self-financing engineering colleges, but very few of the policies focus the engineering teachers who take care of students of self-financing engineering colleges. These teachers have largely been 52 clubbed together with teachers of regular colleges. Therefore, the issues of self-financing engineering college teachers have always been a neglected field in India. To meet the educational requirements of Tamil Nadu has round about 550 engineering colleges. The number of required qualified teaching staff is not available in most of the self-financing engineering colleges in accordance with the student strength. Apart from this, people with different behaviours, characters and cultures are provided education and training in different settings such as regular theory classes, practical classes, tutorial classes, project, special classes, seminars, paper presentations, paper publications, higher studies, research and so on.
Hence the number of engineering teachers working in the country is numerous. However, the problems of engineering teachers of self- financing engineering colleges have hardly been the focus of empirical studies. Hence, here an attempt is made to study the sources, effects and coping patterns used by engineering teachers of self-financing engineering colleges.
The present investigation is an introductory study to analyse the stress pattern of engineering teachers of self-financing engineering colleges in and around Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Hence the aim of the study is: To analyse the sources, effects, and coping strategies of professional stress among teachers of self-financing engineering colleges in and around Chennai of Tamil Nadu.
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1.15 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of present study was to investigate the causes of stress among the self financing engineering college teachers in and around Chennai city, Tamil Nadu. Benefits of this study include that the government can make appropriate policies and administration for improving the performance of the engineering teachers at the self financing engineering college teacher‘s level in and around Chennai city, Tamil Nadu, India. Future researchers can also find other ways to improve the capabilities of the teachers at the engineering college level, and motivation level of the engineering teachers can be increased.
The present study was designed to analyze the factors influencing stress and coping strategies among the self financing engineering college teachers, in and around Chennai city, Tamil Nadu with following specific objectives:- 1. To study the factors influencing stress and the stressors among the self financing engineering college teachers. 2. To analyse the level of stress among the self financing engineering college teachers. 3. To study the coping strategies adopted by the self financing engineering college teachers. 4. To know whether gender difference exists with regards to stress and coping strategies. 5. To suggest ways and means to solve the problems faced by the stress of teaching professionals.
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1.16 NEED OF THE STUDY
If the professional stress of teachers cannot be resolved on the job, it is often resurrected at home. In the survey mentioned above, the three home problems most often cited by the physicians surveyed were: (1) conflict with their spouse; (2) dissatisfaction with their sexual activity; and (3) problems with their children. If the physician is unaware of the cause of such problems, he may attribute them to the family relationship. In such a case the entire family begins to suffer.
1.17 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Professional stress can be inadvertently linked to success or failure at one‘s profession. The general impression about Professional stress of teachers is the feeling of failure due to work overload. But if this is the case and so simple a problem then merely by reducing the amount of work, Professional stress could have been done away with. However the problem is not that easy to pinpoint. It is here that a comparative investigation of the reasons of stress in different designations of engineering teachers becomes important. Herein lays the most crucial significance of the study. To combat a problem the awareness of the conditions, which lead to it, are very important.
Stress is a part of everyone‘s daily life. It means that the person cannot cope with the demands put forward by his or her work, which is opposite to their expectations of rewards and success. It affects both the person concerned and the relationships he or she forms in the society be it with family or friends. Although the importance of individual differences 55 cannot be ignored, scientific evidence suggests that certain working conditions are stressful to most people. The excessive workload demands and conflicting expectations and puts a greater emphasis on working conditions as the key source of job stress, and for job redesign as a primary prevention strategy. In jobs where work overload is the cause of the stress, the workers find that they have to take time off to deal with the stress, only to return to work to find that the already unmanageable workload has substantially increased in their absence, thereby increasing the source of the stress and fuelling a vicious cycle which may ultimately lead to a complete breakdown in health.
At times the professional stress becomes so extreme that the workers grow aversive of it and they try to avoid it by withdrawing either psychologically (through disinterest or lack of involvement in the job etc.) or physically through absenteeism, frequently reporting late for work and even while working an attitude of lethargy persists. In this present era of cut-throat competition the idea of being perfect becomes very necessary to strive and become successful. The worker has to be perfect in his job or else he will be replaced or at least lag behind in his work leading to stress.
In India the problem of stress management is gaining more and more importance due to the new privatized nature of the economy. People are leaving behind the cozy atmosphere of government jobs and joining the private sector where there is no end to the amount of work that a person can undertake. In this environment coping with stress becomes very important. One has to be aware of the problem well in advance to be able to deal with it. The study becomes very important to be aware of the 56 problems of the present, then build strategies for the future, and also consider the problems that may arise. Stress factor of males and females according to the age of the worker, designations and the kind of work that he performs are key areas to identify the problems.
1.18 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study covers the Engineering Colleges in and around Chennai city. The Professors, Associate Professors and Assistant professors of self- financing Engineering Colleges are taken for the study.
1.19 PERIOD OF STUDY
The Study covers a period of five years from 2007 to 2011.
1.20 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The study is entirely depending on the response of 513 teaching professionals from various self-financing Engineering Colleges. Currently they must have at least one year of working experience in an engineering college environment. Though there are lots of Engineering Colleges in India, the researcher cannot take all the colleges for the study. So the study is limited to the Self-financing Engineering colleges in and around Chennai city. By using a convenience, non-random sample of Self- financing Engineering college teachers, specific generalizations cannot be made about the total population because this sample is not representative of all Self-financing Engineering college teachers. The participants in this study will possess a great deal of knowledge about the teaching profession 57 which may affect the outcome of the results. Participants may also have a much greater interest in the subject matter, which may also lead to results that are nonconforming of other Self-financing Engineering college teachers. Since participants will be asked to respond to items that review past experiences of stress, the way in which they respond may be affected by their memory recall. Also, participants may have a tendency to under report undesirable results because they do not want to portray the teaching profession in a negative way.
1.21 SCHEME OF REPORTING
The study is presented in the following manner. The relevant topics are grouped and classified in proper order for easy reading and reference. Therefore the chapters included are:
The first chapter deals with “Introduction”, is intended to provide the subject matter of the thesis, need and significance of the study, scope of the study, objectives of the study, methodology, limitations of the study and chapter classification.
The second Chapter deals with “The Review of literature”, an attempt has been made to take cognizance of previous studies on the subject before embarking upon making a fresh study, which has relevance to present problem. The review was intended to provide a background to the study that followed and it was thought that such an attempt would be of great help for the formation of hypothesis.
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The third Chapter deals with “Engineering education and professional stress – an overview”, addressing the number of challenges posed by this rapidly growing engineering education with increasing societal, organizational and professional student’s demands. This has a direct effect on the academics who are constantly striving to find ways to improve the effectiveness of their teaching. Also, addressed the needs of high quality faculty members in turn to improve the teaching and learning of engineering subjects, necessitating the environments for effective professional development.
The fourth Chapter deals with “Coping strategies with stress”, explains in detail the most common coping strategies used by teachers; however, this literature does not clarify why teachers choose particular coping strategies. There is a need to investigate the reasons as to why teachers choose particular coping strategies as a way of handling stress. Understanding why these strategies are used will provide teachers with the opportunity to better understand how to cope with stress and provide the tools and resources for effective stress management programs designed to alleviate attrition.
The fifth Chapter deals with “Methodologies to measure and evaluate stress”, focuses on the rationale, objectives and aims of this research study. The first part will lay the foundation for the study and present the various research hypotheses and objectives that were developed to test the predicted relationships between the above mentioned constructs. The second part of this chapter will focus on the research methodology, sampling, participants and details regarding the intervention. Threats to 59 this study‘s validity will be comprehensively discussed as well as the measurement instruments that were utilised. Descriptive statistics obtained for each measurement instrument utilised in this study will also be presented.
The sixth Chapter deals with “Data analysis and interpretation”, a detailed analysis of the collected data has been attempted as per the objectives stated earlier. Hypotheses were also tested based on the findings of the study, interpretations and conclusions were drawn. Also the following statistical techniques for the analysis of the data gathered for the present study viz., Descriptive analysis and Inferential statistics etc.
The seventh Chapter deals with “Summary and findings”, the prominent findings of the research will be discussed and where relevant research is available, reference is made to it. The discussion focuses on the causes of stress within an inclusive education environment, relationships between biographical characteristics and stress, differences in stress and access to training and developmental support. Conclusions are drawn from the results obtained and recommendations for future research are identified and suggested.
The eighth chapter ―conclusions, recommendations and suggestions” resumes consolidations of all the observations made in the previous chapters.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Review of related literature is an important pre-requisite for actual planning and execution of any research work. `We should not neglect a particular things because it is of past and should not accept a new one because of its newness. It is only with the reference to old that a new thing can be learned. It is necessary to connect previous knowledge with the new idea to be grasped. It means that to learn a new thing our previous knowledge must be brought to the forefront. It is imperative for a review of previous studies on the subject before embarking upon making a fresh study. In this chapter an attempt has been made to take cognizance of studies, which has relevance to present problem. Sometimes the studies reviewed could not be classified into the areas concerned. The review was intended to provide a background to the study that followed and it was thought that such an attempt would be of great help for the formation of hypothesis.
2.2 THE CONCEPTS OF STRESS
Stress is the sum total of all non specific biological phenomenon elicited by adverse external influences. One feels 61 stressed when one is confronted with unexpected. It is a multi dimensional concept and has variety of usages in different fields which vary according to specific focus and purpose.
First to use the term in a biological context, Selye continued to define stress as ―the non-specific response of the body to any demand placed upon it.‖
Selye first described this reaction in 1936 and coined it the General Adapt ion Syndrome (GAS). The GAS includes three distinct stages: a) alarm reaction, b) stage of resistance c) stage of exhaustion
Present-day neuroscientists including Bruce McEwen and Jaap Koolhaas believe that stress, based on years of empirical research, ―should be restricted to conditions where an environmental demand exceeds the natural regulatory capacity of an organism.‖ Despite the numerous definitions given to stress, homeostasis appears to lie at its core.
A search within the Microsoft Word thesaurus identifies pressure, strain, anxiety, constant worry, nervous tension, tension, trauma, and hassle as synonyms for stress.
Within the Compact Oxford English Dictionary, stress is also used as a verb to mean ‗subject to pressure, tension, or strain.
Keil (2004) stated that it is worth noting that stress ―is defined by reference to two types of physical force that are, in fact, in asort of opposition to each other‖ (p. 662). 62
Based on Merriam-Webster‘s Online Dictionary (2004), stress means the deformation caused in a body by such a force or a physical, chemical, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension and may be a factor in disease causation. Also means strain or pressure.
Copstead & Banasik (2005) described stress as a state of tension leading to a disruption or threat to homeostasis.
The first and most generic definition of stress was proposed by Hans Selye: ―Stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand.‖ mentioned by Fink, (2009).
The concept of stress was introduced to physiology in the 1930s by Hans Selye, who defined it as a non-specific response of the organism to any pressure or demand. The concept was then embraced by psychology and other social sciences, as well as by social policy- makers, and ultimately made its way to everyday vocabulary. The universal embracing of this concept to this day goes to prove that it refers not only to an important theoretical problem, but also touches on a real and critical aspect of our lives. The concept of stress was first introduced in the life sciences by Selye Hans in 1936. It was derived from the Latin word ‗stringere‘; it meant the experience of physical hardship, starvation, torture and pain. 63
According to Lazaras, (1976): stress occurs when there are demands on the person, which taxes or exceeds his adjustive resources.
Selye (1975) when our balance or equilibrium is disturbed by excessive pressure from imposed change or other environmental stressors our body uses up considerable amounts of adaptation energy trying to restore the balance. In this respect, humans have evolved with the capability to appraise the stressor in the short term and control the acute stress response. The difficulty lies when the individual can no longer manage the pressure or the stress appraisal has been ineffective.
According to Hans Selye (1975) when a stressor is chronic or long lasting it results in reduced natural killer cell cytotoxicity, suppressed lymphocyte proliferative responses and dulled humoral responses to immunisation (Cohen et al, 2001; Dhabhar and McEwan, 1997, 2001; Kiecolt-Glaser et al, 1996). Meta-analyses of stress have found immunosuppressive effects of stress especially with longer term stressors (Herbert and Cohen, 1993; Zorilla et al, 2001).
However, Segerstrom and Miller‘s (2004) meta-analysis of stress research of more than 300 studies over the past 30 years, found that psychological challenges are capable of modifying various features of the immune system and that behaviour was a potentially important pathway linking stress with the immune system. In fact Jones and Bright (2001) argue that stress should be seen as an umbrella term including a range of environmental stimuli and 64 personality factors. Stress was thus seen simply as a stimulus that could produce changes in our behaviour, cognition, emotion and physiology.
Lazarus (1999) proposed a more transactional approach to stress incorporating an interactive relationship between the person and the environment. He believed that stress occurred when the person appraised the situation as exceeding their adaptive responses.
Mc Grath (1976), Stress is involved in an environmental situation that perceived as presenting demand which threatens to exceed the person‘s capabilities and resources for meeting it, under conditions where he or she expects a substantial differential in the rewards and costs from meeting the demand versus not meeting it.
Hazards, (1994) Stress is the term often used to describe distress, fatigue and feelings of not being able to cope. The term stress has been derived from the Latin word ‗stringer‘ which means to draw tight. The term was used to refer the hardship, strain, adversity or affection. Stress is an integral part of natural fabric of life. It refers both to the circumstances that place physical or psychological demands on an individual and to the emotional reactions experiences in these situations.
According to Selye (1976), stress is caused by physiological, psychological and environmental demands. When confronted with stressors, the body creates extra energy and stress occurs because our bodies do not use up all of the extra energy that has been created. 65
Many people still get confused about pressure and stress, yet there‘s a great deal of difference between the two. We all experience pressure on a daily basis, and need it to motivate us and enable us to perform at our best – ask any athlete or actor. However, if we experience too much pressure without the opportunity to recover, we feel unable to cope and stress is the result.
2.2.1 Biological concept of stress
Selye, (1978) proposed that stress was a biological response: ―the state manifested by a specific syndrome which consists of all the non-specifically-induced changes within a biologic system‖ (p.64). Selye (1978) pointed out that a state could be recognized only by its manifestations; for instance, the state of stress by the manifestations of the stress syndrome. He defined stress as an adaptive or defensive reaction to an event or stimulus. He has labeled the defense reaction or body‘s response to stress as the General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S.), which occurs in three stages: the alarm reaction (A.R.), the alarm resistance (A.R.), and the stage of exhaustion (S.E.).
The alarm reaction is a physiological response for alerting the defensive forces in the organism. In this stage, blood is diverted toward the skeletal muscles in order to prepare them for action. If the stress exposure remains, the stage of resistance or adaptation will follow. According to Selye, this stage is quite different or sometimes the opposite of the alarm reaction. The longer this stage lasts the greater the danger to the person. If an individual accepts the source of 66 stress as a necessary part of life, the stressor may persist indefinitely. The person then gradually becomes more susceptible to a wide range of stress-related problems and diseases, such as headaches, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease (Magill, 1993).
With long-term stress exposure, the individual will enter into the third stage, the stage of exhaustion. If the stressor is extremely intense and persists over a long period of time, the exhaustion stage sets in, and the risk of emotional and physical problems increases. In this stage, the individual experiences symptoms of exhaustion, such as loss of morale and feelings of loss of control (Rice, 1999), and a final collapse will occur.
In Selye‘s system, the precise nature of the source of stress is unimportant, as the physiological stress response does not depend on the nature of the stressor. Selye believed that if the event is stressful for individuals, the individuals‘ bodily reaction remains the same as the G.A.S stage. His opinion largely ignored psychosocial factors however, including the emotional component as well as individual interpretation of stressful events.
2.2.2 Cognitive concept of Stress
In contrast to the biological response definition of stress, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposed that an individual‘s perception of an event was a direct result of their cognitive appraisal of the event. 67
Two cognitive processes, appraisal and coping, are important to the person/environment transaction.
From this point of view, cognitive appraisal is a process of either consciously or unconsciously evaluating one‘s performance whilst interacting with the environment (Lazarus, 1999).
According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), cognitive appraisal is the evaluative process used by the individual to determine why and to what extent a particular transaction or series of person- environment transactions results in stress.
Simultaneously, cognitive appraisal is also a process through which an individual evaluates and manages their environment and their emotional and behavioral responses. The perceived demands and pressures produced within these ongoing interactions may result in varying levels of stress for many individuals. The individual‘s response to such perceived stresses can also vary greatly. For example, one person may respond with anger, another with anxiety, and still another feel challenged to engage and interact in a more constructive manner. Lazarus (1999) proposed that increasing levels of dysfunctional stress occur when an individual perceives that they do not have the necessary interpersonal and/or physical resources to successful negotiate or cope with the demands or pressures emanating from the environment.
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From Lazarus’s (1999) perspective, cognitive appraisal of the situation is an important factor within the stress situation. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) considered cognitive appraisal essential for understanding stress for two reasons: to understand variation factors among individuals under an event and the factors affecting this interaction, and secondly to distinguish between benign and dangerous situations in which individuals survive and flourish. Before proceeding, some appraisal-related terminologies in the cognitive appraisal of stress should be clarified.
Lazarus (1999) described three types of cognitive appraisals – primary, secondary and reappraisal – that individuals use to evaluate their situation. Primary appraisal is an evaluation of what is at stake. Primary appraisal describes the way people evaluate a potentially stressful situation relation to their own goal commitments, values, beliefs about self and the world, and situational intentions. Goal commitment has been found to be a stronger factor influence on action than values (Lazarus, 1999).
One can have values without acting in their interest, but the term goal commitment refers to the fact that an individual will attempt to attain a goal. If there is no goal commitment, a stress reaction will not occur because there is nothing of adaptational importance to interrupt the individual‘s routine. In contrast, if an individual perceives a situation as harmful, threatening or challenging, stress and its related emotions will occur.
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Lazarus (1999) concluded that as a result, when the condition of stress is occurring, an individual would make an appraisal.
In addition, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) have distinguished three kinds of primary appraisal namely: irrelevant, benign-positive, and stressful. Irrelevant appraisal is the transaction that carries no implication for an individual‘s well-being. In this kind of appraisal, individuals have nothing to lose or gain. Benign-positive appraisal occurs when the outcome of an encounter is perceived as a positive or pleasurable emotion such as joy, love, happiness, or peacefulness. Stress appraisals include harm/loss, threat, and challenge. Damage to an individual may be sustained in a situation of harm/loss, such as in debilitating injury or illness, recognition of social esteem damage, or loss of a loved or valued person. Threats to central and extensive goal commitment are the most damaging life events for individuals.
Threat and challenge focuses on the future: those individuals have uncertainty about what will happen. According to Lazarus (1999), threat and challenge can occur in the same situation or in a continuing relationship, and the more individuals are confident in overcoming obstacles and dangers, the more likely they are to feel challenged rather than threatened. Threat appraisal is different from harm/loss appraisal as it permits anticipatory coping and threat concerns harm/losses that have not yet taken place (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Threat is characterized by negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, and anger. Furthermore, threat has an important inference for adaptation. Challenge appraisal is different from threat in 70 that it is characterized by pleasurable emotions such as eagerness, excitement, and exhilaration. Moreover, challenge has important implications for adaptation.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) pointed out that challenged individuals are more likely to have better morale as they feel confident about demanding encounters. Threat or challenge varies greatly according to situational demands, constraints, and opportunities, which individuals are able to recognize.
Secondary appraisal refers to the cognitive-evaluative process in which individuals evaluate their resources for dealing with a stressful person-environment. Secondary appraisal also includes an evaluation of the likelihood that a given coping option will result in the satisfaction of that desire, as well as the likelihood that the individual can apply effective strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
At this point, Magill (1993) indicated that individuals would determine their ability to control or cope with the new situation by examining potential options for dealing with an event. Secondary appraisal may occur during or after primary appraisal. It is not necessary that primary appraisal come first as it operates independently of secondary appraisal.
According to Zohar, and Dayan (1999), both primary and secondary appraisal can exert a moderate effect on positive and negative moods. After primary and secondary appraisals are exerted, 71 reappraisal will occur. Reappraisal is the process of evaluating the stress potential of a situation based on new information. The result of this process may resist or nourish the pressures felt by individual. This can lead to an increase or decrease in stress.
Coping is the second cognitive process that Lazarus and Folkman (1984) described in their concept of stress. The concept of coping will be explained in more detail in the later stage of this chapter. The psychological approach to stress from Lazarus and Folkman (1984) focused on cognitive appraisal of the situation as the most important factor. They argued that an individual‘s perception of an event plays a major role in the stress response. Individual perception is a combination of the perception of a threatening/challenging event and their perceived ability to cope with that event. This theory is similar to that of Cox (1987). According to these authors, stress is a dynamic system of interaction between the individual and their environment.
Cox (1987) defined stress as a perceptual phenomenon arising when an individual assesses the demand to the situation in relation to their ability to cope. From this point of view, when perceived imbalance in this comparison occurs, an experience of stress and a stress response will occur. If the coping is effective, the stress should be reduced. In contrast, if coping is ineffective, a prolonged exposure to stress will occur and may lead to functional damage. Cox‘s system comprised five stages of stress. As individuals have psychological and 72 physical needs, the first stage is embodied by the sources of demand related to the individual and their environment.
The fulfillment of these needs is important to determining behavior. If there is an imbalance between the individuals‘ perceived demand and the individual‘s perception of their ability to meet this demand, the second stage of stress arises. In this stage, cognitive appraisal plays a crucial role as it does in Lazarus and Folkman’s theory (1984).
If the individual has high demand and they can cope with it, they will not be stressed. If the individual has high demand and they perceive a limitation of their ability, then stress arises. For example, the stress may arise if the individuals‘ life style fails to match their aspirations. In the third stage, the response will be accompanied by physical, cognitive, and behavioral changes in an attempt to reduce the stressful nature of the demand. The fourth stage involves coping responses. Ineffective or inappropriate coping strategies may increase the experience of stress. The authors suggested that occurrences of prolonged or severe stress are often accompanied by functional and structural damage. Feedback is the fifth and last stage in this stress system. Feedback is an effective way of shaping the outcome at each of these stages and feedback will occur to all other stages in the stress system.
Cox and Mackay’s stress model focused on the imbalance between the perceived demand and perceived capability to cope with 73 situations. They also emphasized cognitive appraisal, similarly to the stress system offered by Lazarus and Folkman (1984).
The view of stress from both Cox (1987) and Lazarus and Folkman (1984) focuses on the concept of demand. A demand in their point of view means a request or requirement for physical or mental action, and implies some time constraint (Cox, 1987). A demand is an important concept and as Cox (1987) pointed out, stress may arise when there is an imbalance between the perceived demand and the person‘s perception of his capability to meet that demand.
2.2.3 Social concept of stress
Slavin, Rainer, McCreary, and Gowda (1991) extended the cognitive appraisal theory of Lazarus and Folkman (1984) into a social stress theory by proposing a multicultural model of stress. Slavin et al. argued that the Lazarus and Folkman (1984) theory reflected a white or Euro-centric cultural bias in its basic assumptions by emphasizing individual goals and achievements. In contrast, other cultures focus on harmony and the well-being of the family, tribe, or group.
Slavin et al. (1991) suggested that there are four ways that the cultural group affects the nature and frequency of certain stressors. Firstly, being a member of a minority group can increase the frequency of stressful events. Secondly, a member of oppressed groups has an increased likelihood of experiencing acts of 74 discrimination. For example, gay students may be discriminated by their friends, family, and community. Thirdly, those who are of lower socio-economic status, poor, or lack political power face greater stress than advantaged groups due to monetary and lifestyle restraints. Finally, a social costume unique to the person‘s culture can result in prolonged perceived threat of discrimination, and the stressful conditions of poverty and racism can lead to a chronic state of hyper- attention and hyper-sensitivity to events. This model is offered as an extension to the cognitive appraisal theory, and may be useful in terms of conceptualizing the individual‘s interpretation of stressful events in relation to socio-cultural factors.
To sum up, Selye (1978) clearly focused on stress as a biological response of an individual to a wide range of stimuli. Selye emphasized the non-specific nature of the stress response. In Selye‘s system, the precise nature of the source of stress is unimportant, as the physiological stress response does not depend on the nature of the stressor.
The psychological approach to stress is best represented by the work of Lazarus and Folkman (1984). They claimed that cognitive appraisal is the key to stress responses. Lazarus and Folkman argued that it is the individual‘s perception of an event that plays a major role in the stress response. Individual perception is a combination the perception of threatening events and the perceived ability to cope with that event.
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Slavin et al. (1991) extended the cognitive appraisal theory into a social stress theory by proposing a multicultural model of stress. They suggested that membership of cultural groups can affect the nature and frequency of certain stressors and that a member of an oppressed groups has an increased likelihood of experiencing acts of discrimination. Also, those of lower socio-economic status, or who lack political power, or have social costumes unique to the person‘s culture, can have alternative forms of stress coping.
For the purposes of this study, stress is defined as the level of biopsycho-physiological response an individual has to either a given event, or culmination of life events. The severity of this response is in direct relation to firstly how threatening or distressing one perceives the events, and subsequently the perceived ability to cope. How an individual responds to a given event is determined by a complex interplay of physical (biological), emotional (affective), cognitive, and behavioral responses.
Despite many opposing approaches to stress (Cox, 1987; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Selye, 1978; Slavin, et al., 1991), all of the theories discussed agreed that stress could increase the risk of illness. Although stress is not the sole cause of many disorders, it is a significant contributor to their development.
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2.3 DEFINITION OF STRESS
According to Selye (1956) stress is ―any external event or internal drive which threatens to upset the organismic equilibrium‖.
Wolf and Goodell (1968) defined stress as a dynamic state with in an organism in response to a demand for adaptation.
Cofer and Appley (1964) defined stress as a state of an organism where he perceives that his wellbeing is endangered and that he must direct all his energies to its protection.
Lazarus (1966) referred stress a state of imbalance with in an organism that is elicited by an actual/perceived disparity between environmental demands and the organism‘s capacity to cope with these demands; and is manifested through variety of physiological, emotional and behavioural responses.
McGrath (1970) defined stress as a perceived imbalance between demand and response capacity under conditions where failure to meet demand has important consequences.
Cox (1978) has described three classes of definitions. Stress can be variously thought of as a response, i.e. the stress response to an extreme stimulus; as a stimulus i.e. as the stressor itself as an intervening variable.
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Spielberger (1979) defined stress in two different ways. According to him, it is a dangerous potentiality, harmful/unpleasant external situation/conditions (stressors) that produce stress reaction; and secondly to the internal thought, judgment, emotional state and physiological process that are evoked by stressful stimuli.
Ryhal and Singh (1996) stated that stress is the state of an organism it perceived that its well-being is endangered and that it must direct all its energies to its protection.
2.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING STRESS
Both the individual and organizational factors influence stress.
2.4.1 Demographic factors and stress
The relationship between demographic variables viz., age, gender, education, occupation, experience, type of family, and stress reviewed as bellow.
2.4.1.1 Age
Reddy and Ramamurthy (1991) analyzed the influence of age on stress experience of a person. The sample consisted of 200 executives. The results revealed that executives in the age group of 41- 50 experienced more stress than the age group of 51-60. Moderating 78 variables among executives experiencing stress include not only age but also the years of service in the employment.
Beena and Poduval (1992) conducted a study on sample of 80 (40 male and 40 female) executives in different organizations. They found that when age increases, experienced stress also increased due to the increase in the responsibility of the executives. Female executives showed higher rate of stress because women experience greater amount of work change than men do.
Mayes (1996) conducted a study on police officers, fire fighters, electrician and executives aged 18-63 years. Multiple regressions revealed that age moderated the relationship among various stressors and physiological symptoms as well as psychological depression and life satisfaction.
Aminabhavi and Triveni (2000) in their study found that age, sex, coping strategies of bank employees have not influenced their occupational stress.
Virk et al. (2001) conducted a study on occupational stress and work motivation in relation to age, job level and type-A behaviour. He reported that age and job level can have strong influence on job stress.
Rastogi and Kashyap (2003) conducted a study on ―occupational stress and work adjustment among working women‖. Sample consisted of 150 nurses, clerks, and teachers. The average age 79 of the sample is quite matured and experienced, which help them to ignore the stress and maintain the smooth adjustment in the organization. Bhatia and Kumar (2005) studied on occupational stress and burn out in industrial employees. The sample consisted of 100 employees belonging to supervisor and below supervisor level. Their chronological age ranged from 22-32 years and 33-42 years. Among the industrial employees at supervisor rank and below supervisor rank belonging to higher age group experienced more occupational stress.
Anitha Devi (2007) aimed at identifying the degree of life stress and role stress experienced by professional women. A total sample of 180 women professionals belonging to six occupations were chosen for the study. The results revealed that, the older person experience lower life stress and role stress. Younger people experience more stress as compared to older people. The greater the numbers of years of service the greater life and role stress. The lower the income, greater stress experienced i.e. stress decreases with increase in income.
From the above studies, it can be concluded that younger age group is more susceptible to stress due to lack of experience and older age group experience stress due to the increase in the responsibility.
2.4.1.2 Education
Education acts as mediator, either increases or reduces stress depending on perspective of the individuals. 80
Ansari (1991) had studied the nature and extent of stress in agriculture university teachers. Sample consisted of 235 respondents comprising 30 professors, 74 associate professors and135 assistant professors. The result revealed that the correlation between the nature of stress and qualification of teachers in different cadres was found to be non significant.
Chand and Monga (2007) examined the correlates of job stress and burn out among 100 faculty members from two universities. He found that, higher education can combat stress and burn out related problems among the faculty members.
2.4.1.3 Occupation and position
Ryhal and Singh (1996) studied the correlates of job stress among university faculty. A sample of 100 faculty members 30 professors, 31 associate and 39 assistant professors. Results revealed that assistant professors experienced higher job stress than associate professors and professors.
Orpen (1996) examined the moderating effects of cognitive failure on the relationship between work stress and personal strain. He compared the work stress among 136 nurses and 12 college lecturers. The results found that nurses experienced more stress than the lecturers.
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Ansari and Singh (1997) made an attempt to explore the contribution of demographic variables to the nature of stress experienced by the teachers in an agriculture university. The study comprised sample of 235 faculty members (23 professors, 74 associate and 138 assistant professors).The professors were either in moderate or in high stress categories as compared to associate and assistant professors.
Upadhayay and Singh (1999) studied the level of occupational stress experienced by the 20 college teachers and 20 executives. The executives showed significant higher levels of stress than college teachers on role over load, role ambiguity, role conflicts factor.
Gaur and Dhawan (2000) examined that the relationship between works related stressors and adaptation pattern among women professionals. A sample of 120 women professionals (30 teachers, 30 doctors, 30 bank officers and 30 bureaucrats) participated in the study. It showed that the four professionals groups have shared almost similar level of stress except in the categories of career development and stressors specific to working women.
Pandey and Srivastava (2000) had studied the female personnel working in rail way, bank and teaching institutions. A sample of 96 females, 16 subjects in each professional area were taken. The study identified that respondents among all the three dimensions, clerks of bank and railway experienced more work stress as compared to teachers. 82
Aminabhavi and Triveni (2000) revealed that managers experience significantly higher occupational stress than clerks. The fact is that managers have greater responsibility of his position than the clerks.
Anitha Devi (2007) aimed at identifying the degree of life stress and role stress experienced by professional women. A total sample of 180 women professionals belonging to six occupations were chosen for the study. The result showed science and technology professionals and doctors experienced significantly greater life and role stress followed by administrators and self-employed. Teachers and bankers experienced comparatively lesser stress in both role as well as life.
Chand and Monga (2007) examined the correlates of job stress and burn out among 100 faculty members from two universities. Respondents with internal locus of control, high social support and high job involvement experience less stress. Results also revealed that, maximum stress is reported by professors and minimum by assistant professors.
Kaur and Kaur (2007) attempted to make a study on occupational stress and burn out among women police. The sample comprised of 80 women police and age ranges between 25-45. The results concluded that police work is most stressful occupation and as 83 the occupational stress increases the level of the burn out also increases.
From all these studies, it can be concluded that as the position of the worker increases, the stress level also increases. Teachers experienced low stress as compared to other professionals.
2.4.1.4 Experience
Blix et al. (1994) conducted a study on occupational stress among university teachers and found that faculty having less than 10 years of experience had higher stress than faculty with more than 20 years of experience.
Ryhal and Singh (1996) considered university faculty for their study comprised sample of 100 faculty members 30 professors, 31 associate and 39 assistant professors. Results revealed that those with 26-35 years experience had higher job stress than those with teaching experience of16-25 years and 5-15 years. Those with 16-25 years experience had higher job stress than those with teaching experience of 5-15 years.
Ansari and Singh (1997) made an attempt to explore the contribution of demographic variables to the nature of stress experienced by the teachers in an agriculture university. The study comprised sample of 235 faculty members (23 professors, 74 associate 84 and 138 assistant professors).The associate professor‘s total service experience was positively related to stress.
Bhagawan (1997) conducted a study on 100 teachers selected from 20 schools in Orissa. The sample consisted of 100 teachers (53 male and 47 female teachers).The study revealed that higher the teaching experience, lesser the perceived burn out. Bhatia and Kumar (2005) studied on occupational stress and burn out in industrial employees. A sample consisted of 100 employees belonging to supervisor and below supervisor level. Their experience/length of service varied from 2-6 and 7-12 years. Industrial employees at supervisor rank and below supervisor rank with more experience of service had more occupational stress due to more feeling of depersonalization and more emotional exhaustion.
From the above studies, it can be concluded that the length of service has negative and positive relationship with stress. Even then more studies revealed that individual with lesser experience, experienced more stress as compared to the individual with more service years.
2.4.1.5 Type of family
Nuclear family creates more stress as compared to joint family. Joint family and support from the Joint family acts as buffer against stress.
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Abrol (1990) had examined the strains experienced and coping strategies used by 27 male and 27 female teachers. Results indicated that subjects reported interpersonal and psychological stress. They used social support to deal with stress.
Vashishtha and Mishra (1998) observed that social support from the family, coworkers, supervisors and other people could minimize stress among the employees.
Pandey and Srivastava (2000) had studied the female personnel working in railway, bank and teaching institutions. A sample of 96 females, 16 subjects in each professional area both from nuclear and joint family were taken. The study identified that respondents belonging to nuclear family had expressed more interpersonal work stress.
2.4.2 Organizational factors and stress
The organizational factors seem to have the most significant influence on an individual. The relationship between Organizational factors viz., work, role, personal development, interpersonal relationship, organizational climate and stress of the individual reviewed as below. 2.4.2.1 Work stressors The work factor is closely associated with the level of stress experienced by the employees in the organization.
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Tharakan (1992) studied on occupational stress and job satisfaction among working women. He observed that professional women experienced greater work related stress than non-professional women. The expectation of technocrats was much higher than the non- technocrats.
Fulcheri et al. (1995) also observed that size of work loads, the complexity of tasks and responsibility are the major sources of stress factors. The reasons for frustration are delay in career development and a slow erosion of status among the managers.
Aminabhavi and Triveni (2000) revealed that nationalized bank employees have significantly higher occupational stress than non nationalized bank employees, in the dimensions such as role conflict, unreasonable group/political pressure, intrinsic impoverishment and strenuous working conditions.
Bhattacharya and Guha (2006) conducted a study on stress and coping: A study on lady criminal lawyers of Kolkata city. A group of 34 lady criminal lawyers were selected for the study. The significant factors, which are generating stress, are busy schedule of work, odd duty hours, poor interaction, leading tendency of superiors, and poor interpersonal relationship among the colleagues in the work environment.
Latha and Panchanatham (2007) found out the job stressors and their implications on the job performance of 40 software 87 professionals. Result showed that work load acts as major stressors for software professionals. Long work hours are indirectly associated with psychological distress.
2.4.2.2 Role stressors
The role factor is closely associated with the level of stress experienced by the employees in the organization.
Madhu et al. (1990) conducted a study on role stress: differential influences of some antecedental factors. 173 managerial personnel from steel organization and 76 from petroleum organization participated in the study. The present study attempted to compare the influence of the antecedental factors namely, personal, organizational, job, superior, leadership styles and communication factors on role conflict and role ambiguity. It was found that role conflict and role ambiguity experienced by the employees were most significant in the petroleum organization.
Mishra and Dixit (1995) attempted to reveal the coping styles of 300 allopathic doctors. It was found that each of the four type of job stress namely role based stress, task based stress, boundary spanning stress and conflict mediating stress influenced burn out among the doctors and role based stresses such as role conflict and role ambiguity are related with feeling of lack of personal accomplishment.
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Peterson (1995) explored role conflict, role ambiguity and role overload as reported by industrial workers and also found that managers are more stressed due to role overload from his study ―organizational issues for managers‖.
Upadhyay and Singh (1999) compared the level of occupational stress experienced by the 20 college teachers and 20 executives. The executives showed significant higher levels of stress than college teachers on role over load, role ambiguity, role conflicts factor.
Hasnain et al. (2001) on his study ―role stress and coping strategies in different occupational groups‖ assessed the coping strategies in three different occupational groups (20 engineers, 20managers and 20 teachers). Role over load and role erosion were found to be major sources of role stress in all three groups.
Pandey and Tripathy (2001) also found that teaching is a stressful occupation. Job stressors in this profession are role ambiguity and unreasonable group pressure.
2.4.2.3 Personal development stressors
The personal development factor is closely associated with the level of stress experienced by the employees in the organization.
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Fulcheri et al. (1995) also observed that delays in career development and a slow erosion of status are the main reasons for frustration among the managers.
Upadhyay and Singh (1999) compared the occupational stress level experienced by the 20 college teachers and 20 executives. The teachers showed significant higher levels of stress than executives on intrinsic impoverishment and status factors. They experienced stress because their personal wishes and strong desire for better and prosperous career were felt to be blocked by others.
Gaur and Dhawan (2000) examined that the relationship between works related stressors and adaptation pattern among women professionals. A sample of 120 women professionals (30 teachers, 30 doctors, 30 bank officers and 30 bureaucrats) participated in the study. It showed that teachers experienced more stress as far as opportunities and obstacles of career development are concerned.
Tang et al. (2001) reported that teachers experience a great deal of stress in the course of their career. Burn out represents teachers‘ negative response to the mismatch between job requirements and their perceived abilities, self-efficacy and proactive attitude.
Triveni et al. (2006) concluded that the major sources of job stress perceived by 90 veterinary assistant surgeons were numerous meeting, work load, lack of personal growth, lack facilities and monotonous nature of work. 90
Latha and Panchanatham (2007) found out the job stressors and their implications on the job performance of 40 software professionals. More than 50% of the respondents do not feel stressed by the working conditions and promotional opportunities.
2.4.2.4 Interpersonal relationship stressors
The interpersonal relationship factor is closely associated with the level of stress experienced by the employees in the organization, As per the report by Madhu et al. (1990) the contribution of interpersonal relation factors to job stress were found significant among the employees in the steel industry.
Upadhyay and Singh (1999) compared the level of occupational stress experienced by the 20 college teachers and 20 executives. The teachers showed significant higher levels of stress than executives on under participation and poor peer relation factors.
Potter et al. (2002) concluded that the interpersonal stressors at work place have the influence on the employees. Interpersonal conflicts experienced in the work place also predict diseases and well being declines. Results proved that psychosocial environment of work place have unique effects on employee.
Osmany and Khan (2003) conducted a study on Organizational stress in working women by taking 30 married and 30 91 unmarried working women. He found that unmarried working women reported high stress at work place due to political pressure and for married women, it may be due to poor peer relation.
Bhattacharya and Guha (2006) conducted a study on stress and coping: A study on lady criminal lawyers of Kolkata city. A group of 34 lady criminal lawyers were selected for the study. The significant factors which are generating stress are busy schedule of work, odd duty hours, poor interaction, leading tendency of superiors, and poor interpersonal relationship among the colleagues in the work environment.
2.4.2.5 Organizational climate stressors
The organizational climate factors are closely associated with the level of stress experienced by the employees in the organization.
Madhu et al. (1990) conducted a study on role stress: differential influences of some antecedental factors. 173 managerial personnel from steel organization and 76 from petroleum organization participated in the study. It was found that the petroleum organization has acclimate which would assist the employees in stress reduction where as the steel organization may not have developed such a climate.
Basha and Ushashree (1997) studied on job stress and coping as related to perceptions of organizational climate. Significant 92 negative relationship was found between perception of organizational climate and the amount of stress experienced by the employees.
Newstrome and Davis (1998) found that when job autonomy provided to managers is high, they enjoy their work and have freedom to do the task according to their own will so that they feel less stress.
Vashishtha and Mishra (2000) found that appraisal support had a partially moderating effect on occupational stress in organizational commitment relationship.
Das and Singhal (2003) explored the effect of job autonomy upon occupational stress among managers, 300male managers were selected for the study. The findings of the study revealed that the managers with high job autonomy show less stress as compared to managers with low job autonomy.
Rastogi and Kashyap (2003) conducted a study on ―occupational stress and work adjustment among working women‖. Sample consisted of 150 nurses, clerks, and teachers. The results concluded that maximum occupational stress is found among nurses as compared to other two groups. Nurses work under the most severe occupational environment. Teachers perceive the minimum occupational stress because their working climate is best in comparison to the other two groups.
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Vashishtha and Mishra (2004) explored the relative contribution of social support and occupational stress to organizational commitment of supervisors (n=200) the result revealed that the social support and occupational stress significantly predict the degree of organizational commitment of supervisors.
Latha and Panchanatham (2007) found out the job stressors and their implications on the job performance of 40 software professionals. More than 50% of the respondents do not feel stressed by the working conditions and promotional opportunities. It can be inferred that IT industry is providing better working environment.
It is quite obvious that occupational stress influences employee‘s experiences in different aspects of their job, such as job performance and job satisfaction. A part from this, occupational stress in turn gets influenced by the factors like work, role, interpersonal relationship, personal development and organizational climate. Studies in this regard revealed the above facts.
2.4.2.6 Organisational structure, leadership
According to Cartwright and Cooper (1997), psychological strain is often due to the culture and management style adopted within an organisation. They highlight that factors relating to organisational structure and climate that are stressors include hierarchical, bureaucratic structures that allow employees little participation in 94 decisions affecting their work; lack of adequate communication between managerial and non-managerial levels; cynicism regarding leadership and attempts by employees to further their own interest at the expense of others.
Kahn and Cooper (1993) also indicate that limited opportunities for advancement, insufficient performance feedback, performance assessment measures being inadequate and biased control systems and culture within the organisation, may be perceived as potential stressors.
2.4.2.7 Stressors and Work
Warshaw (1982, cited in Steenkamp, 2003) maintains that work stressors can only be fully comprehended if the importance of work to the employee is understood; be it for meeting the basic needs for employees, including maintenance, activity, social needs, self- esteem and self- actualisation. The perceived threat or failure to satisfy these basic needs represents a source of stress in the work place.
Research has highlighted that there are six major sources of work place stress which include: factors intrinsic to the job, the role of the employee, relationships at the workplace, organisational climate and structure, the lack of potential for career advancement, as well as factors external to the work environment (Cooper, Cooper & Eakes, 1988, as cited in Cartwright & Cooper, 1997). Figure 2.2 provides 95 an overview of the dynamics of stress, highlighting the sources of stress, symptoms and disease manifestation.
Stressful situations occur within schools because of the organisation‘s culture, function, structure, the nature of the management procedures, insufficient training of teachers, time pressure, poor work conditions and poor consultation and communication (Brown & Ralph, 1998; Kyriacou, 1998).
It is further highlighted by Saptoe (2000, cited in Olivier & Venter, 2003) that the lack of discipline in schools, the abolishment of corporal punishment, unmotivated. learners, redeployment, retrenchment, and retirement packages for teachers, large teacher- pupil ratios and a new curriculum approach all contribute to the increase in stress levels of teachers.
In addition, the management style of principals, new governing bodies for schools, the high crime rate, coping with current political change and corruption in state departments are also cited as factors contributing to the stress experienced by teachers (Marais, 1992, cited, in Olivier & Venter, 2003).
Several international studies have highlighted that teachers perceive the implementation of the inclusive model as having insufficient support resources, the policies were confused and that inclusion had been imposed from the top, without adequate consultation (Bender, Vail & Scott, 1995; Forlin et al., 1996; 96
Giangreco, 1997; Mitchell, Buist, Easter, Allen, Timutimu, MacFarlane, Moltzen & Quinn, 1999).
2.4.2.8 Leadership
Research indicates that principals play a vital role in the care for the personal welfare and emotional support of teachers. Isherwood (1973) found that principals that demonstrated excellent human relations skills heightened teachers‘ loyalty and improved teacher satisfaction, whilst the lack in participatory management, lack of sensitivity to school and teacher-related problems and lack of support was reliably associated with teacher stress and burnout (Jackson, Schwab & Schuler, 1986).
Abbey and Esposito (1985) report that teachers who perceive greater social support from their principal‘s report less stress than those who do not receive any social support. Setting up shared decision-making processes in schools, such as governance councils, allows teachers to participate in school processes rather than feel subordinate to their principals and coerced into participating in school and teacher responsibilities (Nagel & Brown, 2003).
2.4.2.9 Lack of influence
Cheek and Miller (1983, cited in Steenkamp, 2003) surmise that not being involved in decision making has been established across all occupational groups to be the most salient source of stress that 97 correlates with low self esteem. Several studies have also highlighted that teachers feel that they have a lack of control and decision-making powers due to the hierarchical nature of bureaucratic structures at school which concentrates power in the hands of a few (Dinham, 1993; Kyriacou, 2001; Louden, 1987; Pithers & Soden, 1999; Punch & Tuetteman, 1996).
In the post-election period in 1995, in developing new education legislation, the Western Cape Education department gave a great deal of attention to democratisation, and an emphasis was placed on creating a system which enabled ―the nation to become part of the school system‖ in the creation of School Governing Bodies (SGBs). Providing a historical perspective on the challenges faced by the education system, Education Minister, Naledi Pandor, states that the emphasis on SGBs rather than the school leadership is to blame for the continuing difficulties. Pandor further states that the SGBs have become too powerful, rendering principals powerless. Hence the challenge forward would be to revise policies and practices, and to introduce legislation giving principals more power and authority. At the various schools, the input of the SGBs has been exceptionally well received, however, the problem faced is that most of their focus has been on their respective institutions and not on the community at large (Mail & Guardian, 2005).
There are numerous problems that face teachers as a consequence of recent government policies involving rightsizing or downsizing of teachers, the banning of corporal punishment, 98 redeployment of teachers, voluntary severance packages, early retirement and retrenchment. Radical changes in the education system are apt to take their toll on the well-being of the teacher corps as changes in social life and school practice bring about serious psychological adjustment problems (Ngidi & Sibaya, 2002).
The major problems facing teachers are due to the fact that the increases in responsibility have not been accompanied by appropriate changes in facilities and training in order to equip teachers with these new demands. Consequently teachers may feel threatened by these new demands, thus becoming stressed. Changes in education have been identified as a major factor among sources of stress in Britain (Cox, Boot, Cox & Harrison, 1988; Travers & Cooper, 1996).
2.4.2.10 Colleagues
According to Sutherland and Cooper (1990, p. 46), poor work relations are defined as ―having low trust, low levels of supportiveness and low interest in problem solving within the organisation.‖ Supervisors, peers and subordinates can dramatically influence employees just by their interactions. Problems of instability may occur in situations where the relationship between a supervisor and subordinate is psychologically unhealthy. Competition amongst colleagues and differences in personality clashes amongst fellow workers can give rise to stress (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997). Jarvis (2002) found that factors such as social support amongst colleagues 99 and leadership style have an impact on levels of stress amongst educators.
Negative interpersonal relations and the absence of support from colleagues or superiors can be significant stressors for employees (Driscoll & Beehr, 2000). Conversely, having access to social support from other people in the organisation can reduce psychological strain (Beehr & McGrath, 1992) and alleviate emotional exhaustion (Greenglass, Burke & Konarski, 1998).
According to Sutherland and Cooper (1990), the quality of interpersonal relationships at work is important in that supportive relationships are less likely to create pressures associated with rivalry, bickering and gossip mongering. In addition, the superior-subordinate relationship can be potentially stressful when the leadership style is authoritarian, lacks understanding that feedback about performance and recognition and praise for effort are beneficial for boss- subordinate relationship. In conjunction with this, Cartwright and Cooper (1997) indicate that in situations where the relationship between supervisor and subordinate is psychologically unhealthy, problems of emotional instability may occur.
2.4.3 Task Demands 2.4.3.1 Work Conditions - Quantitative Overload According to Hans Seyle (cited in Sutherland & Cooper, 2000), a certain level of arousal is needed for optimal performance, but when the arousal exceeds our ability to meet the demand placed on 100 the employee, a feeling of burnout is experienced. In contrast, when employees are not challenged or stimulated by a job, or do not believe that their contribution is valued; feelings of boredom, apathy and poor morale are experienced.
Having too much work to do, which is referred to as quantitative overload, often results in employees working extended hours, and this is often associated with an increased cigarette smoking, increased alcohol consumption, and other stress symptoms (French & Caplan, cited in Cartwright & Cooper, 1997). 2.4.3.2 Understaffing
Classroom discipline is a significant source of stress (Jarvis, 2000), and this situation is exacerbated when teachers are faced with having to deal with pupil- teacher ratios of 60:1. At certain schools there are 15 teachers to 1050 pupils, and this relates to unacceptable working conditions (Mail & Guardian, 2005). 2.4.3.3 Overtime
Various researchers have indicated that administrative work done outside the scope of the classroom as a result of preparation or planning is a source of stress to teachers (Dinham, 1993; Kyriacou, 2001; Louden, 1987; Pithers & Soden, 1999; Punch & Tuetteman, 1996).
In a survey by the Scottish Council for Research in Education, it was revealed that formal hours established for teaching amounted to 101
35 hours per week. However, the mean number of hours worked in a seven day period surveyed was 42.5 hours; seven and a half hours in addition to the 35 hours worked, which in effect meant that teachers worked a six-day week. Furthermore, work expanded into evenings and into weekends (Johnstone, 1993).
2.4.3.4 Qualitative Overload/ underload
Qualitative overload, as a source of stress, is linked to low levels of self- esteem, as individuals lack the necessary skill to do a new job. In contrast, qualitative under load is damaging, as the individual is not given the opportunity to use acquired skills and abilities, resulting in feelings of powerlessness to demonstrate talents (Sutherland & Cooper, 2000).
According to Udris (as cited in Sutherland & Cooper, 2000), qualitative overload is associated with job dissatisfaction, tension and low self-esteem, whereas qualitative under load is linked to dissatisfaction, depression, irritation and psychosomatic complaints.
Hall (cited in Chaka, 1998) concludes that a high labour turnover could result from under stimulation.
In addition, Chaka (1998) indicates that a person‘s physical and mental wellness could be adversely affected by work that is monotonous, dull and repetitive.
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2.4.3.5 Role of Administration
Various studies have highlighted that time pressure with regards to administrative demands and excessive paper work are major sources of stress for teachers, as there is inadequate time for preparation; unrealistic deadlines imposed and issues concerning the workload of teachers (Dinham, 1993; Kyriacou, 2001; Louden, 1987; Pithers & Soden, 1999; Punch & Tuetteman, 1996).
2.4.4 Stress Sources relating to Role in Organisation
According to Sutherland and Cooper (2000), organisations are continually reinventing themselves and as a consequence, changes to job roles are common. The impact of changes in the workplace can alter the nature of job roles, causing role ambiguity or role conflict, or additional demands, resulting in role overload.
Role ambiguity, role conflict and level of responsibility for others are often regarded as the major sources of stress relating to a person‘s role in the organisation (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997).
2.4.4.1 Role Overload and Responsibility
Role overload, referring to the number of different roles an individual has to fulfill, can lead to excessive demands on the individual‘s time and may create uncertainty about the ability to perform these roles adequately (Driscoll & Cooper, 2002). 103
French and Caplan (cited in Sutherland & Cooper, 2000) posit the view that being responsible for the work and performance of others, demands more interaction with others, and is thus more stressful than being responsible for equipment, budgets and other issues. 2.4.4.2 Role Ambiguity
Role ambiguity refers to the extent to which employees lack clarity about their role or the task demands at work (Spector, 2000). It occurs when an employee does not understand or realise the expectations and demands of the job, or the scope of the role (Kahn & Cooper, 1993).
Research evidence has shown that role ambiguity has been associated with tension and fatigue, intention to quit or actually leaving the job, and high levels of anxiety, physical and psychological strain, and absenteeism. The stress arising from unclear objectives or goals can lead to job dissatisfaction, a lack of self confidence, a lowered sense of self esteem, depression and low work motivation, increased blood pressure and pulse rate, and intentions to leave a job (French & Caplan, 1970; Kahn, 1965; Margolis, 1974). According to Driscoll and Beehr (2000), and Zohar (1997), research has demonstrated a consistent link between role ambiguity in a job and high levels of psychological strain and burnout.
Role ambiguity involves a lack of clear and consistent information about duties, tasks, responsibilities and rights (Smylie, 104
1999). The roles and responsibilities of teachers are changing as schools are attempting to create inclusive school communities (Sands, Kozleski & French, 2000).
Educators are faced with learners with disabilities within their classes, and many teachers feel unprepared and fearful of working with learners with disabilities (Kokhar et al., 2000), as they are not confident in their ability to fulfil the tasks that are needed to support inclusive education (Buell, Hallam & Gamel-McCormick, 1999).
Previous research (Forlin et al., 1996; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2000; Soto & Goetz, 1998), indicates that inclusive education makes additional demands on teachers, and that teachers‘ sense of efficacy in including learners with disabilities in their mainstream classes, play a defining role in the successful implementation of inclusive education. Inclusive education, as indicated by Kyriacou (1998), changes the fundamental responsibilities of teachers in mainstream classes, and the need to cope with the change is listed as a major source of stress for teachers.
2.4.4.3 Role Conflict
According to King and King (1990), role conflict arises when an employee experiences incompatible demands or incompatible goals surrounding tasks connected with their job which can induce negative emotional reaction due to perceived inability to be effective on the job. 105
Furthermore, having to do tasks that are not perceived to be part of one's job role can potentially lead to stress associated with role conflict (Cooper & Sutherland, 2000). Cartwright and Cooper (1997) maintain that people who have a more flexible orientation to life, suffer less from role conflict than people with high anxiety levels.
2.4.5 Individual factors and Extra-Organisational Stress
According to Driscoll and Cooper (2002), individual differences may play a major role in the relationship between work- related stressors and psychological strain.
Internal characteristics are found to be one of the most important sources of stress, as it not only contributes to teacher‘s susceptibility to stress, but might also dictate how teachers handle the stress that they encounter and what they are able to tolerate (Kaiser & Polczynski, 1982). The many different personality variables that could impact on work stress include:
2.4.5.1 Type - A Behavioural style
This behavioural style according to Cooper and Bramwell (1992) is characterised as aggressive, ambitious, hard-driving, impatient, seeking to control and expressing time urgency. It may lead to both positive (high performance), and negative (high strain and burnout) outcomes. Type-A characteristics are more likely to create 106 strain for themselves by increasing their workload, and often appraise events to be more stressful than do the Type-B counterparts.
Patel (1991) argues that individuals are unique, and given a stressful situation, no two teachers will respond to stress in the same way. The response will largely depend on the personality type of the individual; one teacher may experience a situation as extremely stressful, while the next teacher might experience it as challenging and exciting (Fisher, 1994).
2.4.5.2 Negative Affectivity
Negative affectivity reflects a stable tendency to experience low self-esteem and negative emotional states; individuals have a gloomy view of the world, and may be more sensitive to stressful conditions (O’Driscoll & Cooper, 2002). 2.4.5.3 Self-efficacy Brockner (1988) indicates that individuals with low self- efficacy tend to react more to external events because they experience more uncertainty about the correctness of their perceptions and emotional reactions. These individuals often seek social approval by conformity with others‘ expectation, and tend to allow negative feedback on one area of their behaviour to generalise to other dimensions of their self-concept. 2.4.5.4 Locus of control
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Situational control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they can exert control over a specific aspect of their job, such as the pace of work or the procedures for task completion, scheduling of tasks and decision latitude (O’Driscoll & Cooper, 2002).
Locus of control and self-esteem has been linked to teacher stress (Byrne, 1992; Farber, 1991; Fielding & Gall, 1982). For example, Byrne (1992) found that teachers who have low self-esteem tend to be more susceptible to stress and that teachers with high self- esteem tend to handle stressors in a more productive manner.
Similarly, teachers who have an external locus of control have been found to experience greater stress than teachers with an internal locus of control (Byrne, 1992; Farber, 1991; Kyriacou & Sutcliff, 1979). 2.4.5.5 Social support There is consistent evidence that employees with more support from others experience lower strain and burnout (Lee & Ashforth, 1996), and where an employee is faced with potentially stressful demands, conflicts and problems in the work place, having support from others may reduce the impact of the pressures on the individual‘s well-being (O’Driscoll & Cooper, 2002).
Although research (Ganster, Fusilier & Mayes, 1986) found no evidence of buffering or found reverse buffering; where the presence of social support exacerbated the amount of stress experienced, Greenglass, Fiksenbaum and Burke (1996) indicate 108 that support from colleagues and supervisors had a significant buffering influence on teacher burnout, and feelings of isolation exacerbated the stress experienced.
Isolation and stress were assessed in 1110 Canadian teachers, and it was found that a strong positive correlation exists (Dussault, Deaudelin, Royer & Loiselle, 1997). Van Dick (1999) highlighted in the assessment of 424 teachers in Germany, that social support had both a positive effect on health and also a buffering effect in respect of work stress. 2.5 SOURCES OF STRESS WITHIN AN INCLUSIVE ENVIRONMENT
Despite an increase in the number of learners with special educational needs included into mainstream classes in South Africa, teachers‘ experience of inclusive education remains very limited (Engelbrecht et al., 2001).
Although the number of pupils needing special education has increased, schools have not been successful in retaining teachers, specifically where teachers are faced with learners with emotional and behavioural disorders (Akin, 1988; George, George, Gersten & Grosenick, 1995).
Research (George et al., 1995; Lawrenson & McKinnon, 1982; McManus & Kauffman, 1991) reveals that excessive administration and lack of support; isolation from colleagues and 109 dissatisfaction with parental support, are consistently cited as sources of stress amongst educators in inclusive environments.
In addition, students with emotional and behavioural disorders failing to make expected progress (Zabel, Boomer & King, 1984) as well as physical and verbal attacks (Johnson, Gold & Vickers, 1982) often create stress and dissatisfaction in teachers.
Similar findings were reported regarding the inclusion of learners with Down‘s syndrome (Engelbrecht et al., 2001). Research has highlighted that high stress levels are associated with adapting the curriculum to meet the learners‘ needs and sustaining an effective learning environment for learners with Down‘s syndrome. This is attributed to the lack of effective in-service or pre-service training associated with the implementation of inclusion and special needs (Engelbrecht et al., 2001).
In their investigation, Eloff et al. (2000) revealed that overall the most stressful issues for teachers regarding the implementation of inclusive education related to teachers‘ perceived professional self- competence, administrative issues and those related to the behaviour of learners. In addition, limited contact with parents as well as the parents‘ perceived lack of understanding of learner‘s capabilities and long-term prognosis, inadequate pre-service or in-service training and the reduced ability to teach other learners effectively also proved to be stressful. 110
Administrative issues, involving taking full responsibility and accountability for educational outcomes of learners as well as adapting the curriculum and adjusting the unit plans to support the learners‘ needs in an inclusive environment, were also contributing factors to the high levels of stress experienced by teachers (Eloff et al., 2002).
However, it appears from a survey conducted in both the Gauteng Province and the Western Cape that teachers regarded the inclusion of physically disabled students in their mainstream classes as relatively easy, and were experiencing no stress in many instances (Eloff et al., 2002). 2.6 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Environmental factors causing stress are those systemic factors that are not intrinsic to teaching, but depend on the climate of the educational institution or wider context of education including the political domain. Teachers often cite the lack of government support, lack of information regarding changes, constant change and the demands of the National Curriculum as amongst their greatest source of stress (Travers & Cooper, 1997). These ―trickle down‖ systemic factors act in addition to and feed the dynamics of the individual organisation (Jennings & Kennedy, 1996).
In addition to the changes, teachers are also faced with having to deal with negative publicity, poor or low status, lack of reward or recognition and the social problems of pupils in the area in which the 111 school is located. Gangsterism has been the most widely publicised by the media (Govender, 2005).
2.6.1 Violence and Danger caused by pupils
A survey conducted in 1998, by the Institute of Criminology, revealed that crime and violence is endemic to both primary and secondary schools. The following findings were tabulated: The major problems in all schools were the theft of property and the possessions of weapons. Fighting/ physical violence and vandalism were reported in 95 % of schools Drug abuse was a serious concern in 90% of the schools Bullying and intimidation were reported in over 75% of schools, assault in 60% of the schools, gangsterism in 50% and rape in seven of the twelve secondary schools (National Department of Education, 2001).
2.6.2 Lack of Reward/Recognition
Smith and Bourke (2011) indicate that one of the major contributing factors to teacher stress are those arising from lack of rewards and recognition. Teacher dissatisfaction regarding the education department‘s reward system has been an on-going battle for educators in South Africa. In 2004, South Africa witnessed its biggest strike in a single sector in history; in which the majority of the 800 112
000 (Cape Town-50 000; Durban-45 000 and Pretoria-90 000) unionised government employees took mass action to protest against the derisory 6% wage offer increase. In addition, the deterioration of conditions of service as well as the decline in infrastructure and the quality of service delivery in health and education have resulted in an exodus of teachers, to work overseas (The Star, 2004).
In their research, Olivier and Venter (2003) found that respondents indicated that salaries cause a great deal of stress, especially taking into account the after-hours input their jobs demand from them and how negatively their salaries compare with those of people in the private sector and other government departments (Olivier & Venter, 2003). That is perhaps the reason why some teachers embark on second jobs, mostly to the detriment of the school and the learners. Others search for other propositions and change to completely new jobs for the sake of better incomes (Olivier & Venter, 2003).
2.6.3 Negative publicity
Ongoing public criticism, the lack of respect for teachers as professionals by pupils, parents and society and the on-going public scrutiny, underscore teacher burnout and stress as one of the most common and serious afflictions amongst educators (Cox & Wood, 1980; Dunham, 1992; Timpane, 1982).
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The media is often critical of the shortcomings in the education system. The commentaries often imply that teachers‘ work is not complex, and that educators could expend more effort. These reports often exacerbate the stress experienced by teachers (Naylor, 2001).
A recent report on teacher misconduct, involving 269 teachers dismissed for rape and sexual abuse, fraud and financial mismanagement, administering corporal punishment and assault, highlights that findings are often generalised to include all teachers in the misconduct of colleagues. The general secretary of the South African Democratic Union (SADTU), emphasised that although between 90% and 98% of the cases were found in favour of the employer, the union rejected any generalisations made to the rest of the teaching profession (Sunday Times, 2005). 2.7 CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS
According to Kyriacou (2001), symptoms of stress in teachers are manifested in anxiety and frustration, impaired performance, and ruptured interpersonal relationships at work and at home. Statistics reveal that teachers hand in more medical insurance claims than persons in other professions, have a four year shorter life expectancy than the national average and often blame stress as a reason for sick leave from school (Van Wyk, 1998).
From an organisational point of view, the consequence of stress results in a significant loss of skilled and experienced teachers through resignation and /or premature retirement from all levels of the teaching 114 workforce. The stressed teachers who remain within the profession, on the other hand, are likely to be less effective in key areas such as lesson organisation, student behaviour management, responsiveness to students and self confidence relationships with parents. In individual human terms, the cost of teacher stress can be huge and include impaired health, reduced self-confidence and self esteem and damaged personal relationships. If early retirement or resignation is taken, often the consequence is dramatically reduced economic status (Warren & Toll, 1993).
Researchers generally agree that a certain degree of stress is a normal part of life, but prolonged stressors could lead to symptoms that are physical, psychological or behavioural (O’Driscoll & Beehr, 2002). Figure 2.3 provides an overview of the response to stress.
2.7.1 Physiological effects of stress
Cartwright and Cooper (1997) postulate that when an individual is confronted with a challenging situation, tension or pressure, the sympathetic nervous system can be triggered to activate a wide variety of hormonal secretions. The hypothalamus, when it identifies danger, triggers the pituitary gland to release hormones that causes the adrenal glands to increase its secretion of several hormones, including cortisol which provides more energy to the body; epinephrine which increases both the rate and strength of the heart‘s contractions and raises blood pressure; and norepinephrine, which 115 similar to the body‘s sympathetic nervous system, acts as the body‘s fight or flight system when faced with emergencies (Rice, 1992).
According to Tucker-Ladd (1996), the hormonal responses determine the severity of the individual‘s anxiety reactions, mind-set, energy level, level of depression, and physical state of health after experiencing a stressful event. Dollard (2002) however maintains that when the challenge is short term the body‘s first reaction is adaptive, enabling the person to set in action energy resources to combat the stressor, however when these challenges are continuous, severe or repetitive the ―normal physiological reaction may turn pathological‖ (Dollard, 2002, p. 6).
Researchers have linked many diseases to job stress. Some ailments are minor whilst others are deadly.
Landsmann (1977) highlighted that a survey conducted by the Chicago Teachers‘ Union revealed that 56.6% of the participating teachers had suffered physical or mental illness related to their teaching occupations, and symptoms included migraine and sinus headaches; allergies; colds; post nasal drip; hypertension; bladder disorders; kidney disorders, bowel disorders; colitis; nervous stomach; acne and weight problems.
2.7.2 Psychological Problems and Behavioural problems
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Stress has a marked impact on an individual‘s psychological well-being. The most often reported symptoms are anxiety, frustration, passivity, aggression and depression, which often combine in a potent form to reduce productivity and performance. The UK Times Educational Supplement reported that a number of teacher suicides, specifically in England and Wales, are directly related to anxiety over workloads and school inspection (Bunting, 2000).
During 1996, a study by the Independent Education Union (IEU) in Victoria Australia found that teachers reported experiences of stress due to workload pressure, difficulties with management and poor staff-student relationships. The stress manifested in terms of irritability at home (59%) and in class (55%), anxiety (64%) and feelings of powerlessness (45%). Eighteen percent (18%) of the respondents reported psychosomatic complaints such as headaches, chronic fatigue, shingles and heart palpitations (Howard & Johnson, n.d).
In a survey of head teachers by the National Association of Head Teachers (NAHT) in May 2000, 40% of respondents reported having visited their doctor with stress-related problems in the previous year; 20% considered that they drank too much alcohol, and 15% believed that they were alcoholics; 25% suffered from serious stress related health problems including hypertension, insomnia, depression and gastrointestinal disorders (Jarvis, 2002).
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Teaching is commonly recognized as one of the most stressful occupations in our nation. Teacher stress results in such consequences as early retirement, long and excessive absences, new teachers leaving during training, and an increase in teachers leaving the profession within their first five years (Bachkirova, 2005).
In recent years, professional satisfaction has been decreasing while job pressure has been on a steady rise for teachers. These issues have raised many questions about the growing problem of teacher stress (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998).
It has been reported that teacher stress affects the learning environment and ultimately prevents achievement of the teacher‘s educational goals. This leads to disinterest, negligence, bitterness, and absenteeism among teachers, and can result in teachers leaving the profession (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998).
In North Carolina, about 28% of teachers who resign each year leave the profession due to a career change, health, being dissatisfied with teaching, teaching at a private or charter school, or for unknown reasons (Annual Report of the Reasons Teachers Leave the Profession, 2007).
Although leaving for a private or charter school is listed above, it is rare that this happens because private schools require most teachers to hold an advanced degree and teachers usually are not 118 compensated as well. In fact, half of private school teachers who resign each year do so, to teach at a public school (Miner, 2009).
Increasing attention has been given to understanding teacher stress to further study this alarming phenomenon (Blase, 1982).
Even though stress is quickly becoming a recognized occupational hazard of the teaching profession (Pettegrew & Wolf, 1982), little theoretical work on teacher stress has been attempted or completed (Blasé, 1982), and recently there have been no studies that have focused specifically on stress within the primary school environment.
The few studies that have been tried lacked subjects‘ perceptions (Blasé, 1986) and have been flawed in other areas. Some studies have been focused on large urban school districts, which is not representative of smaller districts in which the majority of teachers are employed. Also, stress has not been dealt with as an organizational matter; meaning ways to lessen job related stress have not been discovered (Bacharach, Bauer, & Conley, 1986).
2.7.3 Teacher Stress, Strain, and Burnout With teacher stress getting increased attention, it is important to understand what stress and teacher stress are. Hans Selye describes stress as the body‘s non-specific response to any demand (1976). With teacher stress getting increased attention, it is important to understand what stress and teacher stress are. Stress results when people perceive 119 a situation as threatening and are unable to cope. Stress triggers the cerebral cortex and limbic system to carry messages to the hypothalamus. When these messages reach the anterior hypothalamus, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is aroused which controls the heart, lungs, stomach, blood vessels, and glands (Palmer & Dryden, 1995).
The ANS is made up of both the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The SNS conserves energy levels, increases tears, gastric acids, mucus, and saliva which helps defend the body. The PNS aids in relaxation and helps restore a person to a state of equilibrium. In a stressful situation, the SNS prepares the body for action by increasing the strength of skeletal muscles, heart rate, sugar and fat levels, perspiration, mental activity, while reducing blood clotting time, intestinal movement, and tears.
The SNS also allows the bladder to relax, pupils to dilate, and most blood vessels to constrict (Palmer & Dryden, 1995).
During the stress response, the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands are activated. The pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotrophic hormone, which activates the adrenal cortex in order to increase arterial blood pressure, mobilize fats and glucose from adipose tissue, and reduce allergic reactions. The pituitary gland then releases thyroxin, which is a thyroid stimulating hormone. Thyroxin increases metabolic rate, respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and intestinal 120 motility. Too much thyroxin and over activity of the thyroid gland can lead to anxiety attacks (Palmer & Dryden, 1995).
The adrenal gland produces adrenaline and noradrenalin, which is released into the blood supply. The adrenal gland increases heart rate and pressure in which blood leaves the heart, dilates gastrointestinal activity which leads to person to feel as if they have ―butterflies‖ in their stomach (Palmer & Dryden, 1995).
Activity of the adrenal gland starts the stress reaction in which Hans Selye refers to as ―The General Adaptation Syndrome‖ (1976). The General Adaptation Syndrome consists of three stages; the alarm stage, resistance stage, and the exhaustion stage. The alarm stage is the initial reaction to stress and comes about when a person first recognizes there may be a trouble and prepares to deal with the threat. This reaction is commonly referred to as ―fight or flight.‖
A person‘s instinctive impulse draws from energy reserves and puts it immediately at their disposal to either defend one‘s self (fight) or to run away (flight). The activation of the SNS and adrenal glands allows for hormones such as cortisol, adrenaline (flight), and noradrenalin (fight) to provide instant energy to take appropriate action (Selye, 1976).
In the resistance stage, stress is on the verge of being resolved. Homeostasis begins restoring balance and a period of recovery and renewal takes place. The exhaustion stage occurs if stress has 121 continued for some time. When this happens, the body‘s ability to resist is lost and all energy supply is gone. The exhaustion stage may be referred to as adrenal fatigue, maladaptation, and dysfunction. If stress is not resolved by this point, overload and burnout may occur.
Teacher stress is described as any characteristic of the school environment that poses a threat to the teacher (Sutton, 1984). While these definitions are widely accepted, Guglielmi and Tatrow argue that there is no agreement on what stress is, as the term holds different meanings for different people (1998).
The difference in the definition of teacher stress is influenced by how that person is affected by their job demands, and their ability to cope with these demands (Blase, 1982). The impact of teacher stress depends upon an individual‘s social support, personality characteristics, and job satisfaction (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998).
Two types of stress can ultimately affect teachers. Task based stress, such as dealing with disruptive students, refers to problems that are associated with a variety of specific tasks that teachers must perform in their teaching role. Role based stress, such as an absence of sufficient resources to perform adequately, refers to how teachers‘ expectations of their role fit in with the actual work-related responsibilities needed to fulfill their role (Pettegrew & Wolf, 1982).
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Stress within teaching is driven by the organizational factors related to the way in which teachers are expected to work (Hepburn & Brown, 2001).
Organizational factors that contribute to teacher stress can include unreasonable directed time budgets, excessive paperwork, unrealistic deadlines, and intimidating inspection regimes (Hepburn & Brown, 2001).
A teacher‘s personality is a factor when explaining the amount of stress that is present. Teachers‘ skills, motives, and perceptions of their work environment determine the amount of stress that may take place (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998).
A teacher who does not have a conflict between personal values and those of educational authorities, has a high ambition to succeed professionally, and is not easily upset or excited; tend to experience the least amount of stress (Bachkirova, 2005).
Teacher stress is closely linked to strain and burnout. Strain is any unpleasant behavioral, psychological, or physiological outcome in a teacher (Sutton, 1984).
In general, strain is the result of an interaction between a person and their environment. Strain is measured in terms of physiological dysfunction, psychological dysfunction, or behavioral dysfunction (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998). 123
Physiological dysfunction refers to any cardiovascular disease and bodily complaints (Sutton, 1984). Psychological dysfunction refers to depression, anxiety, and negative effect towards life and job.
Behavioral dysfunction explains any change in normal behavior such as drug abuse (Sutton, 1984), smoking, drinking, absenteeism, or unhealthy eating (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998).
Burnout is the emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion that comes about from job related stress and roughly describes any negative responses by teachers to work-related stress (Blase, 1982).
Teachers who are idealistic and enthusiastic are most vulnerable to burnout (Farber, 1991). Buffers for burnout include social support, sense of control, and dietary habits (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998). Burnout tends to occur when effort and coping resources fail toovercome stress, and stems from an individual perception of a significant discrepancy between effort and reward (Farber, 1991).
It is characterized by depersonalization and a decline in personal achievement. A burnout cycle begins when teachers show a decrease in effort and major valued outcomes, and an increase in job strain. Burnout is the end state of ―burning out‖ which is the gradual attrition of important technical, psychological, and social resources (Blase, 1982). 124
Sutton (1984) found that there are two dysfunctional responses to burnout. First, teachers feel forced to do low quality work or not finish their work at all. This often leads to lower self-esteem, high blood pressure, and anxiety. Second, teachers may choose to keep up with the demand. This often leads to family problems, and a lack of sleep and relaxation (Farber, 1991).
Teachers can be considered burned out if they show attitudes that depersonalize students, as well as exhibit low levels of personal accomplishments in their work (Hastings & Bham, 2003).
Burnout can also be explained by ineffective performance with students which is a direct sign of a decrease in work satisfaction, involvement, motivation, and effort (Blase, 1982).
Burnout leads teachers to experience an increase in physical and mental problems, an increase in absenteeism, and a higher desire to want to leave the teaching profession (Hastings & Bham, 2003).
2.7.4 Causes of Teacher Stress Teacher stress can be caused from a variety of situations. Stress often comes about when teachers have difficult negotiating various aspects of interactions with students (Hepburn & Brown, 2001) or from any circumstances that are considered too demanding, depriving of time, and interfering with instruction (Blase, 1986). Stress can best be explained by categorizing factors into first and second order 125 stressors. First order stressors directly interfere with teacher effort and can include student apathy, student disruption or discipline, poor student attendance, high student to teacher ratios (large classes), paperwork, prep work, irresponsible colleagues, obtrusive supervisors, lack of effective leadership such as assistant principals or principals, and seemingly non-supportive parents. Stressors that occur most frequently tend to be organizational issues dealing with students, administration, other teachers, and other work relationships (Blase, 1986). Second order stressors do not interfere directly with teacher effort and can include issues such as low salary, emotional fatigue, frustration, helplessness, stagnation, boredom, and loss of motivation or enthusiasm (Blase, 1986).
Stress among teachers can also be grouped into three categories: role demands, instructional problems, and interpersonal relationships (Sutton, 1984).
Role related stress is said to be the difference between teachers‘ role expectations and their actual experiences within that role (Pettegrew & Wolf, 1982).
Role demand stressors include ambiguity, overload, conflict (Sutton, 1984), preparedness, and non-participation (Pettegrew & Wolf, 1982).
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Organizational characteristics such as policies, structure, and processes can also be categorized as role demand stressors (Bacharach, Bauer, & Conley, 1986).
Instructional problems or task stress identifies problems associated with a variety of specific tasks that teachers must perform in their teaching role (Pettegrew & Wolf, 1982).
Instructional problems can include difficulties with student discipline, competence, inappropriate procedures for student placement, instruction, inadequate standardized tests, grading systems (Sutton, 1984), notification of unsatisfactory work performance, being physically threatened by students (Pettegrew & Wolf, 1982) and sparse or dangerous working conditions (Bacharach, Bauer, & Conley, 1986).
Interpersonal relationships refer to relationships teachers have with fellow professionals or community members within the educational environment. Network interaction and supervision may also fall into this category (Bacharach, Bauer, & Conley, 1986).
The most common stressors in this group are conflict with other staff members, and a lack of social support from supervisors and coworkers (Sutton, 1984).
Causes of teacher stress can also be broken down into environmental and individual stressors. Most stressors can be found in 127 the work environment and include unfavorable working conditions, heavy workloads, organizational problems, and paucity of resources, lack of support and or autonomy, and decision making. The work environment can also include physical stressors such as task-related noise, crowding, the size of the classroom and or school, safety or youth violence, as well as administrative pressures such as support from managers and role ambiguity (Hastings & Bham, 2003).
Individual characteristics include the unique attributes of teachers such as personality, age, gender, demographic background, the ability to establish and maintain supportive networks, cognitive evaluation of stressors, the ability to cope, type of teacher, and job dissatisfaction (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998).
Individual stress also can be associated with the compatibility between personal and educational values, ambition to succeed, sensitivity threshold, competitiveness, multiple roles for women teachers (such as parent, caretaker, homemaker, and teacher), and perfection (Bachkirova, 2005).
A major source of teacher stress can be directly attributed to the students. Through survey and interview responses, teachers most commonly refer to students as being responsible for most of their stress (Hastings & Bham, 2003).
Stress resulting from student discipline is associated with teachers having to play the different roles of babysitters, police 128 officers, or even harsh authoritarians, which can cause role demand overload (Blase, 1986).
Most teachers view disrespectful behavior, student attentiveness, and sociability as the most stressful student misbehaviors (Hastings & Bham, 2003).
Griffith, Steptoe, and Cropley (1999) found that primary classroom teachers suffer more stress than secondary teachers. Primary teachers are responsible for one class throughout the entire school year which makes teachers not only responsible for educational activities, but for moral and social development as well.
More responsibility, along with work pressure and student misbehavior, cause primary classroom teachers to have the highest level of stress. These behaviors along with student discipline management, student apathy, student achievement, and student absences all result in teachers experiencing increased stress (Blase, 1986).
2.7.8 Teacher Responses to Stress
Teachers have varied responses to stress. A response is brought on by stress stimuli, which are organizational characteristics that initiate a stress reaction in a given setting (Bacharach, Bauer, & Conley, 1986).
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While some teachers develop confrontational strategies, others experience changes in behavior, emotional responses, or physical or physiological responses. Over time, teachers develop the technical, psychological, and social coping resources needed to effectively work with students (Blase, 1982).
The majority of coping strategies that teachers use come in the form of confrontational strategies. These strategies are used to reduce or eliminate external stress such as student related stressors (Blase, 1986).
Teachers confront classroom stress resulting from student discipline with strategies such as behavior modification, removing the student from class, scolding the child, isolation, inflicting fear, discussing the problem, active ignoring, paddling, and calling parents. Confrontational strategies used to deal with classroom stress resulting from student apathy include varied teaching techniques and materials, individual and personalized instruction, rewarding positive behavior, and striving to be entertaining (Blase, 1982).
Another form of confrontational classroom strategies is the development of adaptive strategies. Adaptive strategies do not directly affect the source of stress, but do manage the consequences for the teacher. These include ignoring the student, not putting extra work in, and giving up (Blase, 1982).
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If confrontational strategies do not work, teachers often experience personal changes in behavior to cope with the stress. Most behavior changes that occur as a result of stressors are very unhealthy to the teacher. These changes can include smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, unwanted outbursts of anger, sedentary lifestyle, and sleeping problems (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998).
Teachers also express somatic complaints such as trouble falling asleep, back pains, poor appetite, and a decrease in their overall health and energy levels (Sutton, 1984).
Chronic stress symptoms may also occur if stress continues to be present in the day to day activities of a teacher. These symptoms include fatigue, increased illness, and the inability to concentrate (Hepburn & Brown, 2001).
Some teachers may also have an emotional response to unwanted stress. The most common feelings of emotion that occur are anger, depression, anxiety, and self-blame (Blase, 1986).
Teachers experience anger more than any other feeling as a consequence of work stress and is often expressed with strong negative feelings directed towards others. Stress can also lead to teachers being in a depressive state. This is when teachers have a general feeling of being out of control, and a belief that they have little probability of improving their situation (Blase, 1986).
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In this state, teachers may also show signs of depersonalization, emotional exhaustion, lack of personal accomplishments, and a decrease in self-efficacy (Hastings & Brown, 2001).
Feelings of anxiety are mostly anticipatory and often occur when teachers expect negative consequences to occur (Blase, 1986).
As feelings of anxiety continue, teachers become less tolerant, patient, caring, and involved (Blase, 1986), and may even become unrealistically biased in their judgments and assessments of learners, which can result in negative outcomes for students (Abidin & Robinson, 2002).
Self-blame results in teachers expressing anger towards self, feelings of guilt, and feelings of self-pity (Blase, 1986).
Over time, self-blame can remove teachers emotionally and socially from their students. A loss of enthusiasm may also occur causing teachers to lessen their attempts of humor, elaboration of subject matter, and creative involvement (Blase, 1986).
Stress may also elicit a physical or physiological response from teachers. Some physical symptoms of stress include fatigue, tiredness, overworked, burn out, headaches, stomach aches, chest pains, sleepiness (Blase, 1982), trembling hands, shortness of breath, dizziness, restlessness, cold sweats, ill health, confused thoughts or difficulty concentrating, loss of memory, loss of appetite, trouble 132 falling asleep, and the ability to hold productive conversations with colleagues (Bacharach, Bauer, & Conley, 1986).
Some physiological symptoms of stress include an increase in blood pressure, heart rate and or cortisol (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998), irregular heartbeat, and nervousness (Bacharach, Bauer, & Conley, 1986).
Developing positive responses to stress will allow teachers to be more satisfied with their role as an educator and be a more effective educator in the classroom. A decrease in work satisfaction results in teachers being less involved and motivated, causing teachers to demonstrate feelings of resentment, frustration, boredom, irritability, anger, stagnation, helplessness, and depression (Blase, 1982).
Finding positive ways to handle stress will allow teachers to maintain their drive and commitment, thus making them continue to put forth the effort needed to being an involved, satisfied, and effective teacher. A proper response to stress via stress management techniques and healthy coping mechanisms keeps teachers actively involved in what they are trying to accomplish and allows them to fully invest themselves with their students (Blase, 1982). Teachers who are satisfied in their profession will have less attrition maintaining a stable educational workforce. 2.8 LEVEL OF STRESS Reddy and Ramamurthy (1990) reported that top-level managers experienced more occupational stress. 133
Tharakan (1992) studied on occupational stress and job satisfaction among working women. He observed that professional women experienced greater work related stress than non professional women. The expectation of technocrats was much higher than the non technocrats.
Barnes (1992) conducted a study on stress in aviation personnel. A sample of 25 captains, 16 flight engineers, 11 cabin crew members from air India were considered for the study. The results revealed that the cabin crews have far more stressors than other aviation groups. This is followed by pilots.
Srivastava et al. (1994) revealed tat in private sector organization middle level managers faced greater stress and anxiety as compared to top level managers.
Sahu and Mishra (1995) explored the life stress and coping styles in teachers. The sample consisted of 120 male and 120 female teachers. The males experienced greater stress in the work and society areas, while females experienced more stress in family areas.
Aminabhavi and Triveni (1998) found that the signal maintainers have higher occupational stress as compared to other employees in railways. It also showed that railway employees who expressed moderate level of job satisfaction and life satisfaction have 134 significantly higher occupational stress than those who expressed higher life and job satisfaction.
Boroun et al. (1998) studied the job stress and job performance among 150 self paced repetitive workers. He indicated that the low satisfied workers experienced more ‗after work‘ stress than the high satisfied workers.
Gaur and Dhawan (2000) examined that the relationship between works related stressors and adaptation pattern among women professionals. A sample of 120 women professionals (30 teachers, 30 doctors, 30 bank officers and 30 bureaucrats) participated in the study. It showed that the four professionals groups have shared almost similar level of stress except in the categories of career development and stressors specific to working women.
Aminabhavi and Triveni (2000) revealed that nationalized bank employees have significantly higher occupational stress than non nationalized bank employees, in the dimensions such as role conflict, unreasonable group/political pressure, intrinsic impoverishment and strenuous working conditions. Non nationalized bank employees have significantly higher stress due to low status.
Pandey and Srivastava (2000) studied the work stress experienced by teachers, railway and bank employees. Maximum work stress was reported by the rail way employees but the level of stress was lesser in bank personnel and least in teachers. 135
Harshpinder and Aujla (2002) found in their study that working women were more stressed due to sociological factors where as non working women were more stressed due to environmental factors.
Bhatia and Kumar (2005) attempted to explore occupational stress and burn out among employees. A sample consisted of 100 employees belonging to supervisor and below supervisor level. Employees at supervisor rank experienced more occupational stress than below supervisor level due to more responsibility and accountability.
Das and Singhal (2003) explored the effect of job autonomy upon occupational stress among managers, 300male managers were selected for the study. The findings of the study revealed that the managers with high job autonomy show less stress as compared to managers with low job autonomy. A study by Aujla et al. (2004) showed that working women were significantly more stressed due to psychological stressors than non working women.
Ojha and Rani (2004) examined the level of life stress and various dimensions of mental health among working (n=30) and non working (n=30) Indian women. Working women were significantly scored higher on life stress in comparison to non working women.
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Bidlan (2005) conducted a study on ―job involvement, job frustration, and occupational stress among workers of small and large scale industrial units‖. He examined semi-skilled workers (n=200) from small and large scale industrial units. Results showed that small scales industrial worker had significantly greater degree of job stress than the workers of large scale industrial units.
Srivastava (2005) on his study effects of cognitive appraisal on the relationship of job stress and job related health outcomes considered the sample size of 300. The results showed that the employees who are appraised the severity of and threats posed from stressful situation as to be high experienced markedly higher degree of job stress in comparison to those who appraised the severity and expected threats as to be low.
Panchanatham et al. (2006) analyzed the stress pattern of coercive and nom coercive leaders. A group of 60 problem solving executives who belong to implementer style were considered for the study. It proved that coercive leaders are more stressful than non coercive leaders.
S.R.L.M. and Sarada Devi (2006) assessed the probable ratio of satisfaction to stress of women in different occupations. The total sample comprised of 120 working women in which 30 lawyers, 30 engineers and 60 clerks. The findings of the study revealed that among all the three categories of women employees, the probable ratio of stress was more than satisfaction in their role performance. 137
From all these studies it can be concluded that individuals do experience stress of different levels; only their sources of stress vary according to the type of institution, working conditions in which they have to work.
2.9 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN RELATION TO STRESS
As far as gender differences are concerned the studies revealed the following facts:
Beena and Poduval (1992) conducted a study on sample of 80 executives in different organizations (40 male and 40 female) with in the age range of 25-45 years, to know the gender difference in work stress. The result revealed that female executives experienced higher rate of stress.
Mitra and Sen (1993) in their study found that male and female executives differed significantly on role ambiguity, role conflict, inter role distance, future prospects and human relation at work and femininity and masculinity dimensions. Male executives with masculine sex role orientation faced greater job stress and anxiety than females possessing an androgynous personality. Authors attributed this fact to a greater reluctance to self disclose among men and different socialization patterns laid down for both men and women in Indian society. 138
Ushashree et al. (1995) on their study considered 80 male and 80 female high school teachers in the age group of 25-40 year(adult) and 41-60 years(middle) age to know the effect of gender on teacher‘s experience of job stress and job satisfaction. Analysis of data indicated significant effect of gender on job stress.
Sahu and Mishra (1995) made an attempt to explore gender differences in relationship between stresses experienced in various areas of life. The sample for the study was 120 men and 120 women teachers. The result revealed the significant positive relationship between works related stress and society related stress in males. On the other hand, in females, a significant positive relationship was observed between family stress and society related stress.
Bhagawan (1997) studied on job stress among 53 male and 47 female teachers from 20 schools in Orissa. It was found from the results that male teachers experienced more stress compared to female teachers.
Barkat and Asma Praveen (1999) studied the effect of gender on organizational role stress. The sample consisted of 50 managers, 25 male and 25 female of SBI. The age range of the subjects was between 36-55 years. Results indicated that females showed lower degree of role stress than their male counterparts.
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Aminabhavi and Triveni (2000) conducted a study on the nationalized and non nationalized bank employees. The sample consisted of 78 bank employees of which 39 nationalized and 39 non nationalized banks. The result revealed that male and female bank employees do not differ significantly in their occupational stress.
Pradhan and Khattri (2001) studied the effect of gender on stress and burn out in doctors. They have considered experience of work and family stress as intra-psychic variables. The sample consisted of 50 employed doctor couples. Mean age was 40 years for males and 38 years for females. The result indicated no gender difference in the experience of burn out, but female doctors experience significantly more stress.
Triveni and Aminabhavi (2002) conducted a study to know the gender difference in occupational stress of professional and non- professionals. The sample consisted of 300 professionals (doctors, lawyers and teachers) and 100 non professionals. The result revealed that women professionals experience significantly higher occupational stress than men due to under participation.
All these studies have revealed controversial results but gender of individuals has significant effect on experience of stress. In some situations, women experience more stress than men and vice versa. 2.10 COLLEGE TEACHER’S STRESS There are four major issues concerning the development of a definition of teacher stress. The first issue is whether to use the term 140
"teacher stress" to refer to the level of demands made on the teacher, or whether the term should refer to the emotional state engendered in a person in attempting to meet such demands. A second issue is, whether stress should refer 10 all demands (both positive and negative) or only to a negative one. The third issue involves the fact that teachers' emotional responses to their situation very much depends on their perception of situation and their coping ability. The fourth issue concerns how best to take account of the balance between the levels of demands made on teacher, or the teachers' ability to meet such demands.
Teachers have very important roles and responsibilities in teaching and learning processes and in achieving the overall goals of education. As it is impossible to think that an inefficient teacher will be able to fulfill the purpose of education, even the best teacher fails to do well under inconvenient conditions. However, the teacher has duties with vital effects over students like motivating students, planning class activities, providing knowledge and skills to students, maintaining discipline in the class and keeping parents informed on their children‘s progress.
Hence, teachers need to be aware of enacting the multiplicity of their roles. The multiplicity of roles confronts teachers with numerous challenges including insufficient resources, overcrowded classes, lack of professional development opportunities, lack of parents cooperation, and low finical packages and status, to name a few. By its nature, teaching is one of the noblest professions as usually it is the 141 teacher who shapes the future of a child. As a result, teaching is a very fulfilling and rewarding profession. Students‘ success in their lives can become tremendous sources of dignity and satisfaction for teachers. However, because of huge responsibilities and the deep-rooted sense of accountability, teaching is also a very stressful and demanding profession.
It is challenging in both its intellectual and physical dimensions: intellectually, because the profession requires teachers to constantly enhance their knowledge; and physically, because it requires them to be always dynamic, proactive and smart. Professional life forms the most important part of daily life of human beings and the effects of the professional life, therefore, have important implications for their social lives. So, human are affected from stress in their personal and professional life in various ways. Teachers, too, are affected from stress due to delicacy of their job.
In many countries college teacher‘s job is often considered as one of the most stressful profession. In the last two decades, intensive researches have been carried out in USA and Europe concerning the sources and symptoms of college teachers‘ professional stress. Studies in the field of teacher‘s stress show that the greater part of stress is associated with the rapid pace of changes in education, particularly in 1980s and 1990s. Teaching profession is generally considered as a noble profession with lots of expectations from the parents towards their children‘s education and the development of their personalities. These expectations may also contribute as a source of stress. Present 142 study attempts to identify the sources and level of occupational stress and also study its impact on certain demographic variables.
Research conducted in the United Kingdom (UK), Unites States of America (USA), Australia and New Zealand has identified several key stressors commonly associated with stress among academic staff. These include work overload, time constraints, lack of promotion opportunities, lack of regular performance feedback, inadequate recognition, inadequate salary, changing job role, inadequate management and/or participation in management, inadequate resources and funding and student interactions (Blix, Cruise, Mitchel, & Blix, 1994; Boyd & Wylie, 1994; Cross & Carroll, 1990; Daniels & Guppy, 1994; Doyle & Hind, 1998; Kinman, 1998).
According to Evers, Tomic & Brouwers (2005) and Kokkinos, Panayiotou & Dazoglou (2005), negative aspects of the teaching job such as disciplinary problems, students_ apathy, overcrowded classrooms, involuntary transfer, inadequate salaries, and lack of administrative support. Krause, in Carter, 1994 found that lack of resources, lack of time, excessive meetings, large class sizes, lack of assistance, lack of support, and hostile parents are the potential stressors.
Various studies have highlighted that time pressure with regards to administrative demands and excessive paper work are major sources of stress for teachers, as there is inadequate time for 143 preparation; unrealistic deadlines imposed and issues concerning the workload of teachers (Dinham, 1993; Kyriacou, 2001; Pithers & Soden, 1999; Punch & Tuetteman, 1996).
Several studies found a correlation between younger teachers and reports of higher stress levels (Malcolmson et al., 2003; Maslach et al., 1996).
Kahn and Cooper (1993) indicate that limited opportunities for advancement, insufficient performance feedback, performance assessment measures being inadequate and biased control systems and culture within the organisation, may be perceived as potential stressors.
Rutter, Hezberg and Paice (2002) found that high self expectation, securing financial support for research, insufficient development in the field, inadequate salary, manuscript preparation, role overload, conflicting job demands, slow progress on career advancement, frequent interruptions and long meetings are the causes of stress among academic staff.
Begley and Cazjka (1993) suggested that committed employees, because of their positive attitudes, are less distressed by occupational stressors and therefore they perceive less stress. Many parents and students feel that student academic difficulties are due, in part, to frequent teacher absenteeism (Pacific Region Educational 144
Laboratory R&D Cadre, 1995a; 1995b; 1995c), poor organizational commitment of teachers (Vakola & Nikolaou, 2005).
Baker, Israel, & Schurman (1996) suggest that social support from supervisors have more influence on employee satisfaction and mental health than support from co-workers.
Merbler, Schlichte & Yssel(2005) found that ―when relationships are poor, attrition is increased‖ (p. 39). Montgomery & Rupp (2005), Betoret (2006) all echoed this sentiment in finding that where collegial relationships were seen as supportive and a resource, rather than as an obstacle or hindrance, burnout levels were lower.
Social support is an important resource that enables an individual to cope with stress and present burnout ( Bonfiglio, 2005 Kim-wan, 1991).
Researchers report that the results of prolonged teacher stress contributes to job dissatisfaction, reduced teacher-student rapport, and decreased teacher effectiveness in meeting educational goals (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978a).
Dissatisfied faculty can transfer their emotions to other employees (Westman, & Etzion, 1999) It has been found that job satisfaction and teacher stress are strongly correlated, as the amount of stress and degree of satisfaction experienced by teachers influences the quality of life of teachers (Pelsma & Richard, 1988). 145
Stress is considered to be the main factor contributing towards job dissatisfaction, job-related illness and early retirement in England (Van Dick, Phillips, Marburg & Wagner, 2001).
The elements that cause stress in organizations are environmental factors and the behaviour formed as a result of the pressure of these elements on the individual (Amason, Allen and Holmes, 1999).
Organizational policies, the structure and the climate of the organization, physical conditions and process are the basic factors of stress in the organization (Luthans,1994), Sources of teacher stress are varied (Dewe, 1986). Some experts argue that those who work in a moderate level of stress work with a higher performance (Steers, 1981). Stress is not always a negative fact (Palmer and Hyman, 1993).
University Durham (1992) defined stress as a process of behavioral, emotional, mental, and physical reactions caused by prolonged, increasing, or new pressures that are significantly greater than the availability of coping strategies
Teaching related stress, commonly termed ‗teacher stress‘, is defined as a teacher‘s experience of ―unpleasant, negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration, or depression, resulting from some aspect of their work as a teacher‖ (Kyriacou, 2001, p. 38). 146
At a personal level, teaching related stress can affect a teacher‘s health, well-being, and performance (Larchick and Chance, 2004). From an organisational perspective, it translates to unproductive employee behaviours such as alienation, apathy, and absenteeism (Gugliemi and Tatrow, 1998).
Stress affects both the teacher and the learners in the teaching process (Forlin, Douglas andHattie, 1996).
Additional demands on faculty time for tutoring and advisement, along with conflicts of instructional changes have created a climate of increased stress and anxiety for many faculty members (Alfred, 1986; Huber, 1998; Outcalt, 2002).
Chance (1985), noted the female teachers identified ten factors significantly causing greater stress for them then for their male colleagues.
Murphy (1986), found female teachers experiencing more stress than males in the area of time management and even reported high scores of physical symptoms of stress in teacher/teacher relations.
Pelsma and Richard (1988), found job satisfaction and teacher stress to be strongly correlated. They also noted that the amount of stress and degree of job satisfaction experience by teachers directly influence the quality of teacher work life. 147
Hittner (1981), revealed a list of events related to teachers‘ life satisfaction that could affect their stress and performance at work. These events included marriage, divorce, pregnancy of the loved one, and change of residence.
Billingsley and Cross (1992) found that characteristics of special educator such as Gender and marital status appear not to affect their levels or commitments to the field, however, job satisfaction of special education teachers which is correlated with retention, increases with experience.
Landbergis (1993) reported that 12 out of 14 studies showed that there was a clear link between occupational stress and heart disease. Further more, it was estimated that 23% of heart diseases in the US could potentially be prevented if the stress level in job were reduced. The studies also showed that more women and black workers faced higher level of stress than their males.
Randall R Ross, et al (1994) has combined insights and research from occupational psychology and clinical psychology to tackle work place stress. The book focuses on strategies, which can be employed by counselors to help individual suffering from emotional and psychological stress and engendered in the work place.
Tim Newton (1995) examined stress from this perspective and which aims to present a critical understanding of the experience of stress and distress in employment and to use this analysis to explore broader debates relating to discourse, agency and subjectivity. 148
Singh and Billingsley (1996), Excessive paper work and lack of administrative support were consistently cited as major sources of stress, dissatisfaction and attrition, while positive working environments were often indications of satisfied teachers of EBD students. They reported isolation from colleagues, dissatisfaction with parent participation, frustration with paper work, and a dearth of principal support. In general, teachers who ranked their work environment and principal relationships positively were more likely to be committed and satisfied with teaching and less likely to suffer from symptoms of stress.
Terry (1997), found role preparedness, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, illness symptoms (such as migraine and sinus headaches; allergies; colds; post nasal drip; hypertension, bladder, Kidney and bowel disorders; colitis; nervous stomach; acne; and weight problems), locus of control and self esteem to be the internal characteristics that tend to influence teacher stress and the way teachers handle the stress they face. A situation that causes one teacher to experience stress may or may not cause another teacher to experience stress. Examining internal characteristics can provide teachers with insight to the levels of Occupational Stress that they endure. The professional literature indicates that it is not necessarily the stress that is harmful but the levels of stress experienced.
Srivastava (1999), found stress at work resulting from increasing complexities of work and its divergent demands has become a prominent and pervading feature of the organizations. Researchers in this area have used the term job stress to denote 149 employee‘s mental state aroused by a job situation perceived as emphasized the role of job situations in their definition of Occupational Stress. The nature of Occupational Stress can be more conveniently and clearly understood in the framework of its causes and consequences. But in fact, job stress does not directly affect the job behavior of the focal workers. The experience and consequences of stress are mediated and moderated by several psychological and situational factors.
Cooper (2001), examined that the sources and out comes of job related stress, the methods used to asses levels and consequences of occupational stress, along with strategies might to used by individual and organisation to confront stress and its associated problems. Clarke,
Cooper (2003), examined that working in a stressful environment not only increase the risk of physical illness or distress, but also increases the likelihood of work place accidents.
Kirk, (2003), Certain professional variables stimulate teacher stress. For example secondary teachers experience stress more frequently than elementary teachers also the fewer years of professional preparation a teacher has, increases the greater the likelihood of stress. However, age and gender are not significant when examining stress.
William (2004), has presented well-integrated, coherent coverage of the latest scientific finding from psychology neuroscience, and medicine. He did a splendid job of filing a gap in the literature in 150 stress and health: that gap being the need for an articulate introductory compendium that integrates what is known about the physiology of stress with that of thoughts and emotions.
Massey (2004), occupational stress and peacekeepers arising from cumulative effects of occupational strain that is too heavy could lead `flame out‘ if too acute or could lead beyond.
International Journal of Learning, (Sept., 2004), change in policies teacher‘s incompetence in using the language and computers in teaching, student‘s level of acceptance, management of time and facilities for teaching, close supervision by authorized personnel, workload and students‘ performance, are the main factors which contribute to teachers stress.
Linden, (2005), stress management field is a 'soft' one, lacking a strong theoretical foundation, and therefore lacking good studies of efficacy and long term outcome. In order to truly comprehend stress management, there needs to be clear understanding on the phenomenon that is "to be managed." He proposes the need for three distinguishable subtypes of stress management programs-a systematic-preventative approach; a broad-based stress vaccination and prevention type of protocol; and a reactive, problem-solving type of stress reduction intervention.
Manthei, R. J. (1996) states that, ―there is no doubt that job related stress is rapidly becoming one of the most pressing occupational safety and health concerns in the country today". 151
Rubina, (2004) declares that, ―Teachers play an important role in constructing the personality of their students. Schools are as important institutions as any other organization of the society. It can be reviewed as an interface, a platform where significant socialization of growing children takes place and where a sizable number of adolescent members of a society follow careers and meanings in their lives. Importance of profession is obvious however; the social and psychological conditions exert a strong influence on the levels of performance, job satisfaction and even on the mental health of teachers‖.
Vaghn, (1990) suggested that, ―Like all other professionals, teacher‘s are also overwhelmed by multiple and complex challenges. They lag behind their counterparts in relations to the opportunities for self development and professional enhancement. In many parts of the world, teachers are rarely provided with the resources they need to meet the high demands and expectations placed on them. The long hours at work (as they supervise students' projects, evaluate students' work, prepare lessons and conduct the examination) coupled with pressures of their job environments eventually lead to debilitating health problems‖.
Hayward, (1991) stated that, ―The teaching profession is one of the helping professions in which practitioners are normally committed to giving their best for the welfare of those entrusted in their care. While the commitment is laudable, the consequences can be detrimental when the job demands overshadow the individual‘s coping 152 resources, as well as the job rewards; thus leaving the practitioner feeling unhappy and unable to perform well‖.
Elaborating his view of stress Kalat (1990) argues that almost everyone shows different reactions to different stress factors (such as being bitten by a snake). He adds that the common everyday situations are at times more stressful to some people than to others. He explains that the amount of stress someone experiences in fact depends on how the person views and understands the stress factor rather than on the event itself (Lararus cited in Kalat, 1990).
Easthope et al (1990) suggest that when god hates a man, he drives him into the profession of a school teacher.
Muir (1984), however, views teaching profession in contrast to the above statement: ―You should take up teaching: it is a nice easy job and good holidays‖ (p.04).
There is numerous teaching which endorse what Mari (1984) says about teaching. Islamic teaching, in fact, teaching is a noble and sacred profession.
Black-Branch and Lamont (cited in Murray-Harvey,1999 p.1) state that teaching profession is considered to be among the professions in which employees are subject to high levels of stress.
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Brownell (1997) agreed with his fact saying that teaching profession is comparatively recognized as a demanding profession but student related issues and their behavior have made it challenging and stressful.
Day (2000) argues the last two to three decades have been years of struggle rather than growth and development for many teachers. Because of the social and economic changes, society has p the researches have been supporting the fact that teachers are stressed in most cases.
The factors induce professional or occupational stress as Lunenburg and Ornstein (1991) assert that extremely high and low job demands, role conflicts and ambiguities, poor interpersonal relationships exert a remarkable influence on the teachers‘ stress.
Naylor (2001) conducted a qualitative research study on ‗Workload and Stress‘. He asked 1500 teachers of British Columbia through random sampling to identify and explain the most significant aspects of workload in teachers‘ professional life. The respondents identified the manifold causes of stress in their work as a teacher. Following are the factors that were reported as being stressful for teachers in the research.
The effects of stress on teachers‘ health are really upsetting. Teachers‘ are suffering from different health problems like body aches to acute problems like ulcers. It is because these health problems and 154 increasing demands from teachers, that many teacher are planning to get an early retirement and some in extreme cases are planning to quit their job altogether (Naylor, 2001).
According to Gelvin (2007), teacher stress is a response syndrome of negative affects resulting from aspects of a teacher's job and mediated by the perception that the demands constitute a threat to self-esteem and coping mechanisms activated to reduce the perceived threat.
The stress of teaching as an occupation is widespread and cross-cultural. As observed by Lhospital and Gregory (2009), teachers today face high stress that can compromise their well-being, longevity in the profession, and the quality of their interactions with students.
Consequently, many teachers have been leaving their profession in increasing numbers. In many instances, a high proportion of teachers who remained on their jobs freely admitted their dissatisfaction and rated their jobs as very stressful (Thomas, Clarke & Lavery, 2003). Wahlund Edo Journal of Counselling Vol. 3, No. 2, 2010 175 and Nerel (1976) found that among white collar occupational groups in Sweden, teachers were the most exposed to job related stress.
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Kokkinos (2006) reported that primary school teachers in Cyprus were high on emotional exhaustion while their counterparts in the secondary schools were higher on depersonalization.
Upadhyay and Singh (1999) found that the executive as well as the teachers experienced a moderate level of stress, the executives experienced more stress than the teachers did. The results revealed a significant difference between these two groups on the experience of stress due to factors such as role overload, intrinsic impoverishment and status variable.
Study by K. S. Rajeswari and R. N. Anantharaman (2003) Development of an instrument to measure stress among software professionals: factor analytic published in SIGMIS CPR April 2003 investigated sources of negative pressure among software professionals, from the perspective of the software development process. The results indicate that stress resulted from fear of obsolescence and individual team interactions accounted maximum.
K. Chandraiah, S.C. Agrawal, P. Marimuthu And N. Manoharan in their study in few of the large scale industries in Calcutta in 2003 - Occupational Stress and Job Satisfaction Among Managers published in Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, found that job becomes less satisfying under excessive stress and their expected intrinsic and extrinsic needs are not fulfilled. They further found that age plays a vital role to test the correlation between occupational stress and job satisfaction level and 156 suggested that senior level officers have a decreased stress level and increased satisfaction as compared to the middle level officers.
Leemamol Mathew of University of Calicut (2005) found in - An Exploratory Study on Occupational Stress and Coping Strategies of Special Educators (those who teach the disabled) in South India as the sources of stress as i) school structure and climate, ii) home/work interface, iii) relationship with other people, iv) intrinsic job factors. The common effect of stress on special educators was found to be health related problems - both physical and mental - and job dissatisfaction. There was no organised method to redress the problem rising from occupational stress. As a result, the most commonly used coping strategies were social support, task strategies, and home/school relationship. The sources of stress as repeatedly reported were that of low salary - due to the subcontracting by the Government to NGO's, job insecurity, work overload, and high teacher-student ratio.
Study by K. S. Rajeswari and R. N. Anantharaman (2005) on Role of Human-Computer Interaction Factors as Moderators of Occupational Stress and Work Exhaustion found that IT professionals have long work hours with different time zones, total team work, task to be completed on deadline with perfection as per client needs, which requires interpersonal, technical, and organizational. These characteristics lead to occupational stress and work exhaustion.
Another publication by V P Sudhashree, K.Rohit and K Srinivas in the Indian Journal of on Occupational and Environmental 157
Medicine – Dec 2005 on Issues and concerns of health among call center employees, talks more about the Burnout Stress Syndrome (BOSS), which is the result of continuous noise pollution by way of sudden high frequency acoustic shocks and musculoskeletal disorders.
A.K. Sharma, S. Khera , J. Khandekar - Computer Related Health Problems Among Information Technology Professionals in Delhi - A publication in Indian Journal of Community Medicine in January 2006 found more on visual stress and musculoskeletal symptoms, initially being mild and temporary and later with increasing years assuming more intense and permanent nature. It also found that computer related morbidity had become an important occupational health problem and of great concern. It suggested an immediate need for the concerned authorities to collaborate and enforce suitable preventive measures.
Kulkarni GK. in an article Burnout published in Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2006 said that rapid change of the modern working life is associated with increasing demands of learning new skills, need to adopt to new types of work, pressure of higher productivity and quality of work, time pressure and hectic jobs are increasing stress among the workforce. Further he added that privatization and globalization has ignited mergers, acquisitions, and precarious employment has critically affected the domestic industry. K.K.Jain, Fauzia Jabeen, Vinita Mishra and Naveen Gupta in their study in 2007 - Job Satisfaction as Related to Organisational 158
Climate and Occupational Stress: A Case Study of Indian Oil published in the International Review of Business Research Papers found the results of the study also confirmed the assumption that high age group managers as well as high age group engineers were equally satisfied with their jobs and the study revealed the same findings when low age group managers and low age group engineers were compared on their job satisfaction level.
According to Evers, Tomic & Brouwers (2005) and Kokkinos, Panayiotou & Dazoglou (2005), negative aspects of the teaching job such as disciplinary problems, students‟ apathy, overcrowded classrooms, involuntary transfer, inadequate salaries, and lack of administrative support are among the stressors that confront teachers in both developed and developing nations of the world.
In Nigeria, Akande (1989) reported that job-related stress is common among teachers and that the sources of teacher‘s stress are infinite. Several causes of stress experienced by Nigerian teachers have been identified, some of which include inadequate and inconsistent salaries, over-crowded classes, poor administration, low status of teachers and the monotony of the job (Akande 1989; Balogun 1987).
It is obvious that the impact of stress on teachers‟ job performance and on other areas of life cannot be ignored any longer. Teacher stress may lead to severe negative consequences such as job absenteeism, teacher turnover, reduced output and health problems. At 159 the personal level, it may result in burnout, which is characterised by emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and reduced personal accomplishment (Thomas, Clarke & Lavery, 2003).
Teacher stress may also result in educational problems, such as reduced teacher competence (O'Connor & Clarke, 1990). Undeniably, the problem of teacher stress has social, personal and economic implications.
Various attempts have been made to identify factors that predispose people to stress. Many of such attempts have established a link between the incidence of stress and the personality of individuals. For instance, Akinboye and Adeyemo (2002) found that some people are generally more stress prone while others are generally less stress prone depending on their personality traits.
In the same vein, Riolli and Savicki (2003), Readeke and Smith (2004) and Van-Dierendonck (2005) reported that personality characteristics of employees have the tendency to moderate the effect of stressful situations on employees such that certain traits may buffer or enhance more negative outcomes than others.
The findings are consistent with those of Kokkinos (2007) who reported that personality characteristics were associated with stress or burnout dimensions, thus providing support for the transactional model of Personality traits as predictors of stress among female teachers in Osun state teaching service Popoola, B. I. & Ilugbo, E. A. 160
176 psychological distress in which in order to better understand its process, both environmental and personality variables should be considered. Nearly everyone experiences psychological distress, or negative effect in actual or perceived stress.
Yet people vary widely in the amount of negative affect reported in response to stress, as well as the amount of stress to which they are exposed. Personality variables such as (agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism, self-concept, etc) have been identified as important predictors of psychological distress (Baghy & Rector, 1998; Rosenberg & Pace, 2006).
The literature also provides support that an individual‘s personality characteristic influences the degree to which he or she seeks social support when confronted by a stressful event (Houston & Zola, 1991).
Some research findings attest to the fact that women are more prone to stress than men. Arroba and James (2002) reported that the relationship between gender and stress is complex and varied and that women are more affected by stress than men.
In the same vein, Melhinsh (1998) and Philips & Segal (1996) concluded that since most women work longer hours than men and both do not share duties equally at home, women tend to experience more psychological symptoms of occupational stress than men. In Nigeria, various attempts have been made in recent times to reduce 161 job-related stress of teachers. These include an upward review in the salaries of teachers, establishment of various in-service training schemes and the recruitment of more teachers in some states. It is necessary to empirically determine the extent to which these measures have reduced the level of stress experienced by serving teachers. In particular, there is the need for more empirical studies to determine the nature of stress experienced by female teachers as well as identify specific personality traits which are predictors of stress among them. To do this, the present study identified from among the major personality factors in the literature, the personality characteristics of self concept, locus of control, achievement motivation and extraversion as appropriate and relevant for investigation to determine their potency as predictors of stress among female teachers. From the fore-going submissions, three research hypotheses were postulated: 1. There is no significant relationship between female teacher‘s level of stress and each of the personality traits of extraversion, locus of control, self concept and achievement motivation. 2. The personality variables of self concept, extraversion, and locus of control and achievement motivation will not significantly predict the stress level of female teachers. 3. Marital status has no significant influence on the level of stress experienced by female teachers.
Stress is an unavoidable characteristic of life and work. In any job, there are wide variety of potential causes of stress, some of which are common to both men and women, and others are specific to each group. Occupational stress describes physical, mental and emotional 162 wear and tear brought about by incongruence between the requirement of job and capabilities, resources and needs of the employee to cope with job demands (Akinboye et al., 2002).
2.11 FACTS AND FIGURES OF STRESS
Job stress is a common and costly problem in the American workplace, leaving few workers untouched.
1. A recent survey, published in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, noted that for those working 12 hours a day, there was a 37% increase in risk of illness and injury in comparison to those who work fewer hours. 2. A study done by Northwestern National Life, reports that one- fourth of employees view their jobs as the number one stressor in their lives. 3. A St. Paul Fire and Marine Insurance Co. study concluded that problems at work are more strongly associated with health complaints than any other life stressor, even financial or family problems.
Facts and Figures on Teacher Stress
HSE research in 2000 found teaching to be the most stressful profession in the UK, with 41.5% of teachers reporting themselves as ‗highly stressed. For comparison, the incidence of any kind of stress across the working population is believed to be less than 20 per cent.
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These findings have been further borne out by a survey on occupational stress published in the Journal of Managerial Psychology in 2005, which ranked teaching as the second most stressful job out of 26 occupations analysed. The study found that only ambulance drivers experienced higher levels of stress than teachers.
Severity of Stress Levels
The notion that ‗some stress is good for you‘ has been rightly discredited. Stress is always a sign that there is an underlying problem in need of resolution - it is never a positive indicator. The fact, however, that many people experience some form of occupational stress can lead to misunderstandings - and even a lack of sympathy - when stress occurs in its more severe forms. So when statistics about stress are being discussed, it is important to get an idea not just of:
how many people have experienced any form of occupational stress; but also of how bad that stress has been for them; and
What proportion of the total has suffered serious levels of stress over the time period being considered?
In this way, statistics show that teachers are not just ‗more likely to be stressed‘ than other, comparable workers, but also that they are more likely to be more stressed than their counterparts, even compared with those working in other high-stress professions. A large-scale HSE report into the scale of occupational stress in 2000 found that the six occupations reporting the highest stress levels were: 1. teaching; 164
2. nursing; 3. management; 4. professionals; 5. other education and welfare; 6. Road transport and security.
In all of these groups at least one in five respondents reported high stress. For teachers, notably, the figure was two in five.
Stress-Related Absences and Ill-Health Retirement
HSE data has found consistently that stress is the predominant cause of work-related illness in the education sector. Despite this, official figures reveal that less than one per cent of teacher ill-health retirements arise as a direct consequence of stress.
In 2003, the Government commissioned research into teacher absence and ill-health retirements, but concluded there was ‗no significant incidence of teacher stress as the cause for these events‘. This is most likely to be due to teachers‘ reluctance to cite ‗stress‘ as a cause of absence on self-certification forms; GPs too are adept at wording sick notes cautiously in cases of stress generally and psychiatric conditions in particular. As a result of this, official data on stress-related absence amongst teachers often bears little or no relationship with the situation on the ground.
For example, research into teacher absence conducted for the Government in 1999 by the School of Education at the University of Cambridge found that colds, influenza and associated respiratory tract 165 infections were reported to be the most important causes of teachers' absence, with stress and depression coming at the bottom of the list, beneath headache and upset stomach.
A rather different set of results was obtained in a 2003 study by the Schools Advisory Service - the largest independent provider of teacher absence insurance in the UK. This organisation, whose business depends on accurately forecasting patterns of teacher absence, found that one in three teachers had taken sick leave in the previous year as a result of work-related stress. A survey of heads in 2005 by the NAHT suggested a comparable incidence of stress-related absence amongst head teachers.
Moreover, a recent survey of local authorities found that stress- related absence amongst teachers in Britain led to the loss of around 500,000 teacher days last year1. This means that stress was listed by local authorities as the official cause of around one in six teacher absences last year. Whilst this is almost certainly still an underestimate, it nevertheless flies in the face of the Government‘s insistence that there is ‗no significant incidence‘ of teacher stress in absence statistics.
Statistics published by the Welsh Assembly Government in June 2008 showed that more teachers in Wales took sick leave in 2007 than in 2006. 65% of all teachers took sick leave in 2007, compared with 62% in 2006. The total number of days‘ sickness absence taken
1 Speech to NASUWT conference, Judith Hackitt, Chair of HSE, March 2008
166 by teachers in 2007 was just over 244,700 – 17,200 days more than in 2006. Although these statistics are not broken down according to reasons for absence, it is likely that these figures demonstrate some increase in stress-related illness, given that around 1 in 6 teacher absences are stress related.
Around half of teacher ill health retirements take place for stress/psychiatric illnesses, with the other half for physical illnesses or disabilities. The criterion for ill health retirement is that on the balance of probability the teacher‘s health is such that they are permanently incapable of continuing as a teacher. The medical judgments in the cases of physical illnesses tend to be less difficult than with stress/psychiatric illnesses where the determination of permanent incapacity can be more difficult to assess. Nevertheless, as noted above, about half of the ill health retirements are granted for stress/psychiatric conditions.
Consequences of teacher stress – resignations Research by polling experts YouGov in early 2007 found that stress had led half of all teachers to consider leaving the profession. Those considering leaving cited long hours, insufficient management support, excessive workload, large class sizes and pupil indiscipline as the factors chiefly to blame for their high stress levels.
Similarly, a survey of London teachers in 2006 found that more than four-fifths could envisage stress causing them to leave teaching in the future. 167
Teacher Suicides
Research by the Samaritans suggests that the correlation between high-stress employment and suicide rates is more than just anecdotal. Whilst there is a lamentable lack of data on causal links between occupation and suicide, it is clear beyond doubt that in some cases at the very least, the cumulative effect of working pressures has driven teachers to kill themselves.
The table below compares the suicide rate of teachers with that of the general population, and suggests that teachers as a profession are indeed at a statistically higher risk of suicide compared with the workforce in general.
2005 Suicide rate in England and Wales per 100,000 population 10.25 Suicide rate per 100,000 teachers in England and Wales 14.20
Of course, figures can only scratch the surface of the truly horrific impact of suicide. Furthermore we do not know the precise extent to which problems at work may have contributed to each suicide. But the fact that the suicide rate for teachers is forty per cent higher than the average for the population would indicate, at the very least, a compelling need for further work to be carried out in this area.
1.1 million working people were suffering from a work-related illness
173 workers killed at work 168
111 000 other injuries to employees were reported under RIDDOR
212 000 over-3-day absence injuries occurred (LFS)
27 million working days were lost due to work-related illness and workplace injury
Workplace injuries and ill health (excluding cancer) cost society an estimated £13.4 billion in 2010/11
2.12 CONCLUSION BASED ON REVIEW
Hence from the review of the literature it is clear that the occupational stress among different employees from different careers vary. Researchers have observed that gender is not significant when examining stress. There will be significant difference of occupational stress among less and more experienced employees. Hence an attempt has been made through the medium study to examine occupational stress due to different stressors.
2.13 SUMMARY
Past research generally has been limited to only identifying sources and consequences of stress for teachers. There is a need to further understand why these sources of stress affect teachers and why they choose particular responses to stress. Considering why particular sources of stress affect teachers will allow the health educator to suggest positive stress management programs and coping mechanisms that can be made within the organizational structure of schools that will lessen work-related stress. Understanding why teachers respond 169 the way they do to stress can allow for adaptive strategies to be used in order to help teachers address and cope with stress. This literature explains in detail the most common coping strategies used by teachers; however, this literature does not clarify why teachers choose particular coping strategies. There is a need to investigate the reasons as to why teachers choose particular coping strategies as a way of handling stress. Understanding why these strategies are used will provide teachers with the opportunity to better understand how to cope with stress and provide the tools and resources for effective stress management programs designed to alleviate attrition.
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CHAPTER III
ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND PROFESSIONAL STRESS – AN OVERVIEW
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian Engineering Education represents one of the largest educational systems in the world. The challenges posed by this rapidly growing system in our country are extremely complex. Engineering education is facing a number of challenges with increasing societal, organizational and professional student‘s demands. This has a direct effect on the academics who are constantly striving to find ways to improve the effectiveness of their teaching. Developing countries like India needs high quality faculty members in turn to improve the teaching and learning of engineering subjects, necessitating the environments for effective professional development. However, many professional development programs for engineering faculty fall short because they fail to consider the faculty needs.
The system of education and teacher education established by the Indian Government is continuing without substantial modification. It was feared that an abrupt departure from the existing system might bring about disruption and destabilization. But as the situation improved, greater attention was paid to education and teacher education. The first step in this direction was setting up of the University Education Commission (1948), which made valuable suggestions regarding pre-service and in-service education of teachers 171 and linking the programme of teacher preparation with the university system.
Today there are more than 2300 Engineering Institutions in the country turning out more than 6, 00,000 engineers every year. Five Indian states - Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala - account for 69 per cent of India's engineers. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Orissa account for only 14 per cent. But despite the rise in colleges, the quality of Indian engineers is questionable on account of the lack of trained faculty and dismal state spending on research and development in higher education, as engineering education grows, its quality has to improve (Madhavan 2010).
The professional development of faculty members is a highly relevant topic at this time, when calls for institutional improvement are on the daily agenda. Since engineering subjects have been assigned a key role for future innovation, moreover building the basis subject for many other disciplines, professional development of engineering faculty is implicitly in the focus of any reform endeavor (Sowder, 2007; Lerman, 2001). Much research has been conducted in the area of teacher education.
However, while the knowledge base about learning and teaching engineering subjects as well as effective professional development is growing, conditions that hinder successful progress are still prevalent (Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry and Hewson, 172
2003). Finally, the first International Handbook of engineering Teacher Education (Wood, Jaworski, Krainer, Sullivan & Tirosh, 2008), solely dedicated to engineering teacher education, appeared in 2008.
3.2 EVOLUTION OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN INDIA AND ITS CURRENT STATUS
According to Government of India Report (1964) the development of human resources in the form of properly trained scientists and engineers has been the most essential prerequisite for sustained industrialization. This has led to the massive expansion of technical/ engineering education in India up to the highest levels. According to Council of Scientific and Industrial Research‘s (CSIR) report (1984-1989) India was exploited by the Britishers before independence for their own interests. They have not taken any interest in the establishment of engineering institutions in the country. But after independence, there has been tremendous growth in engineering institutions. A total of 46 engineering and technology institutions were established by the time India attained independence in 1947. Most of them were having only bachelor‘s degree level programmes. Four of them had Master‘s degree level programmes also. However none offered the Doctorate degree programme.
Soon after independence India launched a programme both for expansion and diversification of engineering and technology education. In the 18 years between 1947 and 1965 the number of 173 engineering and technology institutions increased 3 fold. Between 1950 and 1965 on an average, 6 new institutions were established each year. Between 1965 and 1983, there occurred a doubling of engineering institutions. More than 20 engineering institutions were added each year between 1980 and 1985. In 1989 there were 383 institutions offering various types of tertiary level courses in engineering. Majority of them (372/383), offered bachelor level engineering education. A total of 143 institutions including the 11 which did not offer the bachelor level courses were giving either master‘s level degree courses or post graduate diploma courses in engineering. Seventy four institutions offered doctorate level courses.
In 1945 the Sarkar Committee was appointed to suggest options for advanced technical education in India. The Sarkar committee recommended the establishment of higher technical institutes based on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the four regions of India. This resulted in the setting up of the five Indian Institutes of Technology at Kharagpur (1950), Bombay (1958), Kanpur (1959), Madras (1960) and Delhi (1961) (Delhi was added on to the original four). The All India Council for Technical Education was set up in 1945, to oversee all technical education (diploma, degree and post-graduate) in the country.
Sarkar Committee(1945) was set up to study Higher Technical Institutions for the Post-war Industrial Development recommended setting up of Indian Institute of Technology. 174
Thacker Committee (1959-61) was set up to study Post- Graduate Engineering Education and Research recommended funding for 100 Ph.Ds annually.
Nayudamma Committee (1979-80) looked into PG Education in Engineering and Technology recommended PG minimum qualification for Industry and R&D.
Nayudamma Committee (1986) reviewed IITs in India and recommended greater flexibility in Academic Programme, focus on Engineering Research and Faculty Mobility.
According to Chatterjee (1986) only an industrialized economy can provide sufficient resources for the balanced satisfaction of wants of all sections of society and engineering education can play a very significant role in this regard.
Chugh (1992) and Sonda (1998) prove that with the impact of information technology and integration among the nations the importance of engineering education has increased much. Chugh lists three significant opportunities for India in the emerging scenario if it can produce required number of engineers & technocrats. i. Opportunity to become the premier production centre of the world. ii. Opportunity for Indian corporations to go into world markets and to become India‘s multinationals abroad. iii. Opportunity to attract foreign investors to make India their home base for the world markets. 175
P. Rama Rao committee (1995) was set-up to study Reshaping PG Education in Engineering and Technology recommended 21 Months M.Tech, increased Scholarship Amount, Assured Employment for M.Techs. and National Doctoral Programme.
Qureshi (1996) while reviewing the reports of the TVET (Technical and Vocational Education Training) programmes and case studies of various countries in the Asia-pacific region remarks that there is a growing awareness in countries of Asia-pacific region for the need to adapt technical and vocational education to meet the rapidly changing requirements of the economy at the national, regional and global levels. The significant trends listed by him are: i. Increased co-operation between technical and vocational education authorities and those in industry and the market place has progressively become a factor in several systems for updating curricula, equipment and facilities, as well as in introducing new programmes and cost-effective delivery approaches. ii. There is an increasing awareness in the region that new information technologies are essential to improve the effectiveness of TVET systems and to make them more flexible and learner-oriented so as to promote life-long learning process. TVET curricula content is also evolving rapidly. iii. Course designs are oriented more towards a combination of core and elective components as well as competency based training, so that they are more responsive to the needs of rapidly transforming economies. 176 iv. Curriculum planning priorities in most countries now place emphasis on the need to link education to enterprises, particularly in regard to orientation and the study of business economics for small enterprises and life-long education. v. There is a new trend in many countries to provide contextual learning and also integrate traditional disciplines into one single course (for example, "mechatronics" based on mechanics and electronics). vi. There is increasing emphasis in some countries, especially in Australia and New Zealand, on preparation of multi-skilled work force, providing job experience required for upgrading of skills, creating mechanisms for the recognition of existing qualifications and credit transfer, introducing competency-based training, and promoting retraining. vii. In some countries, such as the Republic of Korea and Singapore, training content is increasingly selected not only for its relevance to specific jobs but also for job clusters, as well as for the transfer to jobs from related areas in business and industry.
R.A. Mashelkar Committee (1998) was set up to draw a Strategic Road Map for Academic Excellence of Future Regional Engineering Colleges recommended conversion of RECs into NITs with status of a Deemed to be University and structural changes in governance.
Sonda (1998) explains that the advent of information technology has played an important role in the field of engineering education. Many changes have taken place after the introduction of 177
Information Technology like rapid increase in number of engineering and Information Technology colleges, massive increase in student‘s admissions, growing emphasis on newer areas like electronics and telecommunication engineering, etc.
Walia (1999) has studied the development of education and socio-political change in the Punjab from 1882-1947. He has found that it has been not British Government‘s aim to bring advancement in technology but their need that vocational schools and colleges were established. The scientific training has been so poor in the pre Independence times that until lately, a man might become a B.Sc. without having touched a test tube. No adequate facilities existed for engineering education which otherwise is a significant branch of the technical education.
Ahluwalia (2002) reveals that private rather than public investment has been positively and significantly correlated with state level growth rates in engineering education in the fourteen Indian states that he has studied. He views that private organizers are taking a keen interest in opening new engineering institutions to earn big profits.
Kukreti (2003) maintains that independent India has paid a lot of attention towards the growth & development of technical education after 1947. The southern region has the largest number of technical institutions at all levels–MCA institutions, degree and diploma level institutions. Out of total 865 institutions running MCA courses in 178
India, about half of the total numbers i.e. 432 are situated only in south, whereas part of India had only 42 such institutions, which 4.86 percent of the total. After 1950-51 the number of girl students in engineering institutions has increased rapidly, but in comparison to boys enrolment in these institutions the proportion of girl‘s enrolment is not satisfactory.
According to Praveen (2003), there is a real boom in growth & development of engineering education since 1980. Not only is there an addition to the number of institutions with corresponding increase in the intake and out turn, there has been significant addition of new courses to existing ones from time to time. He also describes that employment opportunities for engineers also vary from state to state.
Srivastava (2003) views that facilities for technical education specially engineering education in different states need to be related with parameters like population, net state domestic product, enrolment in XII class in science stream, employment and new emerging technologies. While developing the facilities developed during the last 10 to 15 years these parameters have not been taken into account rather the policies for development of engineering education have been based on infrastructure norms and standards, controlled by statutory bodies. Those policies have been financially highly rewarding. Indian society had got ample access to socially acceptable technical education. But on the other hand, in the absence of demand and supply mechanism unbalanced growth has taken place. 179
U. R. Rao Committee (2003) was set up to Revitalizing the Technical Education recommended Regional inequities to be removed, faculty shortage to be addressed, need for planning and coordination in the working of the AICTE.
P. Rama Rao Committee (2004) was set up to Review IITs in India recommended Increase UG output of IITs, fund infrastructure increase, and add new IITs but maintain quality.
A study conducted by Dhawan (2004) depicts that 2000 seats are vacant in engineering colleges especially in Haryana state. The institutions authorities can fill these seats at their level‘s best but the national level tests are mandatory, therefore the institution are not permitted to do that, consequently has been age of resources is there.
Banerjee (2004) says that due to globalization and structural changes the country needs skilled persons. There is no doubt that many institutions are being opened by private enterprises, but the distribution pattern of these institutions is skewed in favour of the south and the south west.
Kumar (2005) reveals that shortage of technical manpower will have an adverse effect on the industrial as well as economic development of the country where as surplus may cause among other things, unemployment in such highly qualified manpower and also involve has been age of time, money and energy spent on its development. The study observes that electronics engineers will be in surplus even if the admissions to the course of the degree level is 180 maintained at the current level. Hence, there appears a need to regulate admissions to the degree level programmes to electronics engineering so as to avoid mismatch between demand & supply, both current & prospective.
A report given by Sharma (2006) depicts that the AICTE has reduced the total number of seats in some private colleges in Punjab due to lack of proper infrastructure. Although he treats it as a wakeup call for the engineering institutions to equip themselves as per the norms of the statutory body.
A report of AICTE (2009) has revealed that it has planned to assist financially those engineering institutions which are situated in those areas where the educational institutions lag behind the advanced states. The council has envisaged the following schemes to overcome the problems. 1. Modernization and Removal of Obsolescence (MODROBS) 2. Staff Development Programme (SDP) 3. Emeritus Fellowship (EF) 4. Entrepreneurship Development Cell (EDC) 5. Industry-Institute Partnership Cell (IIPC) especially for initiating skill development programmes and activities.
The council has also stressed the need of establishing engineering education to the underprivileged section of society in which rural, female and backward classes would be especially assisted. 181
Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) (2009), in its fifty fifth meeting, has noted that the Government has decided to set up eight new IITs in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Orissa, Punjab, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh (Indore) and Himachal Pradesh. Out of these 8 classes for B.Tech courses have been started from July- August 2008 in 6 new IITs in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Orissa, Punjab and Gujarat. These are being mentored by the existing IITs in Madras, Gawahati, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Delhi and Bombay respectively. Classes of IIT Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Gujarat had been started from temporary premises while the classes of Rajasthan, Orissa and Punjab have been started from the campuses of their respective mentoring IITs. Sites for new IITs in Bihar and Andhra Pradesh have been identified at Bihta in Patna and Medak respectively. Committee for identifying the sites, has visited the sites suggested by State Government of Madhya Pradesh (Indore), Punjab), Orissa and Himachal Pradesh. It has been decided to start the classes the B.Tech courses in IIT Himachal Pradesh and IIT Indore from academic year 2009-10. To address the increasing skill challenges of the Indian IT industry and growth of the domestic IT market, the Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD), Government of India intended to establish twenty Indian Institutes of Information Technology during 11th Five Year Plan Period, on Public Private Partnership (PPP) basis.
It has also been noted that the process of opening of new NITs has already been initiated. In this regard Hon‘ble Union Minister of HRD had written letters to Chief Ministers of 10 states / UTs which do 182 not have a NIT to send proposals for opening of an NIT in their states / UTs vide letter 19.07.08. Approval had also been granted for the establishment of Ghani Khan Chaudhary Institute of Engineering and Technology (GKCIET) Malda in memory of Late Shri Ghani Khan Choudhary, former Union Minister.
A news report in Hindustan Times (2009) states that the University Grants Commission (UGC) which is a regulator of higher education in India, has planned to rein in skyrocketing fees in Deemed Universities and make their controversial admission process transparent. The report quotes the chairman of UGC Prof. S.K. Thorat commenting that ―No government regulations are applicable to institutions runs by Deemed Universities‖. The 127 Deemed Universities run around 200 medical, engineering and management colleges around the country. Prof. Thorat has explained about the new plan of the UGC for the Deemed University that either they would have to pick upto 80 percent of their students from the existing all India engineering and medical tests or they would have to start their own entrance examination system and the rest 20% seats would be left for management quota.
A public notice (2009) has been given through the leading dailies of the country titled, ‗Attention to AICTE approved technical institutions, regarding matters concerning charging of fees, refund of fees and other student related issues‘. The notice has been issued with the aim to alert the AICTE approved technical institutions which do not follow the instructions given by it regarding commercialization of 183 technical education. It has been mentioned in this notice that some AICTE approved technical institutions have been admitting students to technical education programmes long before the actual starting of an academic session; collecting full fee from such admitted students; and, retaining their school / institutions leaving certificate in original to force retention of admitted students. AICTE has warned the approved institutions not to indulge in such commercial activities and it has been stated that if any institution is found guilty of not following these instructions a punitive action could be taken against it.
Prof. Yashpal Committee (2011) submitted its report to HRD Ministry in June 2011 wherein recommended that the deemed university status be abandoned and that all deserving deemed varsities be either converted full-fledged universities or scrapped -- and a GRE like test be evolved for university education. The committee said a plethora of regulatory bodies like UGC, AICTE, NCTE et al be replaced by a seven-member Commission for Higher Education and Research (CHER) under an Act of Parliament. It has also recommended, obviously, buffer the new regulator against political pressures, that the position of chairperson of the proposed commission be analogous to that of election commissioners. Expressing concern on the mushrooming of engineering and management colleges, that had "largely become business entities dispensing very poor quality education", Yashpal committee lamented the growth of deemed universities and called for a complete ban on further grant of such status. Existing ones, the committee said, should be given three years to develop as a university and fulfil the prescribed accreditation norms. 184
Despite several failures in the past, Union Government is committed to the cause of promoting research in Science and Technology sector. Keeping the priorities of Union Government in mind, the HRD ministry has constituted a high-level advisory committee to look into the possibilities of promoting research in universities and other institutes of higher education in the next five- year plan. HRD ministry has instructed the advisory committee comprising of Chairman of Jawaharlal Centre for Advance Scientific Research Bangalore Professor Rodam Narsimha, IIT Kanpur Professor Ashutosh Sharma, National Centre for Biological Sciences Professor Vijay Raghvan, Secretary Biotechnology Department Dr MK Bhan and Dr Anil Kakodkar to submit its report in the next four months. The recommendations made by the committee will help in drafting the policies to promote research in the 12th five-year plan. According to sources, the committee will examine methods to attract the younger generation towards research, study the problems faced by research scholars and suggest solution. To ensure that finance does not act as a constraint in research programmes, the committee has been directed to look for ways to attract investors. The committee faces the task of searching long term investments in research sector so that the projects remain undisturbed after the 12th five-year plan.
3.3 STATE OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN TAMIL NADU
Number of engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu is now around 570 (Not many people seem to know the exact number of engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu due to the number of colleges increasing every 185 year). It is reported that atleast 35,000 to 40,000 seats in engineering colleges go unfilled in the recent years. Such trend is likely to continue in the forthcoming academic year also.
What is surprising is that in spite of the presence of many engineering colleges in the state and the seats not being filled due to want of students, more engineering colleges are sought to be set up in the state.
Even amongst the 1,50,000 odd students in the state engineering colleges, as many as around 30 percent of the students are reported to be recording poor academic performance and fail in one or more subjects every year and get degree only after writing arrear examinations several times. These conditions indicate that there is deep inadequacy and flaw in the engineering education in Tamil Nadu, which call for urgent remedial steps and correction. Many private engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu appear to be facing some basic issues. 3.3.1 Quality of engineering education Various institutions of technical education play their role significantly in the economic development and social advancement of the country. The scientists and engineers of today are expected to anticipate, predict and be prepared to solve the future problems. There is a need to review the engineering education system in order to maintain the quality of education.
According to Kothari Commission (1964), Engineering Education plays an effective role for industrialization. The success of 186 industrialization depends upon ability and skill of the workers that further depends upon the quality of engineering & technical education provided to them. The commission has recommended that 20% of the students after receiving their education at the secondary stage and 50% of the students after receiving their education after class X must have adopted professional and technical courses by the year 1986. The commission has also recommended that an eminent educationist should be appointed on the post of the president of the Board of Governors of Regional Engineering Colleges. The Principals of the colleges should be fully empowered to provide educational facilities in their institutions. Practical training should be imparted in the third year to the students of degree courses. In workshops, emphasis should be given on production works. The curricula of the degree should be determined keeping in view the changing needs. The system of frequent transfers of teachers in Government Engineering Colleges should be stopped. The acid test of the success of technical education lies in the quality of the training. NCERT studies (Sen Gupta, M. and Dhote, A.K.1990, Chopra, R. 1990, Mishra, C.K. and Verma, B. 1990, Sacheti, A.K. and Vaid, D.K. 1990) in many states have brought out the fact that while a few institutions have organized effective training in each of the states, the quality of practical training has left much to be desired in the majority of institutions in a number of states. Issues like provision of entrepreneurship and self employment support, availability of suitable instructional material and teacher training, employee‘s assessment of quality of training, performance of Vocational & Technical products, on the job training and apprenticeship etc. if studied in depth and feedback is given to the 187 system highlighting the weak points, qualitative improvement can be brought about by undertaking suitable definite actions.
Raviparkasha (1991) has stated that all the engineering institutions in India are facing problems of quality. There is scarcity of qualified and experienced staff. Due to paucity of funds the quality and social relevance of education imparted in our institutions remains quite low and has been deteriorating.
According to Sharma (2001), engineering education is faced with many problems such as low quality, lack of practical experience, no intimacy with industry, old and defective curriculum, problem of medium, problem of administration and control, problems relating to research, unemployment etc. and in order to have qualitative improvement these problems have to be checked.
Shrivastav (2003) has described that there is a shortage of teachers in engineering colleges. Country will need about one Lakh teachers for degree level institutions by 2006, against existing 35000 teachers today. The intake capacity of degree level is expanding at a very fast rate but rate of supply of teachers has been extremely slow. As per AICTE norms, professors and readers must possess Ph. D. and accordingly we need about 40 thousand Ph. D. qualified teachers. According to a study, India has awarded only 10, 000 Ph.D. degrees in engineering since 1966 till 2000. 75% of these were awarded by IITs and IISc. It is estimated that at the rate of awarding 600 Ph. D.‘s per year by 2005 the total number would reach to 13000. All (Ph. D.) 188 degree holders don‘t become teachers. The study also revealed that 75% of our Ph.D. qualified teachers are working in all IITs, 10 – 12 Technical Universities and 17 Regional Engineering Colleges. By and large only lecturers either qualified or experienced are teaching subjects of modern technology areas. Several of them are only fresh graduates. Very few are post graduates. These teachers are also not paid pay & allowances as prescribed by AICTE. They may be on contract for ten months and are paid renumeration on period basis. There are also no qualified paper setters and examiners, resulting in delay of declaration of results by the universities which further leads to poor quality of engineering education.
Hariharan (2003) views that due to various reasons there has been deterioration in the quality and standards of technical education. It is primarily due to insufficiency of financial input to system. The efforts of WTO to include education in the GATS agreement should be taken seriously due to competition with other countries. Indian educational institutions must prepare to appoint specialized faculty and to implement research oriented curriculum etc.
Karuppayal (2003) opines that barring a few institutions the majority of the institutions, which have opened, their shops at multiple locations do not offer excellent program worth the fees they are charging. Most of the engineering institutions that run the fashionable courses for high fees, lack in infrastructure or in qualified and experienced faculty. The program is taught by under qualified or faculty hired on contract basis. The teachers many times are fresh 189 postgraduates who are paid meager salaries that may be less than that of an unskilled worker. Some times retired teachers are hired. These are exploited and are at the mercy of their management. Often the syllabi are excellent but taught by ill qualified or less qualified people. Research has taken a back seat in many of the institutions where faculty recruitment has not happened for many years. In places their contributory teachers handle classes; research is out of question. This has greatly affected the quality of the students coming out of these institutions. The idea that quality may improve due to private participation has proved to be untrue. Privatization in engineering institutions in our country has clearly become a license for money making and exploitation.
Kulandaisamy (2003) has argued that all engineering colleges be granted academic autonomy and gradually do away with affiliated colleges to Universities. As a first step all leading private institutions must be converted as deemed technical universities. Market forces will ensure that only those maintaining quality will survive by attracting good students and faculty. AICTE should ensure that all private colleges maintain stipulated quality. Present status on this front leaves much to be desired. Periodic monitoring and assessment must be carried out to maintain or continue their recognition / approval.
Human Resource Developments Report (2003) illustrates that both government and private initiative in setting up institutions in north-east region on self financing basis by Trusts and Societies is being encouraged. Granting autonomy is the other recommendation 190 for those institutions possessing adequate infrastructures and complete faculty which are accessed through accreditation of the programmes and expert committee. Major concerns like delay in admission, delay in beginning of academic session, reduction of academic days required for semester, non uniformity in basic structure of curriculum etc. have been alleviated. It has also been recommended that heads of technical universities will be eminent experts in the field of engineering education. Another recommendation of the committee is that shortage of funds could be tackled through generation of resources by the institution
Hariharan (2004) is of the view that in the developing countries, engineering education and the people responsible for it are being increasingly criticized for not being in tune with the practice of the profession. The main difficulty appears to involve a mismatch between the education imparted in the technical institutions and the activities of the engineers in the industry. It is often pointed out particularly by industry that much of our engineering education is irrelevant because most of the engineering teachers are not practicing engineers. Vishwanathan (2004) reports that the Subramani Committee (The Permanent Committee for Common Entrance Test for Private Educational Institutions in Tamil Naidu) ordered on June 14, 2004 that admission to engineering colleges under the management quota should be done under the Single Window System and that the consortium of self–financing professional colleges in Tamil Naidu should conduct the common entrance test for admission to all self– financing 191
Engineering Colleges in the state. Referring to the specific conditions lay down by the Supreme Court the committee said, ―Merit has to be assessed only on the basis of one test‖. The managements of several self-financing engineering Colleges have challenged the orders of committee.
According to Dharamvir (2005), ―India has a large pool of world class institutions but not enough world class institutions. Admission in these institutions assures students of a good career and migration to many foreign countries. It is but natural for aspirants to cash on this brand‖. He further appreciates the present IITs, because of their excellent faculty, diversified courses and a foolproof system of examination. He is of the view that some more IITs should be established in order to produce highly qualified and fully efficient engineers of the type of world-class institutes M.I.T. in the US. The author has also suggested that some top most management courses may also be started in these institutions.
Kashyap’s report (2005) reveals that AICTE has asked 73 institutions in Maharashtra to reduce their intake capacity by 5375 seats. The reason behind this move is poor infrastructure and shortage of faculty in the engineering institutions.
Singh (2005) throws light on the poor quality of engineering education system. Most of the colleges are unable to function according to the norms prescribed by AICTE. AICTE should ban the opening of new colleges because these colleges have no proper 192 infrastructure. He suggests that AICTE should implement grading system for evaluating the college functions. The institutions should present their annual reports as instructed by AICTE. AICTE should launch a fellowship scheme for initiating master degree programme.
Ghose’s (2006) study revealed that in most of the places of excellence that currently exist in India, salaries were not the most critical factor in determining the quality of or success of the faculty. He also emphasized the importance of academic and other freedoms, social dignity and physical facilities, etc.
Sandhu (2006) reports that the mushrooming of private institutes in Punjab after the setting up of PTU looks like blessings for the state youth; considering the phenomenal growth in IT industry. The quality of education being provided by the institutions affiliated to PTU, coupled with government apathy, and would only produce an army of educated unemployed. But at the same time, if the university took it upon itself to improve the standards of education by upgrading the infrastructure, appointing quality teaching staff and redefining the syllabus. Sridhar (2006) is of the view that when institutions of foreign countries enter engineering education in India. They are sure to provide better facilities to the students of engineering in every respect. The Indian engineering institutions will have to compete with them. They will be only successful if they provide better facilities to their wards.
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Kumar (2008) has found that most of the private engineering institutions do not provide competent and qualified faculty because they do not want to pay the required salary to the well qualified teachers. The qualified engineers prefer to serve the private companies where they are paid much more than these institutions in the form of salaries and other perks.
In a report in Hindustan Times, Malhotra (2009) has revealed that the parliamentary standing committee on Human Resource Development had wrapped the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) for ―It‘s failure to effectively regulate technical education and virtually restricting its role to granting approval for starting new institutions‖. It is also reported that the committee headed by Janardan Dwivedi found that the apex body had failed to check the commercialization of technical education. The committee also stated ―there are allegations about corrupt practices, including exchange of money over wide-ranging aspects relating to admissions, recognition and approval of new institutions and courses. There is a lot of commercialization especially in engineering and management institutions. Different courses attract different rates the AICTE is also responsible for not regulating capitation fee‖. The committee had also asked the council to take a suitable action against such institutions to Safeguard student‘s future. 3.3.2 Equality of opportunity in engineering education Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) in Article 26(1) states that ―Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary 194 education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit‖. But such equal access has not been available to the Indian students especially in the field of engineering education which can be concluded from the following review of the related literature.
Shah (1964) reveals that the students of engineering & technical education came largely from upper caste families, residing in urban areas. Their parents were generally better educated and were largely occupied in high status occupations.
Bottomore (1964) has stated the differences which originate in economic inequalities are enhanced by engineering and technical educational differences.
Naik (1982) describes that in the developing countries like ours, technical education is considered as a speedy vehicle for upward social mobility especially by the socially and economically deprived and under privileged sections. But, in most of the cases the upper & middle income groups demand it more forcefully then other social groups. Nevertheless as indicated by the research studies people belonging to upper socio- economic classes have been the main beneficiaries of technical and engineering education system in India.
Chitnis (1987) has pointed out that engineering courses have been considered more prestigious since they lead to high income and 195 high status occupation. Admission to such courses has been based on stiff competition. Children from poor families are likely to lose out in this competition.
Regarding the socio-economic status of women participation in engineering and the choice of their trades and placement status has been made by Parikh and Sukhatme (1992) show that the percentage of women enrolment in engineering institutions has increased manifold in the last two decades but their share in IITs, REC, NITs has remained low. The electrical engineering is the most preferred branch followed by electronics, civil and computer, etc in case of women.
Kaul (1993) reveals that in the field of engineering education the dominant castes and classes have played a role in developing engineering education in Karnataka but this role is limited to consideration of caste and class politics, contending the right to equality in Indian constitution. A very high capitation fee is charged from the students and obviously the rich students belonging to the elite class can easily pay it but the lower and poor castes and classes cannot pay capitation fee therefore they cannot get higher and technical education despite the fact that a number of students among them are even more competent as compared to the students of higher classes who get admissions in various trades of engineering in various colleges of the state. As far as equal opportunity for all the Indians in higher education and especially technical education is concerned, Chauhan 196
(1999) has described the situation in detail, ―Prior to independence higher and technical education has been available only to the children of well to do families who found a microscopically small section of our population. Even now the situation is not very different. Research studies conducted by Government organizations have shown that more than 80% of the secondary schools pass outs and over 70% of University graduates come from the top 20–30 % of the income groups. But the system of higher and technical education is heavily subsidized from the public exchequer to which poor masses make the largest contribution by way of direct or indirect taxes. This shows that the poor people who are deprived of education of all kinds are faced to pay for the education of the well to do through subsidy. This justifies the reduction of subsidy and enhancement of fees. In a democratic society, poor people cannot be taxed for the benefits of the rich.‖
Kukreti (2003) has investigated that the number of girls admitted to engineering institutions has not increased at the rate at which the number of total student intake has increased. Bhunia (2004) has opined that several educational commissions including Kothari Commission have argued for active industry and institute interaction for effective research and development. In this context private institutions play a positive role. He has also observed that in India most of the private engineering colleges offer courses in computers, electronics, IT & other subjects like mechanical, electrical, civil etc. The imbalance so created will have adverse effect in future both in terms of availability of engineers of proportional level and in related expertise and development. The 197 high tuition fees of engineering education in private sector will encourage only affordable societies to opt for. The meritorious poor students will not benefit from these educational opportunities offered by the private institutes. He also suggests a few possible solutions. According to him the solution lies in the proposed Institute-Cum- Industries (I-C-I). He also tells the idea that to change the admission procedure for engineering education in the changed scenario, the students may be admitted with no branch, after two years of common studies based on grade points earned and choice, the discipline may be allotted.
Mullick (2004) report reveals the tragic situation regarding equality. Almost all the colleges and university teachers belonging to PUTA (Punjab University Teachers Association) declared that, ―The writing is clear on the wall. If you belong to a lower or middle class background then you would better forget about higher/technical education‖. He further explains that it is because of the fact that the government wants to spend even less than 3% of GDP which is the current measure‖. They stress upon self sufficient courses in which the students should bear all the expenditure which is becoming problematic even for the middle class groups not to speak of the labor classes.
Shetty (2006) is of the view that reservation policy has made no negative effect on quality of the engineering education especially in IIT‘s. He also underlines the importance of giving the deprived a 198 chance to display their talent. According to him quality of faculty must be the main focus of any engineering institution.
3.3.3 Financing of engineering education
Mathur (1987) report reveals that the contribution of technological change in the economic growth in India has been quite significant. But the level of financing of engineering education is far from satisfactory.
Dhananjaya (1992) has given a very important suggestion regarding financing of the Indian engineering education. He is of the opinion that engineering education should be financed by a government sponsored bank called Educational Development Bank of India. It will be beneficial to both the financing institutions as well as to the institutions imparting engineering education.
Bordia's (2000) study reveals the trend in funding Technical and Vocational Education (TVE). Bordia finds that during the past decade, funding mechanisms for universities and technical education institutions and colleges have undergone massive restructuring in developed and developing countries alike. Governmental support has generally decreased, resulting in greater reliance on fee-based education or creation of privately sponsored engineering/technical colleges or universities. The following are some of the trends that will likely result from changes in the funding of technical education: 199
(1) export of education will become an important component of the economics of advanced, rich countries such as Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Canada; (2) privatization, commercialization, and marketing of education, especially business, commerce, and information technology will increasingly play a dominant role in developing countries; (3) Quality management in developing countries will also move away from government monitoring to professional monitoring, as is now the case in developed countries; (4) The quality of education in developing countries will eventually be determined by market forces; (5) educational funding from individual family budgets will become increasingly difficult in developing countries as privatization results in increased fees; and (6) Education will move from being a totally governmental activity to a more commerce and industry-based activity and will eventually become a service industry.
Ambani and Birla (2002) in their high power report to the Prime Minister on the policy frame work for educational reform suggested that the government can concentrate on primary education sector as per constitutional guarantees and perhaps focus secondary education area too, totally leaving higher and professional education to the private sector. They felt private self-financed universities by legislation is perhaps the answer to the malady. Hariharan (2003) is of the view that the deterioration in the standards of engineering education is primarily due to insufficiency of 200 financial input to system. The central and state government should take to the responsibility of adequately financing the system. The institutions and the management should also take steps to generate more funds by their own initiative. The educational authorities must study the system of regulation and accreditation of educational institutions in foreign countries.
According to the views given by Shaikh Saleem (2003) the Government of Maharashtra has been wrongly interpreting the Honourable Supreme Court‘s Judgement. In this context Government of Maharashtra‘s Higher and Technical Education Department issued a resolution dated 16th April, 2003 regarding the establishment of Educational Institution Regulatory Authority for private aided/non aided educational institutions. It is also shielding its responsibility of giving grants to the aided institutions. The government is trying to shift the burden of college expenditure of salaries and non-salaries on public by enhancing fees under Educational Institution Regulatory Authority. As a result the poor public will be deprived of technical education. Natrajan (2004) has suggested that technical education should follow all the guidelines by AICTE regarding fee structure. But all the guidelines should be in the form of suggestions and not in the form of order to the institutions. The institutions should adopt a fee structure that is viable for the institutions as well as the students.
Indersen (2004) has stressed upon the need to restrict admission in technical education. He draws attention to two cross 201 currents. One rapid increase in emoluments is tempting more and more youth to join technical education program which offers the best prospects for high wages and the second is dismal growth in employment. According to him the current enrolment should logically be round 200000 for engineering and architecture, which should correspond to an annual intake of barely 50000, seven times less than the sanctioned figure which he admits that these figures are subject to correction, there is a gross mismatch between what the economy can support and what has been sanctioned by the AICTE and that at least in future the AICTE should as a matter of justice approve expansion of education on a rational basis, and not merely respond to speculative demand to start more courses. He further feels that fees in technical institutions should be pegged to 30% of India‘s per capita income, or Rs.6000/- per year and that annual fees charged in private engineering colleges may be even described as anti social. Such high fees he feels is the consequence of the state virtually absolving itself of the responsibility to fund technical education and handing it over to self financing colleges where the students are expected to bear the full cost. He feels that it is unjust and even unwise to make engineering education unaffordable to able but poor students.
According to Rajpurohit (2004) the route to finance Higher Education for students is to make available abundant loans. With corporate scholarships not available in most of the Higher Education institutions and available only to a select few in the reputed institutions, educational loans from banks is the most viable option to students coming from middle income families. On bank loans the 202
Government of India in consultation with Reserve Bank of India and Indian Bank Association has framed various comprehensive educational loan schemes to ensure that no deserving student in the country is deprived of Higher Education for want of finance.
Varghese (2004) views that there are five different sources of revenue generation (a) Government (b) Students and their parents (c) Industries (d) Alumni and other philanthropists (e) International sources. The contributions from all these sources would include institutional contributions, tuition fees, student‘s loans, sponsored activities, chair for academic positions and donations etc.
According to Sethi (2005) the review committee on revitalizing engineering education in Punjab has recommended that the engineering college fee be increased to realistic levels. The committee has suggested that the fee be revised from being barely 1 percent of the recurring expenditure per student per year to at least 20 percent of the recurring expenditure per student per year. The committee has also suggested freeships for economically weak students.
Valiathan (2007) views that due to the financial problems faced by the government, private entrepreneurs must come for opening of new engineering institutions. The government must watch the quality of these institutions and take necessary actions against sale of fake degrees. He also states that the country requires more IITs to control the student drainage.
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A report (2008) reveals that hike in fee structure in the institutions of excellence like IITs has been approved. It has been raised from Rs. 25000 to 50000 a year. The reason behind is to facilitate better functioning and finer quality of education. Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) (2009) in its fifty fifth meeting has noted that an allocation of Rs. 2000 crores has been provided in the Eleventh Plan and Rs. 50 crores has been allocated for 2008-09 for new IITs. One post of Director, one post of Registrar and 90 posts of faculty and 30 faculty posts, per year in the next three years have been created in each of new IITs. Moreover it has also been noted that IISERs (Indian Institutes for Science Education & Research) at Mohali, Pune, Kolkatta, Bhopal and Thiruvananthpuram have started functioning from temporary premises. The appointment of Directors of IISERs has been done and allocation of Rs. 150 crores has been allocated for 2008-09 for IISERs. 3.3.4 Placement of engineering graduates Chowdhary and Nandy (1974) have stated that qualified scientists and engineers occupy a pivotal position in society and at given point of time, the higher the degree of malutilization, the higher is the volume of social disaffection generated by the sections affected by imbalances. They have discussed that there is a mass unemployment in the engineering and technology field. They further say that the impact of social tension is that students who constitute the would be entrants into the labour force tend to develop a morbid attitude towards social goals and practices.
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The National Policy on Education (1986) stipulates that graduates of engineering courses will be given opportunities, under predetermined conditions for professional growth, career improvement and lateral entry into the courses of general technical and professional education through appropriate bridge courses but suitable vertical and horizontal linkages on a long term basis have not yet been established although there have been adhoc arrangements to circumvent the problem. Experimentation and research are urgently required to redefine criteria of admission to existing courses, design and develop suitable higher level degree courses, coupled with specially designed placement services.
Mohanty (1992) states that the main aim of a course on entrepreneurship during an engineering degree is to motivate the engineering students and to equip them with the appropriate knowledge and skills which would enable them to launch and manage their entrepreneurship ventures. The teaching of entrepreneurship in engineering colleges will go a long way in broad basing the industrial base of the country. It has the potential to become a force for industrial development based on modern technology and for alleviating the problem of growing unemployment.
The studies conducted by National Science and Technology Management Information System (2003), of Department of Science and Technology reveals a lofty migration rate from IITs and other premier technical education institutions. The basic problem lies with the kind of economic pricing strategies adopted in the country. 205
Moreover on account of highly rigid structures and a general lack of autonomy in the working environmental lists, there exist very limited challenging opportunities for the young and dynamic talent being produced by engineering education system.
Kukreti et al. (2003) tells that engineering education has perennial significance to import progressive outlook to its citizens. It changes the perspective of human being by providing him a vast domain to choose between suitable job and self employment. In the present highly competitive age when the proportion of unemployed people is higher than ever. Technical education functions as the strongest weapon against this disturbing phenomenon.
According to Mohan (2004) Haryana state has several thousand strong workforces of jobless engineers on the one hand and on the other 2000 seats in engineering colleges with no takers. The vacant seats pose a threat to the financial viability of private colleges. According to news the problem is two fold. One the degrees awarded by colleges hardly carried any value outside the state. Parents are in a fire. They spend lakhs of rupees on admitting their children to colleges but even after that the children continue to be dependent on them albeit with a worthless engineering degree.
Mahajan (2006) is of the view that due to lack of industrialization process in the state of Punjab highly skilled manpower engineers and technicians prefer to migrate to other the states. 206
Malhotra (2006) is of the view that electronics and communication engineering and computer science engineering are much sought after courses among the students. This study has been conducted in National Institute of Technology (NIT), Jalandhar. Due to the ongoing boom in telecom sector, communication and IT Industry has rate of campus placement [90% to 95%] and ever increasing pay packages offered by MNCs have been noticed. The craze for these courses has witnessed an upward trend during the past five years. The pay packages offered by major players like Infosys, Ericson, range between 2.5 lakh to 5 lakh per annum.
After reviewing the related research literature it has been found that various authors and researchers differ in their convictions and viewpoints about various aspects of growth and development of engineering and technological education in India. It has been inferred, that there has been a phenomenal expansion in the field of engineering education but the unit cost has increased much and the quality of education in general has not been upto the mark. However IITs and other institutes of excellence are still providing qualitative education. Literature on social distribution of engineering education does not signify any positive trend towards achieving the constitutional commitment. While, on one hand the increase in number of institutions suggests that opportunities of engineering education are expanding, but on the other hand proliferation of the privately managed, self-financed institutions restricts economically weaker sections of society from getting admission to these institutions because of very high rates of fees. It has been found in the review that number 207 of women getting higher education is increasing but it is much below the rate of increase in total sanctioned intake.
Moreover, the review also suggests that financing of engineering education is also facing a number of problems. On one hand a large system of public engineering and technological education requires a huge amount of money to run it properly whereas on the other hand government is squeezing the grants for technical and higher education sector after adopting the new neo-liberal policies. Further, a huge number of trained engineers are unemployed due to inferior quality of training but many of them who get quality education usually migrate to the developed world. All these factors call for a detailed and in-depth study of the growth and development of engineering education in the country in general and the problems posed by the privatization and proliferation of engineering institutions in Tamilnadu in specific.
3.3.5 Quality of the students In view of huge capacity creation for engineering education, any student who get minimum marks in Plus 2 level and can find money to pay for fees etc., can get admission into engineering college. With so many seats remaining unfilled, there is practically no filtration of the students at admission level. Therefore, many students who join engineering colleges are found to have inadequate merit level to undergo the tough engineering education. In earlier days, students used to chase engineering colleges to get admission. But, today it is the other way with the engineering 208 colleges chasing the students to increase the intake. It is rumoured that some engineering colleges even go to the extent of employing middlemen to increase the students strength. This seems to be the reason why number of students from distant states like Bihar, Orissa and northeastern region come to the engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu. In such conditions, while reputed and established engineering colleges get students with merit, most of the other engineering colleges get students whose merit level may not be of requisite standards. 3.3.6 Scarcity of teachers With the rapid increase in the number of engineering colleges, the numbers of available qualified and experienced teachers are not adequate to meet the demand. In view of such severe shortage of qualified and competent teachers, many retired professors are re employed for a long period. There is really nothing wrong in this. But, the ages inevitably tell upon efficiency and alert level of these senior professors. There are reported to be seniors in age group of above 70, who are still employed by the colleges as teachers (full time or part time). Those who get superannuated in jobs in industries but without necessary teaching experience seek teaching positions in engineering colleges and get the jobs as part of the second innings in their career. There are also those who have passed out in previous year and become a teacher in the subsequent year and taking full fledged classes. . 3.3.7 About management In recent time, most of the engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu have been set up by politicians, cinema stars and businessmen. It 209 appears that the top administrative positions in these private engineering colleges have now become hereditary, with the relatives of the promoters occupying the key positions, who may not have the requisite relevant qualification and experience.
As a result, there seem to be a big gap in communication between the promoters and teaching community and teachers sometimes feel ―small‖ in front of the relatives and friends of the promoter occupying Key positions. It is not to say that all engineering colleges lack quality in Management. Some of them are managed reasonably well but quite a number of others leave much to desire.
3.3.8 Lack of job opportunities
The unfortunate truth is that while numbers of engineers passing out of engineering colleges have increased substantially, the job opportunities for such engineers in the market have not increased in equal proportion.
As a result, the level of unemployment amongst fresh engineers is steadily increasing every year. While the graduate engineers passing with impressive academic record get jobs, those with lesser academic performance have to settle down for under employment or take up jobs in entirely different fields where the engineering knowledge are not required. Such engineering graduates have now been forced to 210 compete with the science and arts graduates and sometimes even with +2 passed students in job markets.
This has created tremendous level of frustration amongst large number of graduate engineers, many of whom regret their decision to opt for engineering education.
3.3.9 Gullible and the poor students suffer
Attracted by the marketing campaign of the promoters of the engineering colleges and enamoured by the prospects of their sons and daughters becoming engineers, many poor families are eager to admit their sons and daughters in engineering colleges, even though they can not afford to meet the expenses involved. Many of such poor families have been forced into debt burden to finance engineering education.
When the graduate engineers do not get the jobs at decent salary level after passing out, the hopes of the poor families about paying back the debt disappear and the entire family is driven to economic despair. There are many poor families in Tamil Nadu facing this situation.
3.3.10 Responsibility of the government and All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
Such grave situations have developed since the government 211 and All India Council for Technical Education have been according permission to start so many new engineering colleges, without relating the intake capacity to the employment prospects and availability of teaching faculty.
The government and AICTE have the responsibility to ensure that investment in engineering colleges would not be wasted and the students would not be misled. Capacity creation for engineering colleges can not be done in similar manner like creating capacity for production of consumer products. It is high time that the policy towards according permission for setting up new engineering colleges should be reviewed with utmost care.
3.3.11 Advise to students
Considering the fact that the supply of engineers from the engineering colleges far exceed the demand and good and well paying jobs are available only for those who pass out with good academic record, the students whose academic performance are of average standards should avoid getting into the engineering colleges, particularly since the engineering course is tough and demanding. Particularly, the families of students form lower income group who cannot afford to pay for the engineering education should desist from getting into huge debt or selling their properties for raising money for engineering education, as many of them are found to face difficult conditions, when the passed out students are not able to get well paying jobs. It is extremely important that the students 212 should carefully evaluate their academic capabilities and financial strength of the family before opting to join engineering colleges.
1. I always believed that if teachers are good, students will be good.
2. Poor performance of an engineering student at degree level does not make him a poor engineer. He can still learn while on job. Apart from technical knowledge an engineer on the shop floor requires leadership qualities.
3. Fresh engineering graduates need not look at only government jobs. They may be trained to set up their own businesses. Thanks to IT many are being absorbed there irrespective of disciplines. 4. In India ME and M.Tech courses are of two years since long. But in UK, the PG courses are of one year and University Grants Commission needs to act now. Ph. D under a good guide and institution can be completed in three years. But in India students are taking five years normally and even 10 years or more in some cases. This is mainly due to the inefficiency of the guides and the institutions. This issue needs review.
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3.4 FACTOR AFFECTING TEACHING
Figure 3.1 Factors affecting teaching
To know factor affecting teaching is so important because after analysis all factors which affecting teaching, teacher can improve himself and can become good teacher and create better citizen for country. If study teaching subjects, we find many factors which affecting teaching which can write in list of these factors.
1. Educational qualification of teacher
Higher qualified teacher can provide high scholarly instructions which can effect than general graduate teacher. Many teachers hold different degrees which is the sign of their higher education 214 qualification. A teacher is just B.A. and other teacher is M.A., M.Ed., PhD, if we compare both, then is sure that higher qualified teacher can cede good teaching result.
2. Skills
Skill is an ability to do any work with better way. If a teacher has teaching skill then he can provide effective teaching. Often says that teaching is God gifted but getting good education training and Psychologize best educational books, we can get this skill and create better result. In teaching talent we can include following skills: 1. Communication skill of teacher, 2. taking teaching aids, 3. technique of teaching, 4. method of teaching and 5. Human relation skill.
3. Experience of Teacher
Experience of teacher affects also the teaching. After increasing teaching experience, a teacher learns many new things in teaching experience which he can employ in next time teaching. First day teacher may not effect on students but after 5 years teaching, a teacher can more effect on students.
4. Class room environment
Class room environment also effects on teaching. This environment is made both by teacher and students. Without both active participation in education, teaching never effects. If the 215 concentration lives in class room and students listen teacher‘s voice and teacher also cares the activity of teacher doing interacting with students.
5. Economic Factor
Economic background of teacher and student is also affected teaching. Even salary of teacher will effects on his thinking level. Poor and rich students can also classify economically and sometime these factors can affect on effective teaching.
6. Administrative policies of school or college or university
Administrative policies also effect teaching. Teacher wants to instruct with his way but administrative policies is not allowed, so the voice of teach can stop and effect of teaching may slow in class room.
7. Subject Matter
Sometime when a teacher teaches that subject in which he is not specialize , he can not create any effect through his teaching but same teacher can teaches his specialize subject with better way.
8. Parental expectations
what are the expectations of parent on students? This factor can be defined psychologically. If parent wants to frame up his children 216 doctor or engineer and continually stress on student, sometime student may not at that rank, so mentally he can create depression and which can stop effective teaching of teacher.
The scope of educational activities that should take place in colleges has been, and continues to be, a matter of controversy. Most people involved with private colleges agree that a major objective of colleges is to promote the scholastic achievement of the students (Goodlad, 1984). There is little doubt that teachers are directly involved in the academic progress of their students. Research has established that a relationship exists between teacher satisfaction and student achievement (Doyle & Forsyth, 1973; Goodman, 1980; and, Stanton, 1974).
In general, the findings tended to indicate that teachers in engineering colleges whose students achieve relatively high scholastically had higher morale than did teachers in colleges with relatively low pupil achievement. Similarly, student achievement tended to increase under teachers with high morale and decreased under teachers with low morale. It appears that teacher morale or satisfaction does make a difference in the scholastic achievement of students. For this reason, teacher satisfaction and a closely related issue, the retention of qualified teachers, has been a concern for several decades.
The literature review progresses from very broad, theory- oriented research to more specific studies concerned with technology 217 teachers. The term ―technology teacher‖ will be used as a generic term to include all Engineering, technology and industrial education and related fields.
3.5 JOB SATISFACTION OF TEACHERS
Historically, job satisfaction was viewed as a continuum. Certain factors if present, contributed to job satisfaction; and if absent, contributed to job dissatisfaction, and vice-versa. Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959) developed what has been called the Two- Factor Theory of job satisfaction or the Motivation-Hygiene Theory. In contrast to conventional theory at the time, Herzberg concluded there were certain conditions of employment that, if present, acted as job satisfiers (motivators) and other conditions that acted as job dissatisfies (hygiene factors).
The absence of motivators did not contribute to job dissatisfaction, nor did the absence of hygiene factors contribute to job satisfaction or motivation. Fourteen factors were identified as contributing to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The factors identified were: achievement, recognition, interpersonal relations, responsibility, advancement, salary, job security, personal life, status, working conditions, policy and administration, supervision, and the work itself. Herzberg believed these factors to be universal in the workplace. Several research studies have attempted to replicate and/or apply Herzberg's (1959) famous ―Motivation to Work‖ study in educational settings. 218
Johnson (1967) identified five factors (achievement, recognition, interpersonal relations, work itself, and responsibility) that had statistical significance in affecting teacher satisfaction. Four factors (policy and administration, working conditions, status, and personal life) were significant in affecting teacher dissatisfaction. Johnson suggested that ―the personality of the principal seemed to be the factor which controlled the attitude of teachers‖ and that ―the findings of this study indicated that the organizational climate of colleges contributed to teacher satisfaction-dissatisfaction‖ (p.139).
Sergiovanni (1966), in another replication of Herzberg's study in an educational setting, interviewed teachers to find out about events associated with their jobs that made them feel unusually good and unusually bad. According to Sergiovanni's classification of the teachers' responses, achievement and recognition were ranked first and second as factors contributing to good feelings about the job.
Robert Simmons (1970) found three ―content‖ factors (achievement in the job, the work itself, and recognition) that contribute to satisfaction in teaching. Achievement in teaching contributed most to satisfaction. Recognition from the principal was determined to be a significant part of the recognition factor.
In a study of job satisfaction that focused on high school business teachers in Ohio, Lacy (1968) identified 27 factors that were significant for a high level of teacher job satisfaction. School 219 administration was found to affect teacher job satisfaction. That is, teachers with a high level of job satisfaction indicated, ―[they] received recognition for a job well done ... administrators had democratic methods of dealing with teachers‖ (p. 222).
Graham (1985) believes that unreasonable burdens and too little time drive more people from the teaching profession than low salaries. According to Graham, an approach that would make a big difference would be to reorganize teachers' days and priorities to save precious time that is lost. The suggestions offered by Graham centered primarily on working conditions: reduce class size, provide clerical help, reduce non-reaching activities, give every teacher a student assistant, seek help from parents, and provide monthly, on-teaching work days.
Litt and Turk (1985) surveyed Technical teachers to identify sources of stress and dissatisfaction that might induce teachers to leave teaching. The results suggested, ―the role teachers perceived for themselves and the college climate, particularly the relationship with administrators, may be extremely important in predicting job stress‖ (p.178).
The ―context‖ aspects of work (e.g., working conditions, school policy, and salary) identified by numerous studies, serves only to reduce dissatisfaction in the lower-order needs identified by Maslow (1954); they cannot lead growth or satisfaction. The ―content‖ aspects of teaching (e.g. recognition and the work itself) correspond to esteem 220 and self-actualization, the top of Maslow's hierarchy. Psychological growth and satisfaction depend upon successful job completion, so only those factors that are content centered (intrinsic aspects of teaching) can contribute to satisfaction.
3.6 TECHNOLOGY TEACHER SATISFACTION
Technology teachers have an instructional role that is different from man other teachers. The nature of their teaching is primarily the problem solving approach, frequently utilizing one-on-one instruction. Technology teachers tend to develop a sense of ―ownership‖ over their labs, partly due to the amount of maintenance and other personal time they have invested in the facility. Lab sharing for technology teachers can be a source of frustration when needed supplies and/or tools for a class have been used or abused by someone other than the person who ordered and maintained them. In addition, many technology teachers have skills, which can be utilized in business and industry employment at salaries, and benefits that are frequently greater than they receive from teaching.
Steinbach (1979) to measure the level of job satisfaction for public secondary industrial arts teachers in Minnesota used the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire. The evidence from Steinbach's study indicated certain job reinforcers of industrial arts teachers were significantly associated with their level of satisfaction. The strongest associations were among the following characteristics: steady employment, working conditions, position in the community, feeling of accomplishment, supervisory competence, administrative support, 221 judgmental freedom, organizational practices, authority, doing for others, and competitive pay.
Wright (1985) interviewed technology teachers to determine if relationships existed between esteem, autonomy, job satisfaction, and the intention to quit teaching. Wright found that teachers' over-all job satisfaction was positively correlated with the perceived amount of esteem and negatively correlated with the intention to quit teaching. The study also indicated that teachers‘ install colleges have more esteem, but lower salaries, than teachers in Government and aided colleges. Building principals could have tremendous impact on teachers‘ perceived esteem, and therefore, their over-all satisfaction and their intention to remain in teaching.
A significant finding from Wright's study was that neither actual salary nor the teacher's satisfaction with their salary was related to the intention to quit teaching. Perceived esteem was the variable most highly correlated with the intention to quit teaching. The research related to the variable ―esteem‖ (recognition, praise, status, and high-regard), based on Maslow's hierarchy, and has identified several distinct groups from which teachers receive esteem (Johnson, 1967; Lacy, 1968; Sergiovanni, 1966; Simmons, 1970; and Wright, 1985). These groups included students, parents, the community, and school administrators.
3.7 TECHNOLOGY TEACHER TURNOVER
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There are several studies of technology teachers who had left teaching (Dye, 1981; Edmunds, 1982; Lindsey, 1979; and, Tomlinson, 1982). The results of these studies provide a foundation from which to build. Vocational industrial education teachers in Texas who had quit teaching cited salary as the primary reason (Lindsey, 1979). In addition, three of the top ten reasons were related to the teachers' relationship with the school administration. In another attempt to identify factors involved in vocational industrial teachers' decision to leave teaching, Dye (1981) identified several characteristics where mobile teachers differed from stable teachers. Mobile teachers were defined as those who had left a teaching position while stable teachers were defined as those who remained in teaching. Low teaching salary was identified as the most significant difference between mobile and stable teachers.
Mobile teachers had a low opinion of teaching salaries, whereas stable teachers had a relatively high opinion of teaching salaries. Mobile teachers were found to feel significantly less support by the local school system than did stable teachers. The issue again appears to be one of individual perception. Dye’s (1981) and Wright's (1985) results would suggest that teacher perceptions of conditions are perhaps more important than ―actual‖ conditions in affecting job satisfaction and the intention to continue or discontinue teaching. This perception presents a challenge to the building administrator: how do they make technology, or any other, teachers feel that they are supported. Regardless of budget appropriations, the building administrator must convey the spirit of program support to the 223 teachers. Technology teacher turnover and filling technology vacancies have become significant problems in many states. Technology teachers in Illinois, for example, have had a turnover rate as high as 14% per year. The technology teacher vacancy situation has been further compounded by the reduction in the number of graduates that are certificated and elect to teach technology. During the ten-year period from 1992-2002, the number of persons that graduated with eligibility to teach technology in Illinois declined by 68%. In addition to the attrition from teaching by first and second year technology teachers, significant numbers of veteran teachers are approaching retirement age.
In 1980, 17.5%of all industrial education teachers in Illinois were 50 years or above (Tomlinson, 1982). Similarly, Devier and Wright (1987) assessed the status of technology education in Ohio and reported some rather alarming data. In 1987, 25% of all practicing technology teachers in Ohio were either retiring or eligible to retire within the next five years (1987-92). Perhaps even more alarming, 50%of the technology teachers would be retiring or eligible to retire within ten years (Devier and Wright, 1987).
In an effort to determine if the supply of new technology teachers would-be able to keep pace with the demand to fill vacancies, Devier and Wright (1988) surveyed teacher education institutions and secondary school district superintendents in Ohio. The projected supply of graduates certified to teach technology, which is down approximately 50% from 1980, cannot meet the retirement rate in the 224 best-case scenario. In the worst case scenario, in which not all graduates decide to teach, many teachers elect early retirement, and the state mandates a proposed technology education course in the middle grades, the supply will be just one-fourth of the demand! Although no one can accurately predict demand, it would appear that the current supply of technology majors in college (1988-92) would fall short of the demand. The effects of school climate are readily apparent to the trained observer; yet, school climate is incredibly complex and difficult to assess empirically. Recent studies have clearly indicated the importance of the principal's leadership style in determining the school climate (Goodlad, 1984; Lipsitz, 1984;Sergiovanni & Starrett, 1983; and Wright, 1985). One manifestation of the school climate is the professional freedom afforded to teachers to carry out their assignments in support of the school's mission. The importance of achievement, recognition, and organizational climate for teacher satisfaction was documented by Johnson (1967), Lacy (1968), Sergiovanni (1966), and Wright (1985). The principal, then, may influence these factors. Lipsitz (1984), Sergiovanniand Starrett (1983), Weller (1982), and Wright (1985) concluded that the administrator was one of the key factors influencing teacher morale and satisfaction.
3.8 SUMMARY 20 years back - Have you ever heard of a cardiac arrest, blockage in angina, high cholesterol and high diabetic to an employee in the age group of 30 to 40? Similarly have you heard of early retirement, mental strain, absenteeism and burnout? Obviously no, 225 which you have not come across such a scenario. Occupational stress is the interaction of the worker and the conditions of work. Downsizing, increased workloads, high competition, growing population etc are taking their toll. ―Stress, in essence, is a feeling of doubt about being able to cope, a perception that the resources available do not match the demands made. When it persists, stress can cause physical and psychological ill-health and adversely affect social functioning.‖ Occupational stress has become a common and costly problem, leaving few workers untouched. Not all stress is bad. Learning how to deal with and manage stress is critical to maximizing job performance, staying safe on the job, and maintaining physical and mental health. Survey of the literature on occupational stress reveals that there are a number of factors related to job, which affect the behaviour of the employees and as a result of it, normal life is disturbed (McLean, 1974; Brief, Schular and Vansell, 1981).
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CHAPTER IV
COPING STRATEGIES WITH STRESS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Teachers have one of the most stressful jobs, despite their long vacations. Besides being responsible for large groups of hormonal or destructive students all day, teachers also have to abide by strict government and school district guidelines, attend after-hours workshops and meetings, call parents, submit lesson plans early on, worry about school security and put up with loads of homework thanks to grading, grant writing and certification renewal classes. To help teachers cope with all of this stress, we‘ve compiled a list of different ways you can relax and get centered, whether you‘re in the 227 middle of a lecture or already home and trying to forget about your hectic day.
4.2 THE CONCEPT OF COPING Lazarus and Folkman (1984) defined coping as an individual‘s efforts to manage internal/external demands from the environment that are appraised as taxing or exceeding their resources. The coping process is complex, and an important ingredient in Lazarus‘ theory of stress is the ability or inability to cope with a stressful situation. Generally, a stressor must be appraised before selecting a coping strategy. This cognitive process of appraisal consists of a continuous and evaluative process of categorizing the encounter.
Kenny et al. (2000) pointed out that psychological stress negatively influences cognitive functioning, and may lead to a reduced capacity to deal effectively with the stressor.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) indicated that the two different theoretical backgrounds are the traditional animal experiment and the psychoanalytic ego psychology model. They described coping in the animal model as the acts that control evasive environmental conditions in order to avoid, escape, or overcome threat conditions.
4.3 COPING STRATEGIES
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Mishra and Dixit (1995) attempted to reveal the coping styles of 300 allopathic doctors. It was found from the investigation that those who use effective coping (i.e. above average control style and below average escape style) are less burn out than those who use ineffective coping (i.e. above average escape style and below average control style).
Upamanyu (1997) explored the stress management techniques used by the educated working women. The sleep & relaxation, exercise, time management, diet and yoga are the best way adopted to manage stress by educated working women
Aminabhavi and Triveni (2000) in their study found that age, sex, coping strategies of bank employees have not influenced their occupational stress.
Pandey and Srivastava (2000) studied coping with work stress in career oriented females. It was found from the result that teachers expressed significantly better active coping than bank employees.
Gaur and Dhawan (2000) examined that the relationship between work related stressors and adaptation pattern among women professionals. A sample of 120 women professionals (30 teachers, 30 doctors, 30 bank officers and 30 bureaucrats) participated in the study. They showed a configuration of adaptation pattern of active coping. The junior level job group or junior age group is significantly more 229 active coping, greater planfulness and has more initiative as compared to middle and senior age group or level of employment status.
Harshpinder and Aujla (2001) investigated the different physical stress management techniques utilized by women. Results showed that working women were making more use of writing dairy, standard furniture and high fiber diet as compared to non working women. The two groups did not differ significantly in the use of other techniques.
Hasnain et al. (2001) on his study ―role stress and coping strategies in different occupational groups‖ assessed the coping strategies in three different occupational groups (20 engineers, 20managers and 20 teachers). No significant difference was obtained among the coping strategies of the three groups. The two coping strategies used by these three groups were extra-persistive and inter- persistive (approach coping). In a nutshell it can be said that in all the three groups approach coping strategies were more frequently used than avoidance strategies.
Aminabhavi and Kamble (2004) conducted a study on work motivation and stress coping behaviour of technical personnel at a railway work shop. The sample comprised of 30 technical personnel in the age range of 30-59 years. It was found that middle –aged technical personnel had significantly higher stress coping behaviour as compared to the older technical personnel.
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Aujla et al. (2004) investigated to analyze the different stress management techniques used by 75 working women and 75 non working women of Ludhiana city. Results showed that majority of the respondents in both the categories were using various stress management techniques viz. relaxation, music, prayer, recreation with family, planning etc. Planning and relaxation were most preferred techniques among both the groups.
Aditi and Kumari (2005) found that the stress buffering effects of friendship and social support systems seem to a significant contributor to high levels of stress.
Randeep and Ravindran (2005) attempted to explore the relationship between coping strategies and coping styles among 30 marketing executives in two private sector mobile phone companies. It was concluded that in the use of coping styles such as task strategies, logics, home and work relationship, time management and involvement, executives differ considerably with respect to their cognitive styles.
Bhattacharya and Guha (2006) conducted a study on stress and coping: A study on lady criminal lawyers of Kolkata city. A group of 34 lady criminal lawyers were selected for the study. The significant coping mechanisms as preferred by them are reading books, traveling or outing, listening to music etc.
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Chand (2006) studied to examine the psychological factors in the development of work stress. The respondents are 150 junior management scale-1 officers in various banking institutions. The findings of the study revealed that job related strain is positively related with escape coping and negatively related with life event stress, control coping and symptom management coping.
Sikthingnanavel (2006) explored the effect of select yogic practices on stress of working women of 15 normal female volunteers. The suitable parameters were used before and after 10 days training programme. The results show that there is a greater improvement in the reduction of stress in the experimental group than the control group. All these studies have revealed that coping strategies of individuals has significant effect on mitigating of stress. The above studies explored different stress management techniques to reduce or minimize stress.
Blase (1982), Coping behaviors or resources come in the form of physical, psychological, social, or material factors and help teachers overcome job-related stressors and achieve their valued outcomes with students.
Griffith et al (1999), how a teacher copes with stress in the school environment affects the impact of stress on their psychological well-being and on physiological response.
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Griffith et al (2000), disengagement refers to teachers giving up on the goals in which the stressor is interfering with. Teachers who are disengaged resort to negative coping skills such as not trying, engaging in other activities, day dreaming, sleeping, watching television, and reducing their efforts in the classroom. Disengagement can be applied immediately and without the help of others, but is only a short-term solution. In the long run, disengagement can lead to teachers having cumulating workloads, disruptive classes, and feelings of lowered self-esteem and helplessness
Griffith et al (2002), suppression of competing behaviors refers to teachers putting aside all activities in their lives so that they can concentrate solely on work. Teachers have a tendency to prevent distraction, focus more on work tasks, prevent outside interferences, and concentrate more on their thoughts on work in order to suppress competing activities. Lessening the demand of other aspects of life and only focusing on work leads to teachers having an increased perception of stress levels, which prevents them from taking time to relax
Griffith et al (2003), although there are many common coping strategies available, most teachers rely on social support, active planning, restorative experiences, and suppression of competing behaviors. Social support can reduce the impact of stressors on teachers‘ well-being, job satisfaction, and physical illness risk. Teachers seek support from family, friends, and colleagues in order to receive advice, discuss feelings, get emotional support, get sympathy 233 and understanding, and to talk about their feelings. Teachers who have more support within their personal lives tend to experience less stress in the workplace.
Griffith et al (2005), active planning, although a part of the normal workload, allows teachers to take their mind off stress and focus on their work. The process of active planning involves concentrating efforts, developing a plan, taking some action, coming up with strategies, trying to take steps, and doing what has to be done in order to keep their attention on the students rather than the stressor.
Gulwadi (2006), restorative coping experiences refer to teachers being able to release stress in places away from the school environment. Places chosen by teachers reflect qualities that are helpful in offsetting the effects of the source of stress. The places teachers choose most often that make them feel better when stressed include home, nature related outdoor places, city places, churches, and cafes. These environments are helpful in relieving stress because they provide teachers with sensory conditions, social contact, props, and nature related environmental features, which can help teachers alleviate stress.
Gulwadi (2008), along with restorative experiences, teachers may choose to employ environmental coping resources. Teachers‘ awareness of possible environmental conditions can be a very valuable coping resource. A person‘s ability to know the potential surrounding environment can be used as a resource. Their knack to change these 234 settings, in order to achieve personal goals is referred to as environmental competence. The most common environmental resources that are easily available to teachers include time, money, social ties, organizational resources, and physical environmental resources such as locations that teacher‘s access and use for their spatial and sensory properties.
Gulwadi (2009), common positive strategies teachers use to alleviate stress include exercise, social resources, avoidance, reading, hobbies, movement, and meditation. These coping strategies used by teachers affect their outlook on the situation, thereby altering the perception of stress (Griffith et al 1999).
Gulwadi (2011), to alter the perception of stress, teachers may invoke inward or outward coping strategies. Inward strategies, such as concentrating on something narrow in the field of stimuli around oneself, include seeking stillness and focus. Outward strategies, such as exercise, involve seeking connections, distractions, and movement.
www.dictionary.com (2010), the coping is commonly referred to as dealing with problems or difficulties in a calm and appropriate manner.
Crisis Intervention & Suicide Prevention Centre of British Columbia (2010), some people, either intentionally or unintentionally, employ negative coping strategies to deal with stress. Negative coping strategies are common responses to stress and feelings of being 235 overwhelmed. Although these strategies can provide temporary stress relief, they can cause more stress in the long run.
Help guide (2010), negative coping strategies can include unhealthy behaviors, distractions, violence, and withdrawal. Unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, drinking alcohol, excessively over/under eating, and drug abuse are sometimes used to relieve stress. Distractions such as television, computer, and filling up schedules to avoid facing problems are common ways to avoid stress. Violence such as angry outbursts, lashing out, and physical violence often come about if a situation becomes too stressful. Showing signs of withdrawal such as sleeping, procrastinating, and withdrawing from family, friends, activities, and disengagement are ways in which people try to remove stress from their lives
4.3.1 Individual Level Strategy
What is the remedy to Stress? Leaving the job – No. Corporate change occurs, only when the staff changes individually. As an individual, an employee must change his life style with intake of healthy drinks and diet, regular physical and mental exercises.
NIOSH research suggested examples of individual and situational factors that can help to reduce the effects of stressful working conditions include the following: • Balance between work and family or personal life 236
• Create support network of friends and coworkers and talk out openly • Maintain relaxed and positive outlook/attitude • Change the motto - No one is perfect – perform the best • Have realistic expectations • Have a balanced diet • Practice relaxation and meditation • Have thorough medical check up at frequent intervals
4.3.2 Corporate Level Strategy
The corporate body has also a moral responsibility to practice healthy work culture and environment. The employee during most of the productive period of the day i.e. eight hours of his awaken period of the day, is available in the work place of the company. Each corporate policy makers must analyze their environment (general as well as organizational), evaluate alternative contingency strategies for likely future scenario like one that is being discussed now ―The Occupational Stress‖, choose the right option and implement it to equip their middle and operating level employees to cope the situation.
Experts feel that change in the attitude of the management is essential and needed. Simple measures could improve greatly the contentment and morale. Commonsense recommendations include redesigning the job to increase variety, prevent excessive hours, and provide better support. Rewards should also be improved-both praise and interest from more senior staff and, more tangibly, working 237 conditions, holidays, and opportunities for study leave. Participatory decision-making, skill building, social security, support etc are some of the other attentions management must throw upon its employees. Management has to recognize its responsibility for minimizing stress, thereby reducing ill health among employees, including potentially fatal coronary heart disease. Volvo Car Company in Sweden is an example to this method of stress release. It introduced innovations such as job rotation to widen workers‘ skills, and less authoritarian management style that improved productivity and decreased depression and tiredness.
NIOH also has identified organizational characteristics associated with both healthy, low-stress work and high levels of productivity. Examples of these characteristics include the following: Recognition of employees for good work performance Opportunities for career development An organizational culture that values the individual worker Management actions that are consistent with organizational values Exposure to stressful working conditions (called job stressors)
4.3.3 Corporate Stress Prevention Strategy
Talk to individual employees, if possible or else to their first supervisors Hold group discussions with employees 238
Measure employee perceptions of job, working conditions, stress, satisfaction etc Design a survey method Collect objective data Analyze the data and identify the problem Find out remedial measures
4.3.4 How to Change the Organization to Prevent Job Stress
The workload should be in line with workers‘ capabilities and resources Job design should stimulate and provide ample opportunities for workers to use their skills Clarity in workers‘ roles and responsibilities Worker‘s participation in making decisions for those actions affecting their interests Improved channels of communication Drawl of clear career development chart Ensuring social interaction opportunities among workers
4.4 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN RELATION TO COPING STRATEGIES
Dealing with problems or difficulties in a calm and appropriate manner is commonly referred to as coping (www.dictionary.com, 2010). How a teacher copes with stress in the school environment 239 affects the impact of stress on their psychological well-being and on physiological response (Griffith, Steptoe, & Cropley, 1999).
Coping behaviors or resources come in the form of physical, psychological, social, or material factors and help teachers overcome job-related stressors and achieve their valued outcomes with students (Blase, 1982).
Common positive strategies teachers use to alleviate stress include exercise, social resources, avoidance, reading, hobbies, movement, and meditation (Gulwadi, 2006).
These coping strategies used by teachers affect their outlook on the situation, thereby altering the perception of stress (Griffith, Steptoe, & Cropley, 1999).
To alter the perception of stress, teachers may invoke inward or outward coping strategies. Inward strategies, such as concentrating on something narrow in the field of stimuli around oneself, include seeking stillness and focus. Outward strategies, such as exercise, involve seeking connections, distractions, and movement (Gulwadi, 2006).
Although there are many common coping strategies available, most teachers rely on social support, active planning, restorative experiences, and suppression of competing behaviors. Social support can reduce the impact of stressors on teachers‘ well-being, job 240 satisfaction, and physical illness risk. Teachers seek support from family, friends, and colleagues in order to receive advice, discuss feelings, get emotional support, get sympathy and understanding, and to talk about their feelings. Teachers who have more support within their personal lives tend to experience less stress in the workplace (Griffith, Steptoe, & Cropley, 1999).
Active planning, although a part of the normal workload, allows teachers to take their mind off stress and focus on their work. The process of active planning involves concentrating efforts, developing a plan, taking some action, coming up with strategies, trying to take steps, and doing what has to be done in order to keep their attention on the students rather than the stressor (Griffith, Steptoe, & Cropley, 1999).
Restorative coping experiences refer to teachers being able to release stress in places away from the school environment. Places chosen by teachers reflect qualities that are helpful in offsetting the effects of the source of stress. The places teachers choose most often that make them feel better when stressed include home, nature related outdoor places, city places, churches, and cafes. These environments are helpful in relieving stress because they provide teachers with sensory conditions, social contact, props, and nature related environmental features, which can help teachers alleviate stress (Gulwadi, 2006).
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Along with restorative experiences, teachers may choose to employ environmental coping resources. Teachers‘ awareness of possible environmental conditions can be a very valuable coping resource. A person‘s ability to know the potential surrounding environment can be used as a resource. Their knack to change these settings, in order to achieve personal goals is referred to as environmental competence. The most common environmental resources that are easily available to teachers include time, money, social ties, organizational resources, and physical environmental resources such as locations that teacher‘s access and use for their spatial and sensory properties (Gulwadi, 2006).
Some people, either intentionally or unintentionally, employ negative coping strategies to deal with stress. Negative coping strategies are common responses to stress and feelings of being overwhelmed. Although these strategies can provide temporary stress relief, they can because more stress in the long run (Crisis Intervention & Suicide Prevention Centre of British Columbia, 2010).
Negative coping strategies can include unhealthy behaviors, distractions, violence, and withdrawal. Unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, drinking alcohol, excessively over/under eating, and drug abuse are sometimes used to relieve stress. Distractions such as television, computer, and filling up schedules to avoid facing problems are common ways to avoid stress. Violence such as angry outbursts, lashing out, and physical violence often come about if a 242 situation becomes too stressful. Showing signs of withdrawal such as sleeping, procrastinating, and withdrawing from family, friends, and activities, and disengagement are ways in which people try to remove stress from their lives (Help guide, 2010).
Disengagement refers to teachers giving up on the goals in which the stressor is interfering with. Teachers who are disengaged resort to negative coping skills such as not trying, engaging in other activities, day dreaming, sleeping, watching television, and reducing their efforts in the classroom. Disengagement can be applied immediately and without the help of others, but is only a short-term solution. In the long run, disengagement can lead to teachers having cumulating workloads, disruptive classes, and feelings of lowered self- esteem and helplessness (Griffith, Steptoe, & Cropley, 1999).
Suppression of competing behaviors refers to teachers putting aside all activities in their lives so that they can concentrate solely on work. Teachers have a tendency to prevent distraction, focus more on work tasks, prevent outside interferences, and concentrate more on their thoughts on work in order to suppress competing activities. Lessening the demand of other aspects of life and only focusing on work leads to teachers having an increased perception of stress levels, which prevents them from taking time to relax (Griffith, Steptoe, & Cropley, 1999). 4.5 COPING WITH STRESS OF TEACHERS A number of initiatives are aimed at helping teachers cope with the job related pressures which many feel have increased during the 243 past decade. These attempt either to address stress directly by removing or mitigating its perceived causes or indirectly by suggesting palliative measures which teachers may take to help them cope more effectively with potentially stressful situations. Each is considered in turn below.
4.5.1 Direct action
Probably the most direct action teachers can take to mitigate their occupational stress is to remove them from the situation which they think is causing their stress. And clearly, as we have seen in Chapter 3 above, a number do this each year either temporarily through absence or permanently by leaving the profession. As far as we are able to tell, these numbers are still relatively small in Scotland: only 196 teachers took early retirement because of ill-health in 1998–9 (SEED, 2001). The figure for stress-related retrials is not available. It is also difficult to gain an accurate national picture of the prevalence or costs of stress related illness as Education Authorities are responsible for maintaining sickness/absence records.
Johnstone (1989, 1993a), the majority of teachers must develop their own strategies. When asked what strategies they actually pursue to minimise stress, teachers are able to provide a list of coping mechanisms (see Dunham, 1984b; Kyriacou, 1980d; Dewe, Guest & Williams, 1979). These were summarised in previous SCRE reviews as: Keep things in perspective 244
Avoid confrontations Relax at work.
Unfortunately these strategies are so general that they could apply to almost any work environment and probably offer little help to teachers who may be struggling to cope with specific work situations.
Dunham (1984b), on the other hand lists ten most frequently reported strategies taken by teachers in three English comprehensive schools. These were: Set aside a certain amount of time during the evening free from school related work Try to come to terms with each individual situation Talk over stressful situations with partner or family Become involved with family and friends when not at school Learn to say ‗no‘ to unnecessary demands Switch off Be open about feelings and opinions More readily admit their own limits Accept the problem Talk about the problem with colleagues at school.
Again, although this research gives us a picture of what teachers say they do in order to cope in general with perceived pressures, it lacks specificity. The strategies are not grounded in the context of particular incidents in schools or classes which may give rise to 245 teachers‘ stress; nor can we be sure that what teachers say they do is actually what they do when confronted with potential ‗stressors‘.
4.5.2 Palliative approaches
Dunham (1984b), a number of researchers have pointed out that the actions teachers take to relieve stress are essentially palliative in nature, i.e. they serve to relieve rather than to ‗cure‘ or remove the problem. A glance through the list of actions below which he reports that teachers take to relieve their stress illustrates this point: while undoubtedly teachers may feel better as a consequence of pursuing alleviating activities, few if any address the stressful situation directly. Johnstone (1989), meditation; jogging, relaxation; becoming more detached; listen to music; talk to Deputy and Head; live in small community; let off steam verbally; swimming; dance – where great concentration is needed but of a different quality to that of school work; going out and getting drunk; taking the pressure off by playing squash; making love; develop a sense of humour ; seek promotion elsewhere; learning greater self-control; writing poetry; grumbling a lot; if I could afford replacements I would probably smash a lot of china.
Dewe (1991), points out, this is not unexpected as there are many problems which are difficult if not impossible for teachers to deal with directly. These may require management intervention which may not always be forthcoming.
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Woodhouse et al (1985), a number of evaluations have been undertaken of structured attempts to help teachers control their stress. These courses usually aim at modifying teachers‘ behaviour so that they learn more effective coping strategies and abandon habitual and less effective methods. They claim that by keeping a ‗stress diary‘ participants are encouraged to recognise the actual classroom or school events which are critical to their stress levels. Of the 327 ‗incidents‘ logged in the pre-course diary, 187 involved pupils and 140 other staff, which may not be the balance which most of us would have predicted.
Further analysis of the incidents indicated that both sets of incidents were of the same nature: disruption of lessons by pupils and disruption of administrative procedures by staff. This seems to imply that it is the disruption of planned work, leading to feelings of frustration and loss of control, which causes teachers the most stress.
Barkdoll (1991), believe that positive feelings are important in helping employees cope with stress but that good health may also increase hardiness (Hannah, 1988; Pierce & Molloy, 1990). In psychological terms ‗hardiness‘ is a combination of control, challenge and commitment felt by individuals facing stressful situations. The more positive an individual feels, the hardier they are and by extension the more able to keep their own stress levels within manageable limits.
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Griffith et al (1999), highlights the role of social support systems in maintaining hardiness. Previous studies in this area had produced equivocal results.
Pierce et al (1996) believed that teachers with high burnout levels lacked social support, but Sheffield et al (1994) found that social support did not affect the impact of teacher stress on psychological well-being. In contrast, in a study of 780 teachers in 126 primaries and secondary school in south London, Griffith et al (1999) demonstrate the beneficial effects on teachers of good relationships with co-workers and a harmonious atmosphere at work. Not only did social support systems moderate the impact of stressors, they also affected teachers‘ perceptions of stress. These psychosocial resources thus operate at an earlier phase of the teacher‘s appraisal process than had previously been recognised.
Cooper (1995), this is important because it helps to explain why teachers working in the same school may feel differential levels of stress dependent upon their individual social support systems. Why some coping strategies are effective and others fail miserably is still a subject of contention. He, who has written extensively about stress, observes that: What is needed here is an appreciation that one coping strategy may be effective in one situation but wholly inappropriate in another. To suggest that social support strategies, for example, are effective in all situations is to misunderstand the role of personality and coping approaches. (p.70)
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Pearlin et al (1978), irrespective of the social support systems, some researchers claim that our basic personality types continue to influence our ability to cope. As he point out: Possessing the ‗right‘ personality characteristics is somewhat more effective in dealing with economic and job problems, psychological characteristics are more helpful in sustaining people facing strain arising out of conditions over which they may have little direct control – finances and job. (p.13) Less is known about the relationship between personality and other defensive coping mechanisms which teachers may employ to minimise their stress.
McCormick (1997), argues that higher stress perceptions were associated with ‗immature‘ defensive coping responses, such as daydreaming, avoidance and withdrawal.
Cooper et al (1993), found that teachers using palliative strategies, such as alcohol, smoking and medication reported greater stress arising from work overload and handling staff relationships. The extent to which Scottish teachers resort to these measures is unknown but Johntone (1993b) reports that one in twelve teachers in her study resorted to ‗a glass of wine‘ or ‗a stiff whisky‘ as their coping strategy; while over half (N=570) had no particular strategy.
Goss (2001), suggests that workplace counseling may have a role to play in helping teachers cope with their stress, and the Teacher Support Network (see Chapter 2) has recently been created to offer such support to teachers in Scotland (TES, 14/12/2001). However 249 previous SCRE reviews found few examples of attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of such courses. Six studies which aimed to decrease teacher anxiety by improving their teaching skills were cited by Coates and Thoresen (1976). Four offered relaxation and desensitisation techniques, well-established approaches to modifying behaviour. Two of these had no effect, one had a good effect and one affected only six teachers in the group. Given the intensive nature of the work undertaken, it is highly unlikely that this approach would ever be widely available to the profession in general.
Schonfield (1990), believe that the movement towards more openness and self-evaluation in schools may actually be protecting teachers from occupational stress. Teachers, who are accustomed to reflecting on their practice, should be more able to develop positive coping strategies at work than other professionals.
4.6 GENERAL COPING STRATEGIES
4.6.1 Social Support
Lazarus et al (1984), viewed coping as a stabilizing factor that may help individuals maintain psychosocial adaptability during stressful periods.
Moracco et al (1987) suggested that social support may be a useful strategy for preventing teacher burnout. However, the findings of research on the effectiveness of social support to cope with stress 250 are inconsistent (Brenner et al., 1985; Burke & Greenglass, 1993; Dunham, 1984; Kyriacou, 1980, 1981).
4.6.2 Direct Action
Brenner et al (1985) found that a coping strategy labelled "direct action" appeared to mitigate job-related stress.
Schonfeld (1990a), demonstrated that advice seeking and direct action were mostly related to lower depressive and psychophysiologic symptom levels.
Jenkins et al (1991), categorized direct action as those methods that "have a direct impact on the source of stress, such as improving teacher-administrative relationship, job redesign, staff development and improving teacher status" (p. 62).
4.6.3 Indirect Method
The literature reviewed so far has demonstrated that, even though some of the findings are not fully consistent, there do appear to be ways to improve teachers' ability to cope with stress. Despite strengthening the role of social support, the direct action approach can be faulted.
Jenkins et al (1991), argued that an "indirect method" is also very effective. This approach aims at helping individual teachers to 251
"make some changes in interpretation, behavior, or other response to the stressor" (p. 62).
4.6.4 Coping Mechanisms
Unhealthy ways to cope with psychologic stress include drug abuse and alcoholism, smoking, abusive and violent behavior, and working harder to accomplish unrealistic or poorly defined goals. In order to deal with stress in an effective and healthy way, one must first identify sources of stress, either within oneself or in one's environment
Job stressors are frequently related to disorganization in the work place, poor time management, and unrealistic or un- communicated expectations of the employer. Another source of stress for the working person may be the lack of time for family and recreation because of job demands. Once job stressors are identified, some options are to change the stressful situation, modify the way one responds to stressors, or seek another job that is less stressful. In some instances learning to be more assertive and better able to communicate with supervisors and coworkers can reduce job-related stress.
Stressors in the home environment include negative self- concept; inadequate physical, cognitive, or behavioral resources; poor problem-solving skills; marital discord; ineffective parenting or lack of parenting skills; and lack of family support. Effective coping may require strategies to improve self-concept and build self-esteem, develop problem-solving skills, learn effective parenting, and establish 252 a network of people who can give support. Exercise, improving one's nutritional status, making time for recreational activities, and utilizing relaxation techniques to relieve tension can also be healthy ways to cope with stress complexity, which is normally an integral part of human functioning. The same authors described coping in the psychoanalytic ego psychology model as realistic and flexible thoughts and acts that solve problems and reduce stress. The psychoanalytic ego psychology model focuses on the person‘s relationship with the environment in terms of perceiving and thinking; the animal model describes the biological processes involved in the person‘s relationship with the environment. Moreover, the psychoanalytic ego psychology model focuses on coping as a style or trait rather than as a dynamic ego process.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984), coping traits refer to personality characteristics that dispose individuals to react in certain ways. Styles refer to broad ways of relating to particular types of people or situations.
Lazarus (1999), pointed out that an understanding of coping strategies could help us understand the constant effort of some individuals to adapt themselves to chronic stresses due to changing life conditions. Additionally, coping has been viewed as motivated by emotion. Coping flows from emotional distress, and directly follows an initial appraisal of harm, threat, or challenge. Coping can also influence the quality and intensity of subsequent emotions (Lazarus, 1999). 253
Monat et al (1991), coping aims to change the conditions of the emotion or the emotion itself and affects the emotion process in two ways. First, the coping process changes the actual relationship. Coping occurs when an individual obtains information about the resource and mobilizes to change the troubled person-environment relationship. If the coping process can solve the problem, the emotional distress should reduce. Sometimes the coping activity fails to reduce the source of stress and this leads to further stress. This type of coping has been described as problem-focused coping (approach- oriented coping), which aims at changing the source of the stress. For example, if a student is stressed about an upcoming exam, the problem-focused approach for the student would to devote more time for studying. The student may also ask friends and teachers for help. This method is called problem-focused coping. Secondly, coping can be utilized to alter the perception of the person-environment relationships. This type of coping aims toward reducing or managing the emotional distress related to a situation and is described as emotion-focused coping (avoidance-oriented coping) or cognitive coping strategies. For example, some students might release the stress state by going to see a movie.
Nou (2002), studied the stress, social support, coping, and psychosocial adjustment of the college students in Khmer University, Cambodia. The results showed that using an emotion-focused coping style was related to psychological symptoms, lower psychological well-being, somatic symptoms, and lower quality of life.
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Fromme et al (1994), tested trait coping styles as a predictor of alcohol use in young adults. The researchers studied the coping styles of young adults‘ as a predictor of their alcohol use and response to daily events. The results indicated that both emotion-focused and avoidant coping students were found to consume more alcohol than students with coping styles characterized as non-avoidant. Furthermore, poor emotion-focused coping, which represents a failure to cope with the negative emotions associated with stress, seems to be an important determinant of young people‘s alcohol use and misuse.
Watson et al (2000), investigated the relationship between personality disorder and coping strategies across a variety life event. Interestingly, the results indicated that stress and negative emotion were associated with personality disorders. The results also indicated that a personality disorder was positively related to escape-avoidance and negatively associated with problem-solving and positive reappraisal. In examining these two kinds of coping strategies, it appears that the problem-focused coping approach is generally more effective than emotion-focused coping. More importantly however, the effectiveness or functionality of the coping strategy used is most important in determining stress and health outcomes.
4.6.5 Gender difference in coping styles Day et al (2003), supported the idea that females seek and use more emotional support than men. Day and Livingstone examined gender differences in perceptions of stressors and utilization of social support among university students. The results indicated that when 255 students were stressed, women reported that they would utilize emotional support (friend and family) to a greater degree than men.
Renk et al (2003), indicated that females used emotion-focused coping strategies more than their male counterparts. The results confirmed that females endorsed greater use of emotion-focused coping strategies than males. The results further indicated that late adolescents who were high in masculinity tended to use higher levels of problem-focused coping than those who were low in masculinity do. Also, they documented that males used more problem-focused coping strategies and that females used more emotion-focused coping strategies. The researchers pointed out those young males may have remained reluctant to use emotion-focused coping strategies because of gender stereotypes related to these strategies. Based on this study, gender identity was a more valuable predictor of coping strategies than gender.
Ager et al (1998), explored the psychometric properties of the Coping Strategy Indicator (Amirkhan, 1990) amongst 415 the first year undergraduate students at Chancellor College, the University of Malawi. The results of this study indicated that male students had scored higher on problem solving and female students higher on avoidance. The researchers pointed to traditional sex-role stereotypes (men as ‗active‘, women as somewhat more ‗passive‘) for explanation.
Beasley et al (2002), found that males and females did not differ significantly on their use of emotion-focused and problem- 256 focused coping strategies. They studied the resilience in response to life stress of 187 undergraduate and postgraduate students studying at the University of Tasmania. This cross-sectional study found no significant gender differences in coping style. This finding is contrary to those obtained from other studies, where males used more problem- focused coping strategies than females. It seems that while gender is associated with coping strategy, gender identity is a better predictor of coping style.
4.6.6 Personality risk factor
Personality as a coping style focuses on behavior rather than ego processes. Type- A personalities are time driven, impatient, insecure of status, highly competitive and aggressive, generally hostile, and incapable of relaxing (Rice, 1999). The type-A personality walks fast, talks fast, and is easily angered. This kind of person always has a sense of time urgency. The type-B person is just the opposite with a relaxed and easygoing personality and never seems in a hurry to do anything.
Rosenman (1974), who pointed out that this personality type-A is associated with increased stress, and increase risk of heart disease. Since then, many researchers have attempted to explore the implications of this personality type (e.g., Fichera & Andreassi, 2000; Kirkcaldy, Shephard, & Furnham, 2002).
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Kirkcaldy et al (2002), studied the influence of type-A behavior and locus of control upon job satisfaction and occupational health in 332 German managers. The results from this study showed that a type-A personality and an External locus of control were associated with greater perceived stress levels when compared to managers with a type B personality and an internal locus of control.
Heilbrun et al (1987), studied the relationship between type-A personality and stress in 53 male undergraduate university students. The participants responded to the Jenkins Activity Scale and a stress rating symptom rating form. The results showed that type A personality reported more stress over the previous year than type B personality.
Kirkcaldy (1999), studied the relationship between type-A personality, emotional distress and perceived health. Two hundred and fifty-five European managers responded to the Occupational Stress Indicator scales and explored the impact of personality factors on subjectively perceived job stress, satisfaction at work, and physical and psychological health. The results showed no significant relationship between personality, work satisfaction, and general health. This finding is contrary to those obtained from most other studies, where the type-A personality is associated with increased stress and increased risk of heart disease.
Moreover et al (1998), examined trait hostility and social interaction in relation to ambulatory cardiovascular activity in 40 male 258 and 39 female undergraduate students. The participants wore ambulatory blood pressure monitory and completed diary entries while engaged in everyday activities. The results indicated that hostility was associated with higher systolic blood pressure during social interaction, particularly in men. The researchers concluded that these effects were mediated by psychological processes and supported the hypothesis that there was a relationship between hostility and coronary disease.
Fichera et al (2000), who studied cardiovascular reactivity during public speaking as a function of personality variables in 86 men and women aged 17-45 years. The experiment was conducted to assess the effects of a real-life stressor (public speaking) upon cardiovascular reactivity by measuring the change in blood pressure and heart rate from baseline to task. The participants had a six minute oral presentation. Their professors and classmates evaluated the presentation. The results indicated that personality did not play a role except in the case of a high hostile personality.
Merz et al (2002), based on empirical evidence it seems that not all type-A personality characteristics are associated with stress and diseases. Although type-A personality is correlated with increases in blood pressure, cardiac reactivity, blood cholesterol and cigarette smoking, as well as poorer diet and exercise habits, it is the hostility and anger component of type A personality that produces an increased risk of stress and disease.
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4.7 THE CONCEPT OF STRESS MANAGEMENT
Coping strategies aim to treat the stress problem by managing internal/external demands from environment, which individuals appraised as endangering their resources.
McNamara (2000), coping strategies are defined as the defense mechanisms aimed at resolving internal conflict.
Lazarus et al (1984), stress management referred to the formal programs to prevent or ameliorate debilitating stress for people in general.
Monat et al (1991), described stress management as a general treatment approach to a wide variety of adaptations and health problems. Stress management, as a treatment, is universal with no one for whom treatment is unneeded or inappropriate.
Edelman et al (1998), stated that stress management is a critical component of a healthy lifestyle. They stated that healthy behaviors, such as good nutrition and exercise, might help strengthen individuals‘ resistance to stress.
Peiffer (2001), indicated that dealing with stress in a positive way is another way for managing stress. From all of the viewpoints, coping strategies are focused on reactions to stressed outcomes. In contrast, stress management is focused on not only dealing with stress 260 as it occurs but also building resilience and preventing stress. There are a wide variety of stress management strategies for individuals to use.
Sutherland et al (2000), described a tripartite approach to stress management within an organization. Primary level stress management is ‗stress directed‘ and aims to prevent stress by controlling the source of stress, such as engaging in sporting activities. Secondary level stress management is a ‗response directed‘ strategy that helps individuals respond to stress in a way that is not harmful to them. It suggests that using techniques aimed at improving stress coping processes could minimize stress. This level is concerned with increasing self-awareness, improving stress management skills, such as education, training to develop stress resistance, and coping strategies. Tertiary level stress management is ‗symptom directed‘ and aims to rehabilitate the stressed person. Tertiary level stress management is a curative approach for individuals that are suffering from the effects of exposure to stress, which might involve counseling services.
Pender (1996), divided the primary modes of intervention for stress management into three groups: minimizing the frequency of stress-inducing situations, increasing resistance to stress, and counter conditioning to avoid physiological arousal
4.7.1 Minimizing the frequency of stress-inducing situation
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Minimizing the frequency of stress-inducing situation consists of four subcategories, namely: changing the environment, avoiding excessive change, time blocking, and time management. Many environmental conditions are hazardous to individuals‘ health with direct physiological and psychological effects that lead to stress. If possible, environmental management is the best approach to minimize the frequency of stress-inducing situations.
World Health Organization (WHO, 1988), a commitment at all levels of government is required to ensure achieving a supportive environment. Avoiding excessive change means that any unnecessary changes should be avoided during a period of life change as this can result in a negative tension state. Time blocking technique is a set time for an individual to adapt to various stressors. Individuals use this time to consider specific changes and to develop strategies to modify it.
Sutherland (2000), indicated that in the concept of stress management, developing a personal sense of time was important.
4.7.2 Increasing resistance to stress
Pender (1996), focused on both physical and psychological conditions. Physical condition focuses on promoting exercise and psychological health. Many researchers indicated that exercise gives rise to positive effects, such as better health, higher quality of life, lower distress, and control of stress (e.g., Edelman & Mandle, 1998; Schafer, 1996). 262
Penders (1996), there are three ways that exercise promotes positive effects. Firstly, cardio-respiratory fitness improvement can promote psychological changes. Secondly, ―changes in exercise- related self-efficacy and mastery generalize to other situations, resulting in improvements in the self-concept and coping ability‖. Finally, exercise can reduce a stress response by blunting a person‘s psychophysiologic responsiveness to stressors. The author stated that further research is needed to determine in what conditions exercise can actually enhance stress-resistance.
Pender (1996), besides promoting exercise, promoting psychological well-being indicators, such as enhancing self-esteem, enhancing self-efficacy, increasing assertiveness, developing goal alternatives, and building coping resources are other important strategies for preventing stress. For example, self-efficacy is a better predictor of performance than actual ability.
Bandura (1977), indicated that the stronger the efficacy is, the more active the efforts are. Bandura pointed out that enhancing self- efficacy could be achieved through facilitating performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal.
Pender (1996), indicated that assertive behaviors could increase the individual capacity for psychological stress resistance. During assertiveness behaviors, individuals can share their perceptions and feelings with other people that are facilitating personal or group 263 productivity. In developing goal alternatives, individuals should develop goals in which accomplishment will be rewarded. They also should be flexible so if one goal is not completed; other options are available to permit achievement. 4.7.3 Counter-conditioning to avoid physiological arousal
Counter-conditioning aims to assist individuals to attain willing control of physiological responses to stressful events. By providing a set of stress management strategies, counter-conditioning‘s target is to relax muscle tension and increase parasympathetic functioning. To accomplish this strategy, three interventions are regularly used, relaxation training, biofeedback, and imagery.
Pender (1996), deep relaxation slows the metabolism and all the physical processes related to it, including a decrease in the body‘s oxygen consumption, a decreased respiration rate, a decreased heart rate, decreased muscle tension, decreased blood pressure, increased alpha brain waves, and enhanced immune functioning.
Schafer (1996), indicated that this technique creates a physiological response directly opposite to the stressful situation. Biofeedback can help individuals to learn to lower their arousal. Health professionals frequently utilize techniques such as electromyographic feedback (EMG), electroencephalograph (EEG), galvanic skin response (GSR), while individuals can use more simple devices. He described imagery (visualization or guided daydreaming) as a method of using image to reduce rational mental activity and 264 induce deep relaxation. This stress management technique involves imaging something very pleasant as a way of relaxing the mind.
Pender (1996), suggested a range of strategies for stress management. The decision regarding the uses of each these strategies or a combination of strategies is based on individual characteristics, the sources of stress, and the patterns of stressful response.
4.8 STRESS COPING STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERS
4.8.1 Health Habits
Staying in good health greatly affects your stress levels and helps you cope with anxiety and long days.
1. Stop smoking: That little buzz you get from a cigarette may calm you down temporarily, but the nicotine that‘s blowing into your system will actually make you jumpy and over alert. In the long run, that‘s not good news for your stress levels. 2. Minimize your caffeine: Teachers may thrive on coffee breaks, but consider cutting back to just a couple of cups a day. Even better would be to substitute at least one cup of coffee or soda for green tea. The tea can boost your immune system and contains less caffeine than coffee. 3. Eat breakfast: Eating a good breakfast not only boosts your metabolism, it also keeps you focused so that you‘re more productive throughout the entire day. 265
4. Snack right: It‘s easy to grab whatever snacks are in the vending machines or school cafeteria, but it‘s also important to eat right while you‘re at school. Physically, a diet of fatty, greasy foods will make you feel weighted down, bloated and tired, while your emotional state may be at risk too if you feel guilty about wrecking your diet. 5. Set realistic goals: As a teacher, it‘s easy to get caught up in saving your at-risk students from failure or sponsoring every club each semester. Set realistic goals for yourself and you‘ll be able to find a less stressful balance. 6. Visit the guidance counselor: If your school‘s counselor isn‘t a mental health professional, he or she may still be able to refer you to a local psychologist. Even if you aren‘t suffering from depression, talking things out with an unbiased medical professional is therapeutic. 7. Cut back on worrying: Worrying takes up too much time and energy; plus, it makes you even more stressed about things that aren‘t in your control. 8. Open up the windows: When it‘s nice outside, open up the windows to give you and your students a rejuvenating breath of fresh air. Sunlight will also improve your mood, so even if your windows don‘t open, crack open the blinds. 9. Aromatherapy: You can use this recipe for aromatherapy bath salts at home or at school. Just one whiff will help you feel relaxed and back in control. 10. Practice anger management: Even teachers with the purist of hearts sometimes can‘t wait to send their students home for the 266
day. Practice these anger management tips to prevent yourself from totally losing it.
4.8.2 Goodies for your Desk
Keep a stash of healthy snacks, photos, and even stickers in your desk when you need to indulge between classes and remind yourself what you‘re working for.
11. Chocolate: Sneak a little piece of chocolate once or twice a day to give your brain a boostof endorphins and indulge your sweet side. Dark chocolate is supposedly the best.
12. Stickers: Stickers are just for the kids, right? Keep your own sticker sheet or rewards card and give yourself a sticker every time you handle a crisis in the classroom or finish the week on a good note.
13. Favorite tools: Your supplies drawer for the students can have a mish mash of pens, crayons, scissors and notecards, but save the best for yourself in your locked drawer. Even something as simple as getting to write cards with your favorite colorful pens can make you feel better.
14. Healthy snacks: Pack a survival kit full of healthy snacks before you leave for school each day, and you can munch and crunch away without feeling guilty. Many of these foods like almonds, baby carrots and tuna will also help your focus. 267
15. Lunch menus for take-out: Some days you just need to treat yourself for lunch. Keep a stack of nearby restaurants that deliver healthy take-out meals and indulge yourself between the bells.
16. Vacation calendar: Whether you‘ve just highlighted all your vacation days on the school district calendar or you actually have a countdown to your next trip, sneak a peak at a vacation calendar to give yourself motivation.
17. Goal presents: If tales of the greater good aren‘t getting you through a really tough time, remind yourself of the practical reasons why you‘re sticking with your job. Keep a picture from a catalog of the new shoes you‘ll buy with your next paycheck, or the new TV you‘re saving up for.
18. Photos: Put pictures up of your friends, family and pets to make you feel close to your personal life even when you‘re at work.
19. An organization system: A cluttered desk will make you feel stressed as you frantically look for lost papers, contact information and your stash of dark chocolates.
20. Stress ball: Don‘t underestimate the power of a stress ball. These days, they come in all kinds of funny shapes and characters, and a quick squeeze now and then can help you calm down.
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4.8.3 Mottoes and Mantras
Stay motivated by reciting these mantras and reading these inspirational teacher quotes every morning.
21. Recite a spiritual passage or motto: Many mental health and stress experts encourage individuals suffering from stress to pursue a spiritual path that makes sense to them. Common messages from different spiritual leaders include compassion, inner peace, and "a notion of caring for themselves," according to Dr. Edward T. Creagan, a Mayo Clinic oncologist. 22. Meditate: Take a minute or two to meditate at your desk or even at the dry erase board when students are pushing you to your limit. 23. One thing at a time: Try to only tackle one task at a time, and you‘ll work down your to-do list much more efficiently. 24. Summertime, Summertime, Sum Sum Summertime: This classic oldies song will have you counting down the days until summer vacation and picturing yourself on the beach or by the pool, away from students and lesson plans. 25. "Good teaching is one-fourth preparation and Three- fourths Theater.” Gail Godwin‘s quote may make you feel less guilty when you suddenly feel unprepared. 26. "What the teacher is is more important than what he teaches.": This quote from Karl Menninger can help you through irritating state tests and other required lessons that make you feel like you‘re wasting your time. 269
27. "The best teachers teach from the heart, not from the book.": Toss out your dreary textbooks and get creative with each new unit. 28. "It’s easy to make a buck. It’s a lot tougher to make a difference. ": The next time someone makes you feel guilty for not earning as much money as them, remember this quote from Tom Brokaw. 29. "He, who opens a school door, closes a prison.": Victor Hugo‘s quote is especially relevant for teachers of at-risk students and those who feel frustrated when trying to inspire stubborn kids. 30. Inspirational quotes for teachers: Check out this list for even more inspirational quotes just for teachers.
4.8.4 Organization Tools
Staying organized will also beat back stress, as you‘ll be able to meet deadlines, remember projects and field trips, and have more time for yourself.
31. Google Calendar: Set up events and schedules for lesson plan submission dates, in-service workshops and more by using Google Calendar. 32. ubernote: This cute tool lets you dump lists, contact information, event plans, special project ideas, field trip materials and more into several different notepads that keep you organized and on track. 270
33. Notesake: This tool is great for teachers who are pursuing a higher degree, going to workshops or earning more credit hours for their certification. You can take notes faster and organize your notes so that you‘ll be able to find them once you want to plan a lesson. 34. eFax: Keep your runs to the teachers‘ lounge to a minimum by using eFax, which lets you send out permission reports, progress reports and anything else you need signed over the Internet. 35. Backpack: This very popular tool lets you "centralize and share information" with other teachers in your department. You can maintain a department calendar, share pages and a to-do list. 36. Toodledo: Toodledo sends reminders to your mobile phone so you never forget a task. 37. Project Stat.us: Keep your principal and supervisors updated with new project information or your certification process with this collaboration tool that lets you organize your progress online. 38. Evernote: Use this beta tool to capture images and websites on your computer or your mobile phone. You can then organize your notes and presentations for class wherever you are. 39. Tools and Templates: If you don‘t have time to design your own certificates, game tools, or work sheets, pull from this list of tools and templates for teachers. 40. Google for Educators: Here you‘ll find some of the best available Google tools and apps just for teachers. 271
4.8.5 Inspirational Podcasts and Sites
Visit these websites for teacher support and ideas for managing unruly classrooms and parents.
41. Teachers at Risk: Dealing with Stress: Read these posts to learn better ways to deal with stress. 42. Thoughts on Teaching: Commiserate with this teacher who blogs about classroom management, department meetings and more. 43. Teacher screech: Here, you‘ll find "rants and musings about dyslexia, learning disabilities and other challenges." 44. Poem of the Day: While English teachers can use this site as a teaching tool for students, it‘s also a good way to start the day, just for you. 45. Teacher Lingo: Find teacher blogs, lesson plans and more on this teacher community online. 46. Hip Teacher: Check out the daily adventures and discouragements of this "hip" teacher. 47. Pro-Teacher Community: Get teaching ideas or teaching support here. 48. It’s Not All Flowers and Sausages: Read this blog "for teachers who rock and are frustrated by the day to day drama that gets in the way of our interactions with children. Don‘t get me wrong," she writes, "I love my job, but sometimes a girl has gotta vent…" 49. Teachers.net: Access chat boards, project ideas, a calendar and more on this site. 272
50. New Teacher Support: The UNC – Chapel Hill School of Education lists several tips and reality checks for new teachers here.
4.8.6 Getting the Support You Need
Reach out to other teachers, your friends and family, and even your principal to get the support you need and feel less stressed about your decisions.
51. Get to know the parents: Whether it‘s a simple note home, a parent-teacher conference or a phone call, let the parents of your students know you care. Building up a relationship with them will also help you understand your student‘s behavior and performance in class. 52. Rely on family: Rely on family members for support when you‘re really stressed: they‘ll keep you grounded and will help you prioritize your needs as well as your job‘s responsibilities. 53. Let trustworthy students help: If you‘re swamped with grading, decorating the bulletin board or running errands to different teachers‘ rooms, ask a trustworthy student or two to help alleviate your burden. 54. Get to know your principal: In large schools, it can be hard for new teachers to get to know the principal, but this tip will help you feel like you‘ve got someone behind your back in case something happens with students, parents or other teachers. 55. Use e-mail to connect during the day: Many schools have e- mail networks just for administration and teachers. Use this 273
system to your advantage by staying connected with other teachers so you don‘t feel so lonely or isolated in your room. 56. Make the most of in-services: They take up extra time, but in- services and workshops can also help you get ahead with lesson plans and organization. 57. Happy hour with other teachers: After school, kick back with your teacher friends and head to happy hour. You can rant about students and commiserate about standardized test prep. 58. Ask for help: If you need help juggling all of your duties, don‘t feel like it‘s shameful to ask. Everyone needs an assistant now and then. 59. Use substitutes: When you‘re sick or just need a day to catch up, call in a sub to take over the daily grind while you rest up or finish some grading. 60. Go online: There a number of teacher blogs and forums online that will help you find support in your community, offer advice for dealing with stress, and inspire you to keep going.
4.8.7 Tiny Tricks
These tiny little tricks, from hanging out with non-teacher friends to taking deep breaths, will help you de-stress all week long.
61. Pursue your own hobbies: Stay grounded by pursuing your own hobbies outside of school, like horseback riding, running, blogging, or painting. 274
62. Buy one frivolous things a week: Whether it‘s a funky pair of socks, a new CD or some new perfume or cologne, buying something just to indulge yourself will keep your spirits up. 63. Spend time outside: Walk to school once a week, take your dog to the park or do some grading on your patio to give your brain and your emotional well-being a boost. 64. Pursue your own work in your field: Set aside a little time to organize an experiment, write an article for a professional journal or give a talk at a conference to give yourself even more career and intellectual satisfaction. 65. Read a book just for you: The next time you pick out a book, don‘t do it because you think it might be a good read for your students. Pick something out just for you as a way to unwind. 66. Prioritize: Learning how to prioritize is a proven way to lower stress levels, get more tasks accomplished, and have extra time for you. 67. Have weekly dinners with non-teacher friends: Get together with your non-teacher friends so that you‘re not always talking about school and students. 68. Sneak in a sick day: Even if you aren‘t really sick, give yourself a personal day to stay home from school, go to the beach, catch up on errands, or get a manicure. 69. Plan a vacation: Even if it‘s just a weekend getaway, planning a vacation will give you something to look forward to and give you a chance to unwind. 70. Breathe: Deep breaths can make you feel more relaxed and focused in seconds. 275
4.8.8 When You Go Home
Teachers have homework too, but when you go home, it‘s important to unwind and focus on yourself. Follow these tips for de- stressing at home.
71. Only do the extras: As a teacher, you know it‘s pretty much impossible not to bring your work home with you, but if you can, limit your homework to projects that allow you to get ahead, not catch up. You‘ll feel less rushed and more pleased with yourself doing this kind of work, even if you‘re at home. 72. Time for yourself: Between the grocery store, last minute study guides and exam preps, and spending time with your family, make sure you carve out a little time just for you, even if it‘s just to read a book before bed, watch the evening news or paint your nails. 73. Have other interests: Besides teaching, find something new to talk about with your family, like gardening, movies or even mindless celebrity gossip. 74. Don’t check your school e-mail: When you get home, try not to check your school e-mail. Unless you‘re waiting on an important message, the e-mails you receive will just cause you unnecessary stress for problems that won‘t be able to be solved right then anyway. 75. Pamper yourself: Take a bath, shop online, make dessert or give yourself a facial to feel good about you and forget about school work. 276
76. Do something constructive: When you get home, the only thing on your mind is probably to plop down on the couch and watch TV. Doing something constructive, though, will keep you energized and promote personal growth. You can start an art project, tutor a friend or work on a home improvement project. 77. Keep the rest of your life organized: If you‘re super organized and always on the ball at school but your home is a mess and you never see your friends, you need to work on striking a balance. Clutter in any part of your life will make you feel stressed all the time. 78. Go out: Your life needs to be about more than just home and school. Try to get out at least once a week on a school night to meet friends for a drink, head to a coffee shop, take a night class or go out dancing. 79. Have sex: Having sex is a fun and healthy way to relieve stress. 80. Volunteer: On the weekends or after school join a volunteer program to meet new people, forget about your school life and keep your struggles in perspective.
4.8.9 Diet, Exercise and Sleep
Having a regular routine for diet, exercise and sleeping is important to managing your stress levels.
81. Yoga: Besides the relaxing but effective exercise moves, yoga also promotes a calming quality of life. 277
82. Dance lessons: Spice up your exercise routine by burning stress and calories with advance lesson or a night at a salsa club. 83. Go to bed early: If you‘re totally exhausted, don‘t stay up to watch late night TV. Just cuddle up and go to bed early to catch up on sleep. 84. Keep a regular schedule: A regular sleeping schedule lets your body get the most out of sleep, helps you fall asleep faster, and wake up on time more easily. 85. Don’t overindulge on the weekends: It‘s a good idea to catch up on your rest on the weekends, but don‘t sleep so much that you get behind in your chores or social activities: that will just lead to even more stress. 86. Kickboxing: This aggressive exercise is great for when you need to release a lot of stress and frustration. 87. Avoid sleep disrupting foods: Heavy, rich foods and some spicy foods disrupt your sleep patterns, so don‘t indulge in these treats right before bed. 88. Don’t work in bed: While it may seem like a comfy solution to annoying homework, avoid working in bed. This may make it harder for you to fall asleep or associate your bed with unpleasant emotions. 89. Eat fish: Fish is known to be "a stress buster" food that also helps your brain focuses. 90. Vitamin C: Vitamin C is boosts your immune system and lowers stress levels. 278
91. Red wine: Red wine can help you unwind and relax after a stressful day, and when drunk in moderation, it can also deliver health benefits like good antioxidants.
4.8.10 Improving Your Game
While some of these tips may cause you to work longer hours, they will help you become a more qualified teacher and give you a stronger sense of your professional achievement, making you feel less overwhelmed and more confident in your position. By sponsoring a club or getting your students involved in a big project, you can also find the time to realize your own dreams and pursue your own hobbies.
92. Don’t resist change: Resisting new technology trends and teaching styles will just make you feel left behind and disconnected. Implement new tools, blogs, and multimedia presentations to connect with your new generation of students and younger teachers. 93. Go to teacher conventions: Be on the cutting edge of your field and education by going to teacher conventions and connecting with other educators. 94. Apply for grants: Even if you don‘t get it, you will at least have the satisfaction that you had enough drive to complete a grant writing project. 95. Be proactive: Be proactive about your students and your career, by looking for extra responsibility, applying for a promotion, and researching exciting new projects. 279
96. Get your students involved in a cause: From starting a local recycling project to linking up with students from another country, you can toss out ideas to your students that also appeal to your own interests. 97. Go back to school: Earn a higher degree or renew your certification by taking night classes or going to summer school. 98. Sponsor a club: If your school doesn‘t offer a club that is interesting to you, offer to start one and be the sponsor. It doesn‘t even have to be related to academics: you could share your talent for cooking, sewing, building models or web design.
4.8.11 Staying Stress-Free Every day
You‘ll undoubtedly have tough days dealing with students, parents and even other teachers, but these last tips will help keep you centered.
99. Laugh: Laugh along with your students or share a joke of the day to keep the mood in your classroom light.
100.Listen to music: In the car and between classes, turn on the radio or play your favorite CD to escape for a while.
101. Remember that there’s always tomorrow: No matter how bad your day was, remember that when you get home, you can just go to sleep and wake up with a fresh start. 102. Breathe Easily: ―Breathing from your diaphragm oxygenates your blood, which helps you relax almost instantly,‖ says Robert Cooper, Ph.D., the San Francisco coauthor of The 280
Power of 5(Rodale Press, 1996), a book of five-second and five-minute health tips. Shallow chest breathing, by contrast, can cause your heart to beat faster and your muscles to tense up, exacerbating feelings of stress. To breathe deeply, begin by putting your hand on your abdomen just below the navel. Inhale slowly through your nose and watch your hand move out as your belly expands. Hold the breath for a few seconds, and then exhale slowly. Repeat several times. 103. Visualize Calm: It sounds New Age-y, but at least one study, done at the Cleveland Clinic Foundation, has found that it‘s highly effective in reducing stress. Dr. Cooper recommends imagining you‘re in a hot shower and a wave of relaxation is washing your stress down the drain. Gerald Epstein, M.D., the New York City author of Healing Visualizations (Bantam Doubleday Dell Press, 1989), suggests the following routine: Close your eyes, take three long, slow breaths, and spend a few seconds picturing a relaxing scene, such as walking in a meadow, kneeling by a brook, or lying on the beach. Focus on the details — the sights, the sounds, the smells. 104. Make Time for a Mini Self-Massage: Maria Hernandez- Reif, Ph.D., of the Touch Research Institute at the University of Miami School of Medicine, recommends simply massaging the palm of one hand by making a circular motion with the thumb of the other. Or use a massage gadget. The Self Care catalog offers several, such as the S-shaped Tamm unit, that allow you to massage hard-to-reach spots on your back. For a free catalog, call 800-345-3371 or go towww.selfcare.com. 281
105. Try a Tonic: A study at Duke University in Durham, NC, found homeopathy effective in quelling anxiety disorders. Look for stress formulas such as Nerve Tonic (from Hyland) or Sedalia (from Boiron) in your health food store, or consult a licensed homeopath. To find one near you, contact the National Center for Homeopathy, 801 North Fairfax St., Suite 306, Alexandria, VA 22314; 703-548-7790 or go to www.healthy.net. 106. Say Cheese: Smiling is a two-way mechanism. We do it when we‘re relaxed and happy, but doing it can also make us feel relaxed and happy. ―Smiling transmits nerve impulses from the facial muscles to the limbic system, a key emotional center in the brain, tilting the neurochemical balance toward calm,‖ Dr. Cooper explains. Go ahead and grin. Don‘t you feel better already? 107. Do Some Math: Using a scale of one to 10, with one being the equivalent of a minor hassle and 10 being a true catastrophe, assign a number to whatever it is that‘s making you feel anxious. ―You‘ll find that most problems we encounter rate somewhere in the two to five range — in other words, they‘re really not such a big deal,‖ says Dr. Elkin. 108. Stop Gritting Your Teeth: Stress tends to settle in certain parts of our bodies, the jaw being one of them. When things get hectic, try this tip from Dr. Cooper: Place your index fingertips on your jaw joints, just in front of your ears; clench your teeth and inhale deeply. Hold the breath for a moment, 282
and as you exhale say, ―Ah-h-h-h,‖ then unclench your teeth. Repeat a few times. 109. Compose a Mantra: Devise an affirmation — a short, clear, positive statement that focuses on your coping abilities. ―Affirmations are a good way to silence the self-critical voice we all carry with us that only adds to our stress,‖ Dr. Elkin says. The next time you feel as if your life is one disaster after another, repeat 10 times, ―I feel calm. I can handle this.‖ 110. Check Your Chi: Qigong (pronounced chee-gong) is a 5,000- year-old Chinese practice designed to promote the flow of chi, the vital life force that flows throughout the body, regulating its functions. Qigong master Ching-Tse Lee, Ph.D., a professor of psychology at Brooklyn College in New York, recommends this calming exercise: Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart and parallel. Bend your knees to a quarter-squat position (about 45 degrees) while keeping your upper body straight. Observe your breathing for a couple of breaths. Inhale and bring your arms slowly up in front of you to shoulder height with your elbows slightly bent. Exhale, stretching your arms straight out. Inhale again, bend your elbows slightly and drop your arms down slowly until your thumbs touch the sides of your legs. Exhale one more time, and then stand up straight. 111. Be a Fighter: ―At the first sign of stress, you often hear people complain, ‗What did I do to deserve this?‘‖ says Dr. Cooper. The trouble is, feeling like a victim only increases feelings of stress and helplessness. Instead, focus on being 283
proactive. If your flight gets canceled, don‘t wallow in self- pity. Find another one. If your office is too hot or too cold, don‘t suffer in silence. Call the building manager and ask what can be done to make things more comfortable. 112. Put It on Paper: Writing provides perspective, says Paul J. Rosch, M.D., president of the American Institute of Stress in Yonkers, NY. Divide a piece of paper into two parts. On the left side, list the stressors you may be able to change, and on the right, list the ones you can‘t. ―Change what you can,‖ Dr. Rosch suggests, ―and stop fretting over what you can‘t.‖ 113. Count to 10: Before you say or do something you‘ll regret, step away from the stressor and collect yourself, advises Dr. Cooper. You can also look away for a moment or put the caller on hold. Use your time-out to take a few deep breaths, stretch, or recite an affirmation. 114. Switch to Decaf: Wean yourself slowly, or you might get a caffeine-withdrawal headache that could last for several days, cautions James Duke, Ph.D., the Fulton, MD, author of The Green Pharmacy (Rodale Press, 1997). Subtract a little regular coffee and add some decaf to your morning cup. Over the next couple of weeks, gradually increase the proportion of decaf to regular until you‘re drinking all decaf. You should also consider switching from regular soft drinks to caffeine-free ones or sparkling mineral water. 115. Just Say No: Trying to do everything is a one-way ticket to serious stress. Be clear about your limits, and stop trying to please everyone all the time. 284
116. Take a Whiff: Oils of anise, basil, bay, chamomile, eucalyptus, lavender, peppermint, rose, and thyme are all soothing, say Kathy Keville and Mindy Green, coauthors of Aromatherapy: A Complete Guide to the Healing Art (Crossing Press, 1995). Place a few pieces of rock salt in a small vial, and then add a couple of drops of the oil of your choice (the rock salt absorbs the oil and is much less risky to carry around in your purse than a bottle of oil). Open the vial and breathe in the scent whenever you need a quick stress release. Look for the oils in your local health food store, or try one of the following mail-order companies: Aroma-Vera, 5901 Rodeo Rd., Los Angeles, CA 90016, 800-669-9514; or Leydet Aromatics, P.O. Box 2354, Fair Oaks, CA 95628, 916- 965-7546. 117. Warm Up: Try this tip from David Sobel, M.D., in San Jose, CA, author of The Healthy Mind, Healthy Body Handbook (I S H K Book Service, 1997) : Rub your hands together vigorously until they feel warm. Then cup them over your closed eyes for five seconds while you breathe deeply. The warmth and darkness are comforting. 118. Say Yes to Pressure: Acupressure stimulates the same points as acupuncture, but with fingers instead of needles. Michael Reed Gach, Ph.D., director of the Acupressure Institute in Berkeley, CA, recommends pressing on the following three points:
The Third Eye, located between the eyebrows, in the indentation where the bridge of the nose meets the forehead. 285
The Heavenly Pillar, on the back of the neck slightly below the base of the skull, about half an inch to the left or right of the spine.
The Heavenly Rejuvenation, half an inch below the top of each shoulder, midway between the base of the neck and the outside of the shoulder blade.
Breathe deeply and apply firm, steady pressure on each point for two to three minutes. The pressure should cause a mild aching sensation, but not pain. 119. Schedule Worry Time: Some stressors demand immediate attention — a smoke alarm siren or a police car‘s whirling red light. But many low-grade stressors can be dealt with at a later time, when it‘s more convenient. ―File them away in a little mental compartment, or make a note,‖ Dr. Elkin says, ―then deal with them when the time is right. Don‘t let them control you.‖ 120. Shake It Up: This quick exercise helps loosen the muscles in your neck and upper back, says Dr. Sobel: Stand or sit, stretch your arms out from your sides and shake your hands vigorously for about 10 seconds. Combine this with a little deep breathing, Dr. Sobel says, and you‘ll do yourself twice as much good. 121. Munch Some Snacks: Foods that are high in carbohydrates stimulate the release of serotonin, feel-good brain chemicals that help induce calm, says Dr. Cooper. Crackers, pretzels, or a bagel should do the trick. 286
122. Boost Your Vitamin Intake: Elizabeth Somer, R.D., author of Food and Mood (Owl Books, 1999), in Salem, OR, recommends that women take a daily multivitamin and mineral formula that contains between 100% and 300% of the recommended dietary allowances of vitamin B, as well as the minerals calcium, magnesium, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium and zinc. Avoid stress formulas, which often contain large amounts of randomly formulated nutrients, such as the B vitamins, but little or nothing else, Somer says. 123. Get Horizontal: If sex has been on the bottom of your to-do list for too long, moves it to the top. Sex increases levels of endorphins, those mood-boosting chemicals in the brain, and it‘s one of the best total-body relaxers around, says Louanne Cole Weston, Ph.D., a sex therapist in Sacramento, CA. Make a date with your mate, and don‘t let anything get in the way. 124. Admit It: Each of us has uniquely individual stress signals — neck or shoulder pain, shallow breathing, stammering, teeth gritting, queasiness, loss of temper. Learn to identify yours, then say out loud, ―I‘m feeling stressed,‖ when they crop up, recommends Dr. Rosch. Recognizing your personal stress signals helps slow the buildup of negativity and anxiety. 125. Space Out: Look out the window and find something natural that captures your imagination, advises Dr. Sobel. Notice the clouds rolling by or the wind in the trees. 126. Try Tea: By now most of us know about the calming properties of chamomile tea. But a steaming cup of catnip, 287
passionflower, skullcap or kava kava also work, according to Dr. Duke. Whether you use tea bags or loose tea (one teaspoon of tea per cup of boiling water), steep for about 10 minutes to get the full benefits of the herbs. 127. Take a Walk: It forces you to breathe more deeply and improves circulation, says Dr. Cooper. Step outside if you can; if that‘s not possible, you can gain many of the same benefits simply by walking to the bathroom or water cooler, or by pacing back and forth. ―The key is to get up and move,‖ Dr. Cooper says. 128. Soak it Up: ―When I have the time, nothing is more stress relieving for me than a hot bath,‖ Dr. Weston says. ―But when I don‘t have time, I do the next-best thing: I wash my face or even just my hands and arms with hot water. The key is to imagine that I‘m taking a hot bath. It‘s basically a visualization exercise, but the hot water makes it feel real.‖ 129. Play a Few Bars: A number of recent studies have shown that music can do everything from slow heart rate to increase endorphins. Good bets: Bach‘s ―Air on the G-String,‖ Beethoven‘sPastorale symphony, Chopin‘s Nocturne in G, Handel‘s Water Music, or pianist George Winston‘s CDs Autumn or December. 130. Fall for Puppy Love: In a study of 100 women conducted last year at the State University of New York at Buffalo, researchers found that those who owned a dog had lower blood pressure than those who didn‘t. If you don‘t have a 288
pooch, visit a friend‘s: Petting an animal for just a couple of minutes helps relieve stress, researchers have found. 131. Practice Mindfulness: Heighten your awareness of the moment by focusing intently on an object. Notice a pencil‘s shape, color, weight and feel. Or slowly savor a raisin or a piece of chocolate. Mindfulness leads to relaxation. 132. Dial a Friend Sharing your troubles can give you perspective, help you feel cared for and relieve your burden. 133. Stretch Muscles tighten during the course of the day, and when we feel stressed out, the process accelerates. Stretching loosens muscles and encourages deep breathing. Molly Fox, creative fitness director at the Equinox Fitness Center in New York City, says one of the greatest stress-relieving stretches is a yoga position called the child pose, which stretches the back muscles. On a rug or mat, kneel, sit back on your heels, then lean forward and put your forehead on the floor and your arms alongside your legs, palms up. Hold for one to three minutes. 134. Say a Little Prayer Studies show that compared with those who profess no faith, religious and spiritual people are calmer and healthier. 135. Make Plans ―Looking forward to something provides calming perspective,‖ Dr. Elkin says. Buy concert tickets, schedule a weekend getaway, or make an appointment for a massage. 136. Goof Off It temporarily removes you from potentially stressful situations. Esther Orioli, president of Essi Systems, a San Francisco consultant company that organizes stress- management programs, keeps a harmonica in the drawer for 289
when she‘s feeling stressed out. Bonus: Playing it promotes deep breathing. 137. Straighten Up When people are under stress; they slump over as if they have the weight of the world on their shoulders. ―Slumping restricts breathing and reduces blood and oxygen flow to the brain, adding to muscle tension and magnifying feelings of panic and helplessness,‖ Dr. Cooper explains. Straightening your spine has just the opposite effect. It promotes circulation, increases oxygen levels in your blood and helps lessen muscle tension, all of which promote relaxation. 138. Tiptoe Through the Tulips Tending your garden helps get you out of your head and lets you commune with nature, a known stress reliever. If you‘re not a gardener, tend to a houseplant. Plants = growth = cycle of life, a nice reminder that stress, too, will pass. 139. Take a Deep Breath and Count to Ten - Taking a deep breath or two adds oxygen to your system, which almost instantly helps you relax. In addition, taking a moment to step back can help you maintain your composure, which in the long run, is what you need to work rationally through a stressful situation.
Start with ―take a deep breath‖ and…
1. Count to ten (or more or less as the situation warrants!) 2. Stand up and stretch. Remember relaxation is the opposite of stress. 290
3. Stand up and smile. Try it! You‘ll feel better! 4. Take a short walk. If you‘re at work, take a bathroom break or get a glass of water. Do something that changes your focus. When you come back to the problem, chances are it won‘t seem nearly as insurmountable. 5. In the book Gone with the Wind, Scarlett O‘hara says, ―I can't think about that right now. If I do, I'll go crazy. I'll think about that tomorrow.‖ Good advice.
140. Stop and Smell the Roses - ―Things happen‖ and sometimes ―bad things happen to good people‖. If we let them, stressful events can build up, wall us in, and eventually stop us from enjoying the good things in life. 141. Take the time. Too often we put the pleasantries of life on the back burner, telling ourselves we don‘t ―have time‖ or can‘t ―make time‖ for them. However, actually, time is the only thing we do completely own. While we can‘t ―make‖ a day that‘s longer than 24 hours, each of us starts the day with exactly that amount of time. Take a part of your time to recognize the good things in your life. 142. Sleep on it. Every coin has two sides and every issue has both pros and cons. List them both then put the list away and take a second look tomorrow. Sometimes ―sleeping on‖ a situation changes the minuses to pluses. 143. Every cloud has a silver lining. After all, rain makes things grow! Ben Franklin found good in a bolt of lightning. Find the good in your stressful situation by listing the negative surges 291
and determining what it will take to make them into positive charges! 144. A Man's Got to Know His Limitations: Knowing yourself and your limits may be the most important way to manage stress effectively. 145. Dare to say no. One more little thing may be the ―straw that breaks the camel‘s back‖. It‘s okay to say ―No‖, ―I can‘t‖, or ―Later‖. 146. Acquit yourself. Sometimes events really are out of control and you really are ―Not Guilty‖. Quit blaming yourself. 147. Be pro-active in finding peace. Those who unsuccessfully use the crutches of drugs and/or alcohol to alleviate stress often find themselves in a twelve-step program like A.A. where one of the mainstays is the Serenity Prayer:
―God grant me the Serenity to accept the things I cannot change; The Courage to change the things I can; and the Wisdom to know the difference.‖
148. When you need help, get help. Even Atlas couldn‘t bear the weight of the world on his shoulders forever. Whether you need help from kids or spouse in hauling groceries into the house, help from a colleague to solve a work-related problem, or professional help to find the causes of and effectively manage your stress, getting the help you need is in itself a major stress management tip. 149. Why are you working? Work is the exertion of undertaking mental or physical activity for a purpose or out of necessity. It is also defined as proceeding along a path towards a goal. 292
Most workplace stress starts when we lose sight of the necessity of our work, the purpose of our job, and/or our goals. You can reduce much of your stress and regain your perspective by redefining why you are working. 150. Change your focus: You may not be able to cut back on hours at work, but you can work to live and not live to work. Because of the number of hours many employees work per week, the job can easily become all-encompassing. We wake and get ready for work, drive to work, spend eight or more hours at work, and finally drive home from work. As you can see, although we aren‘t getting paid, we are ―at work‖ for much longer than eight hours a day! Learning to keep work in focus during work hours and life in focus after hours will take you a long way towards managing workplace stress.
1. School yourself to wake and get ready, not for work, but for your day. 2. On the drive to work, listen to music, humor – anything that isn't related to work. 3. Take an alternate route to work. The change in scenery will help you stay alert to the road and keep your mind off the job. 4. Plan your work and work your plan. Devote every paid minute to your job. Deviate from your work plan only when absolutely necessary. 5. Take your allotted breaks. Remember: the opposite of stress is relaxation. Don‘t work through lunch or coffee breaks. This also means don‘t think or talk about work during your breaks. 293
6. Instead of coffee, drink water, juice, or electrolyte infused drinks. Dehydration often is the cause of fatigue. Coffee and soft drinks that contain caffeine may seem to ―keep you going‖, but in reality they add to stress and don‘t keep your body hydrated. 7. Keep a copy of Stress Management Tips, Stress Reliever Games, and Stress Relieving Exercises nearby and refer to it when you need to get through a stressful occurrence. 8. Just as you plan your work, plan your time away from work. At day‘s end, leave work behind you and focus on your plans for the evening. Work to live. Relaxation away from work means less stress… and a better day tomorrow!
4.8.12 Family Stress Management
Bills, kids, household chores, spousal relationships… all can cause family stress. In addition to day-to-day stressors, crises like a fire or a death within the family place maximum stress on family relationships. However, learning to cope with daily family stress strengthens your family and makes it easier to cope with family crisis as well.
151. The Strong Family Unit: Especially these days when both partners in a family have careers and children are involved in diverse extra-curricular activities, it‘s very easy for the family unit to break down, resulting in a number of separate individuals living under one roof. Each individual becomes isolated, facing his/her own problems and left to solve them on 294
their own. Abraham Lincoln said, ―A house divided against it cannot stand.‖ Although he was talking about the US in time of Civil War, for families his statement is literally true. Unfortunately, stress for one member of a family stresses and often divides the entire family. When one part is stressed, the whole unit can collapse. The solution is to work through problems as a family, but for the solution to be effective, the family unit needs to be strong. 152. Take Time for the Family: Family togetherness doesn‘t mean constantly holding hands. Neither does it mean that if Jimmy and Dad like football, Mom and Suzy have to like it, too. The phrase ―quality time‖ has become trite with over-use, but it is quality time spent together that reduces daily family stress and builds strong families that can weather both small storms and large crises. 153. Working at household chores together: Completing simple household chores as a family has several advantages. Doing dishes, raking the yard, spring cleaning, or holding a garage sale offers the family time to communicate, lightens the load for individual family members, and lets individuals build skills and self-esteem. 154. Share a meal. Share at least one meal each day: Albeit, dinner time these days is often hectic with individuals having conflicting work and activity schedules. If this is true in your family, start having family breakfasts. Mealtime is a great time to tune into individual schedules and plan family activities. If 295
you can‘t do it everyday, schedule it as a regular family ―event‖. 155. The family “event”. A special activity can be as complex as a family vacation or as simple as, a trip to the local park or just a family movie night. Plan the activity as a family and make the activity an ―event‖ where each member contributes to making it a successful and enjoyable occasion. (Simple Example- Family Movie Night - Make a list of movies that you all want to see. Then, choose one of them scheduling a specific night and time for the event. That night, Mom washes the dishes, Jimmy wipes, Suzy pops the popcorn, and Dad goes to pick up the movie.) 156. Don’t avoid discussion: If it‘s a problem for you or a problem that you notice is causing stress in another family member, chances are it‘s a stressor for the entire family as well. Talk it out and work towards finding a solution. 157. Don’t trivialize: Whether the problem is as significant as a spouse losing a job or as unimportant to you as the death of your daughter‘s pet frog, the problem is a stressor for the individual that can ultimately cause stress for the family. Let the individual talk it out, be a good listener, and show them that solving the problem is important to the family. 158. Don’t lay blame: When there‘s a problem it really doesn‘t matter who‘s at fault. Define the problem and work towards a solution. 159. Respect privacy: If a family member brings a problem to you in confidence, respect it. Don‘t air it for discussion without 296
their agreement. If you are unable to agree to keep the confidence, be honest in your refusal. For instance, often parents reach decisions about children together. If a child says, ―But, don‘t tell Dad,‖ your response might be, ―I‘m sorry, but Dad and I don‘t keep secrets. He needs to know about this. Would you like us to tell him together or would you rather not be there when I tell him?‖ In summary, building a strong family unit that effectively manages day-to-day stressors not only makes your home a place for each member to relax, recharge, and rejuvenate but also builds the skills necessary for the family to come together in a crisis and effectively manage family stress.
4.8.13 Stress Reliever Games
When tension mounts and frustration builds, it‘s a sure sign of stress. Playing a stress relieving game relaxes you and is a good way to win over stress! The trick to stress reliever games is to play ones you can win easily. What you want to do is show yourself that you can be successful. After you get a few ―wins‖ under your belt, frequently you‘ll see your original problem in a new perspective.
160. Internet Flash Games: From pounding a ground hog to batting a tennis ball, there are (virtually) tons of flash games on the Internet and best of all, most are free to play! The best way to load up your anti-stress arsenal is to do a simple search for ―Free Flash Games‖ or ―Flash Games‖ and bookmark a 297
few of them in your favorites. Although shareware and free games often require a download, most flash games only need a moment or two to load in your browser window. If you‘re worried about pop-ups, look for flash games at reputable sites that sell flash software or offer flash tutorials.
161. Computer Games If you‘re running Windows, you already have a few easy stress reliever games on your PC. FreeCell, Minesweeper, and Solitaire are great ways to relieve your stress. If you‘re tired of those, many Internet sites offer a free, timed-trial version of their computer games. These games are usually shareware and, depending on your Internet connection, may take a few minutes to download. The selection is nearly endless. Choose from Arcade Games, Action Games, Puzzle Games, and Strategy Games. One advantage of downloaded computer games is that you needn‘t be connected to the Internet to play them. When your free trial is over, you can choose to either purchase the game or use the included uninstaller to erase it from your computer‘s hard drive.
161. Off-line Stress-busting Games: If you‘re sitting all day at a computer, sometimes the best break is to get up and walk away. This is especially true when stress is caused by poor Internet Connections or system crashes. Here are a few games that are easy to keep on hand and excellent for helping you reduce your stress: 162. Got a deck of cards?: Play a quick game of solitaire the old- fashioned way! Along with your deck, you might consider 298
purchasing a book of Solitaire Games. Many books are specially published for Solitaire players and offer hundreds of games and game variations. 163. Rubik’s Cube – Here‘s a tip: Anyone can match up one side of a Rubik‘s cube. Although trying to solve the whole puzzle can be stressful in itself, the few minutes it takes to match up the blocks on one side can help you quickly reduce your stress. 164. Slinky – Just bouncing a slinky back and forth from hand to hand puts your focus on the toy and takes it away from your problem. So bounce your slinky, take a few deep breaths, and relax! 165. Punch balls – Okay, they‘re not a game, but they can be a great stress reliever and they‘re sure a better choice than hitting a wall or kicking the side of your desk when stress sets in! You can find cheap punch balls in toy departments, novelty stores, and most dollar stores. 166. Darts – Whether you‘re hitting a target or targeting a photo, the physical motion of throwing the darts in itself will help reduce your stress. Dart balls stick to a Velcro board. They won‘t hurt you or your neighbor – if you miss! 167. Crossword Puzzle Books –Many crossword puzzle books also include word-find games, mazes, and other pencil puzzles. Buy some that have puzzles that range from easy to hard and tackle them according to your mood and your stress level.
4.8.14 Stress Relieving Exercises
Surprise yourself, although you may not think of exercise as stress relieving (if you‘ve ever walked a treadmill for a stress test), a 299 healthy body is a formidable weapon to combat stress. Of course, a full-blown exercise regime can‘t be completed at your desk, but there are several easy exercises that you can do to relieve tension and reduce stress. Even if your job is physically taxing, the exercises below are designed to help you unwind, relax, and reduce stress.
168. Blow it off. Since breathing comes naturally, deep breathing is often overlooked as an exercise, but it‘s an excellent stress reducer. Breathe in while tucking in your tummy and feel the air as it expands your lungs and your chest. Breathe in to the count of four and hold it for two counts. Then exhale to the count of four. Take two to four deep breathes several times a day and soon daily stressors may well be ―gone with the wind!‖ 169. Get up and stretch. Visualize the stress flooding from your back, legs, your shoulders, and pour out of your fingertips and toes. Add to your stretches by taking the time to learn a few yoga positions, which you can find in books and videos as well as yoga classes. 170. Take a short walk after lunch or in lieu of a coffee break. A brisk ten or fifteen minute walk each day is not only physically beneficial but transfers your focus from your problems to the scenery along your route, whether it‘s the good-looking person in the hallway or the trees in the neighborhood park. 171. Squeeze a lemon. P.T. Barnum said, ―When life hands you a lemon, make lemonade!‖ Squeezing a lemon or tennis ball is a good way to keep your fingernails from biting into your 300
palms! If you crush the fruit or the tennis ball, either get a rubber ball or go on to a more vigorous exercise to reduce your stress! 172. Progressive relaxation is especially beneficial when stress keeps your from getting a good night‘s sleep. Start at your toes and ―tell‖ them to relax. When you feel them relaxing move to your feet, ankles, calf muscles, knees, thighs and so on up your torso to your shoulders and finally to the top of your head or alternatively down through your arms to your fingertips (if you make it that far before you‘re asleep!) 173. Dance. Join an aerobics class, a tai chi class or just turn on the tunes and dance. Dancing has a double advantage in that along with exercise, music is a great stress reducer.
4.8.15 Stress Management Tips
In simplest terms, stress is the opposite of relaxation. Both positive and negative aspects of life can be equally stressful. Stress comes from the external forces in our lives that push our buttons and provoke extreme emotions. Although we commonly think of stress coming from the frustrations and low points in life, high points and achievements are stressful as well.
Ups - Downs
Jubilation - Depression
Promotion - Termination
Marriage - Divorce
Birth - Death 301
Each of the above pairs of opposites has one thing in common - stress. Yet, to add to the confusion, even uncertainty can cause stress. In addition, stress can result from something as minor as breaking a shoestring or something as major as your child ruining his new expensive shoes!
Stress raises your level of adrenaline, which results in an increase in heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure. These increases make bodily organs work harder. Over the long term, reducing stress is critical to combatting such illnesses as heart disease, high blood pressure, and stroke.
Stress Management Tips is all about helping you develop an effective stress management strategy. Explore the causes of stress and its symptoms. Find out how stress affects us and what you can do to reduce stress for both yourself and your family. Learn how some stress management tips, stress reliever games, and stress relieving exercises can help improve your stress management skills and help you cope with stress.
4.8.16 other coping strategies
Get a good night's rest.
Eat healthily.
Listen to your favorite music.
Exercise, participate in a sport or engage in fun activity.
Plan out your time and prioritize.
Talk to a friend about your problems, don't hold it in.
Get a massage. 302
Take a nap.
Take a warm bath.
Read a book or watch TV
4.9 EASIEST METHOD TO COPE WITH STRESS
Finally, research on the development of coping found that coping strategies are learned from our role models such as parents and siblings, such that higher order coping families allowed the identification of corresponding lower order ways of coping. Thus the researchers argue that there is a developmental gradation of coping strategies which relates to how children, adolescents and adults cope with the identification of and dealing with stressors (Skinner et al, 2007).
M - Money Management, Minimize needs, Meditation E - Earnest Expectations, Enjoy the work you do N - Avoid Negative thinking T - Try to be happy today A - Accept and Adopt Reality L - Avoid Loneliness H - Develop good Hobbies E - Live in good Environment. Express yourself clearly A - Be Active and have positive Attitude L - Try to learn more and Manage Life T - Have realistic Targets and Tackle one at a time H - Maintain Healthy life style 303
4.10 SUMMARY
Earlier reviews were somewhat pessimistic in reporting research which seemed to question whether teachers could deal, either directly or indirectly, with stress. The general advice for helping teachers cope with stress is to develop realistic, positive attitudes and good physical health. In practice teachers have adopted a range of coping strategies: most tend to be palliative as by and large teachers feel they are unable to address the root causes of their occupational stress. Some strategies may be ineffective or dysfunctional. Some recommend that programmes of behavioural therapy or counseling services may help teachers cope with stress. But these are largely unevaluated, labour intensive and unlikely to become widely available. 304
More recently, ‗time-out‘ sabbaticals and counseling have become available to teachers in England. But again these are likely to be taken up by only a small percentage of teachers. More optimistically, some researchers suggest that the movement towards self-reflection helps protect teachers from stress.
Past research generally has been limited to only identifying sources and consequences of stress for teachers. There is a need to further understand why these sources of stress affect teachers and why they choose particular responses to stress. Considering why particular sources of stress affect teachers will allow the health educator to suggest positive stress management programs and coping mechanisms that can be made within the organizational structure of schools that will lessen work-related stress. Understanding why teachers respond the way they do to stress can allow for adaptive strategies to be used in order to help teachers address and cope with stress.
This literature explains in detail the most common coping strategies used by teachers; however, this literature does not clarify why teachers choose particular coping strategies. There is a need to investigate the reasons as to why teachers choose particular coping strategies as a way of handling stress. Understanding why these strategies are used will provide teachers with the opportunity to better understand how to cope with stress and provide the tools and resources for effective stress management programs designed to alleviate attrition. 305
CHAPTER V
METHODOLOGIES TO MEASURE AND EVALUATE STRESS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The present research titled ―a study on professional stress and coping strategies of chennai based engineering college teachers‖ was conducted during the year 2007 to 2011 in and around Chennai city of Tamilnadu state. This chapter deals with the methodology adopted for the present investigation. Methodology makes the most important contribution towards enrichment of any study. By Methodology of any research, we mean the selection of the representative sample from out of general population, applying appropriate research tools and techniques, collecting relevant data, analysis and interpretation of the same for scientific investigation of the problem.
The previous chapters provided a systematic review of constructs in this study. This chapter will focus on the rationale, objectives and aims of this research study. The first part will lay the foundation for the study and present the various research hypotheses and objectives that were developed to test the predicted relationships between the abovementioned constructs. The second part of this chapter will focus on the research methodology, sampling, participants and details regarding the intervention. Threats to this study‘s validity will be comprehensively discussed as well as the measurement instruments that were utilised. Descriptive statistics obtained for each measurement instrument utilised in this study will also be presented. 306
5.2 WAYS OF MEASURING STRESS
The search for greater clarification of what stress is led researchers to devise ways to measure it. For example the Occupational Stress Indicator (Cooper, Sloan and Williams, 1988) offers a variety of self-report scales which have been norm-referenced against samples drawn from various occupations.
Maslach et al (1981), in the USA, the eponymous Burnout Inventory purports to identify three different aspects of ‗burnout‘; while the Holmes and Rahe (1967) scale measures individual adjustment more generally to some of life‘s traumatic events, such as the death of a close relative or redundancy. All of these were mentioned in previous SCRE reviews and are still in use today. None is unproblematic.
Fisher (1984), points out the main difficulty is that most attempts to measure stress levels in teachers have relied almost exclusively on self-report inventories unsupported by medical tests or observational evidence. These findings are themselves open to challenge. At the very least it would be advisable to triangulate sources of evidence in order to increase the validly of the findings. For example, do teachers who report high levels of stress also have high sickness and absence rates? Are their heart and blood pressures rates elevated? Does contact with particular ‗stressors‘, such as a particular class, pupil or parent, correspond with changes in physiological 307 conditions. Most teachers, we suspect, would consider such methods intrusive and refuse to participate in such studies. Certainly most studies of stress which employ multiple methods have been conducted on volunteers in laboratory conditions, and as he points out, real life is far more complex.
Johnstone (1993), since SCRE previously reported on stress, there has been considerable development in the use of diaries and log books to help teachers record events as they are experienced in the classroom. Teachers‘ Workload and Associated Stress study relied upon workload diaries. This method was replicated in two more recent studies: one of participants on the Scottish Qualification for Headship (Malcolm & Wilson, 2000); and one of teachers‘ workload (Hall, Wilson & Sawyer, 2001). It would, therefore, be wrong to dismiss self-reporting but readers should be aware of the limitations of the method.
5.3 DESIGN OF THE STUDY
Having reviewed the related literature and researchers on different dimensions of professional stress, the investigator proceeds to formulate the plan and design which follows in the subsequent chapter. Design is the process of making decisions before a situation arises in which the decision has to be carried out. It is a process of deliberate anticipation directed towards bringing unexpected situation under control (Ackoff, 1953). The present study entitled ―a study on professional stress and coping strategies of Chennai based engineering 308 college teachers‖ can be described as an exploratory descriptive survey study. The descriptive research studies are designed to obtain pertinent and precise information concerning the current status of phenomena and, whenever possible to draw valid generalizations, conclusions from the facts discovered.
Survey studies are conducted to collect detailed description of existing phenomena with the intent of employing data to justify current conditions and practices or to make more intelligent plans for improving them. There objective is not only to analyze, interpret and report the status of an institution, group or area in order to guide, practice in the immediate future, but also to determine the adequacy of status by comparing it with establish standards. It is descriptive in the sense that it sets to describe the nature and distribution of variables, which involves the comparison of professional stress among engineering college teachers of different self-financing colleges in and around Chennai city.
5.4 LOCALE OF THE STUDY
The locale for the study was restricted to the Chennai city in Tamilnadu state. Chennai is known as the educational centre of Tamilnadu state. Forty colleges in and around Chennai city offering the engineering courses were contacted for the selection of the sample. Among them twelve established colleges were chosen for the study. These colleges were offering B.E., B.Tech., M.E., M.Tech., degrees in engineering & technology and other technical courses at graduation level. 309
5.5 SELECTION OF SAMPLE
The respondents were contacted with the help of their Head of departments and seniors. All the possible efforts were made to make them feel at ease and respond to the various tests with full concentration. They were informed that results would be kept strictly confidential and efforts were made to get their maximum cooperation.
5.5.1 Primary Data
These are original materials on which other research is based. This first hand original information is collected directly from the Professors, Associate professors and Assistant professors of various self-financing Engineering Colleges by interviews and surveys.
5.5.2 Secondary Data
Secondary data is collected from various university libraries, the published report of various associations, research articles in various national and international Journals, Periodicals, dictionaries, encyclopedias, text books, reports from daily newspapers and information from various websites.
5.5.3 Sample Size
310
The sample size of 513 is divided among 255 men and 258 women teaching professionals from various self-financing Engineering colleges in and around Chennai city.
5.5.4 Sample Collection
The primary data is collected by questionnaire method. The questionnaire consists of multiple choice questions. Necessary information for the thesis is collected from them. The questions are serially numbered and arranged in a proper order in accordance with the relevance.
5.5.5 Pilot – testing
A pilot study was conducted with 25 men and 25 women teaching professionals before finalizing the questionnaire.
5.6 PROCEDURE FOR DATA COLLECTION
Data collection was carried out with the prior permission of the Principal and contacted the teachers to get the responses. Good rapport with teachers was established by giving introduction about the objectives of the study, importance of their co-operation and their sincere responses before the distribution of the questionnaire. They were also informed that confidentiality of the information would be maintained strictly. The teachers were instructed very clearly about the 311 pattern of answering the questionnaire. They were given enough time to answer all the statements.
5.7 SELECTION AND USE OF THE TOOLS FOR STUDY
Inventories were selected on the basis of the objectives of the study. Since the respondents were highly educated, questionnaire was considered to be the most suitable instrument for the data collection. To collect information about demographic characteristics and coping strategies for stress, questionnaires were developed. The tools used to carry out the present research included the following aspects: 1. Demographic characteristics questionnaire; 2. Employment organization sources of stressors scale and 3. Questionnaire for coping strategies.
5.7.1 Demographic characteristics questionnaire
The demographic characteristics schedule consisted information of the teachers regarding age, gender, education, designation, total service, monthly income of the respondents, family type, family size, employment of the spouse and annual income of the family.
5.7.2 Employment Organization Sources of Stressors (EOSS) scale 312
EOSS is a self-administering scale, which could be administered individually or in a group. In the present study, the EOSS was administered for the individual teachers. The scale developed by Telaprolu and George (2005), was adopted in the study to measure the level of stress among the degree college teachers. It consisted of 80 statements and had a five-point scale such as ―always‖, ―frequently‖, ―sometimes‖, ―rarely‖ and ―never‖ with scoring as 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively. The range of the scores was 0 to 320. Based on the total scores, the level of stress was quantified as follows: Category Range Very low stress 0-80 Low stress 81-160 Moderate stress 161-240 High stress 241-320
Interpretation of Employment Organization Sources of Stressors scale The EOSS scale had been categorized into five components depending upon the nature of the stressors. The statements 1 to 16 represented work stressors, statements 17 to 32 represented role stressors, statements 33 to 48 represented personal development stressors, statements 49 to 64 represented interpersonal relations stressors and statements 65 to 80 represented organizational climate stressors. But among the statements some statements were positive and some were negative. Each statement had five alternatives and the subject had to choose one alternative for each item based on their assessment. Scores 5 through to 1 were assigned to the responses 313
―always‖, ―frequently‖, ―sometimes‖, ―rarely‖ and ―never‖, respectively to the statements which reflected the sources of stressors. The scoring pattern was reversed in case of negative statements, which reflected no sources of stressors.
The scores were interpreted such that higher the score, the greater was the perception of stressor from each source as well as in the overall organization. Reliability of the EOSS scale A pilot study was conducted on 50 teachers from the degree colleges of Chennai city. The data was subjected to test the reliability by split half method. The coefficient of correlation computed using Pearson product moment formula served as a measure of reliability. The correlation value of total stressors was 0.879 and was significant. The reliability of the whole scale was estimated by using Spearman Brown Prophecy formula, which states,
rrel = (5.1)
Reliability value was rrel = 0.9356.
5.7.3 Coping strategy questionnaire
Coping strategies questionnaire consisted of the items to collect information from the teachers regarding the physical and mental stress management strategies adopted by them.
5.8 VARIABLES AND THEIR MEASUREMENTS 314
The independent and dependent variables selected for the study were given below.Demographic characteristics were the independent variables, where as employment organization sources of stressors and coping strategies as dependent variables.
5.8.1 Independent variables
The demographic characteristics were age, gender, education, designation, total service, monthly income, family type, family size, employment of the spouse and annual income of the family.
5.8.1.1 Age
The chronological age of the respondents in completed years at the time of investigation was referred to as age and classified into following categories, which was used by Siddammanavar (2002).
Category Age in years Young below 31 Middle 31-50 Old above 50
5.8.1.2 Gender 315
Gender is a scheme for classification of the individuals based on the biological differences as males and females, which was used by Angadi (2008).
Gender category Scores Male 1 emale 2
5.8.1.3 Education
The academic qualification of the respondents was classified as below. The respondents who had additional degree other than post graduation, B.Ed., M.Ed., Diploma and the like were included under the post graduate only and the scoring was as follows, which was used by Siddammanavar (2002).
Category Score Graduation 1 Post Graduation 2 Doctorate 3
5.8.1.4 Designation The position / the designation of the respondents held in the institution at the time of investigation were scored as below, which was used by Siddammanavar (2002). Designation Scores 316
Assistant Professor I 1 Assistant Professor II 2 Assoc. Professor 3 Professor 4
5.8.1.5 Total Service
Total services of the respondents were the total completed years that they served in college categorized as follows, which was used by Annapurna (1995).
Category Completed years of service I below 14 years II 14-21 years III above 21 years
5.8.1.6 Monthly income
The salary of the teachers was considered as the monthly income of the respondents and categorized as follows by using the formula Mean + 0.425 S.D. Category Range Low below Rs.16, 865/- Medium Rs.16, 865/- to Rs.23, 556/- High above Rs. 23,556/-
5.8.1.7 Marital status 317
Marital status of the respondent was classified into three categories as follows, which was used by Khandai (2006). Category Score Unmarried 1 Married 2 Widow / Divorcee 3
5.8.1.8 Family Type
Family was classified into two types depending on the structure. (Dahama and Bhatnagar, 1980). Nuclear family: the family consisting of a single married couple living with their unmarried children was termed as nuclear family. Joint family: The family consisting of more than one primary family of either of the same generation or of two generations living together living together with or with out children was termed as joint family.
Type of family Score Nuclear 1 Joint 2
5.8.1.9 Family Size The total numbers of members residing together in the family was considered as family size and were categorized as below, which was used by Khandai (2006). Category Size (in no.) 318
Small up to 4 members or (<5) Medium 5-7 members Large above 7 members
5.8.1.10 Employment of the spouse
The categorization of the employment status of the spouse and the respective score were as follows, which was used by Mutsaddi (1995).
Category Score Unemployed House wives. Semi professionals School teacher, 1 Business man, Journalist Bank clerk, Accountant, library staff 2 Employee in railway, post office
Telephone exchange, air force. Professionals Engineer, Doctor, Professor, Manager, Lawyer 3
5.8.1.11 Annual income of the family The annual income of the family was calculated by considering the total income of the family members in a year from all the sources and categorized as follows by using the formula Mean + 0.425 S.D. Category Range Low below Rs. 3, 45, 040/- 319
Medium Rs. 3, 45, 040/- to Rs. 5, 15, 680/- High above Rs. 5, 15, 680/-
5.8.2 Dependent variables
Employment organization sources of stressors and coping strategies were considered as the dependent variables.
5.9 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS The collected data was analyzed by using the following statistical tools and techniques.
5.9.1 Statistical Tools Used
The parametric t-test is exploited to the significant difference between the variables in the analysis. Measures of Central Tendency are used to compare the specified variables. Chi-Square test is used to find out the difference between observations of expectation. Karl Pearson co-efficient is used to find out the degree of relationship between two variables. Multiple Ranges Test. Diagrammatic representation like pie diagram, Simple bar diagram and multiple bar diagram are used to represent the contribution of the variables in the analysis.
320
5.9.1.1 Frequency and percentage were used to interpret the demographic characteristics, level of stress among the teachers and the coping strategies adopted by them.
5.9.1.2 t-test was used for the comparison between two groups by using the formulae as follows:
t = (5.2)
(5.3)
Where, = mean of the first group
= mean of the second group = number of observations in the first group = number of observations in the second group = variance of first group
= variance of second group
= Pooled variance of S1 and S2
5.9.1.3 Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to measure the relationship between different components of employment organization sources of stressors and demographic characteristics such as age, education, designation, total service, monthly income, family size, family type and annual family income by using the formula.
(5.4) 321
Simple correlation coefficient
x = Independent variable y = Dependent variable x= Sum of x values
Sum of y values ∑ = Sum of squares of x values ∑ = Sum of squares of y values ∑xy= Sum of the product of x and y n= numbers of pairs of observation
5.9.1.4 Step wise regression analysis was adopted to identify the most important contributing variables for the stress problems among the degree college teachers by using the formula Y =a + (5.5)
= (5.6)
Where, Regression coefficient was tested by using the formula t = (5.7)
Where, Y = Dependent variables a = Constant
X1……Xn = Independent variables 322
b1……bn = Regression coefficient SE = Standard error
Step wise regression provides a judgment on the contribution made by each variable entered, irrespective of actual point into the model. Any model that provides a non significant contribution is removed from the model. This process is continued till no more variables will be admitted to the equation and no more are rejected. Steps followed in this procedure as given by Draper and Smith, 1966 are as follows: Step-1: Step wise procedure starts with the simple correlation matrix and enters into regression, the x variable most highly correlated with the response. Step-2: Using partial correlation coefficients obtained in the last step, select next variable whose partial correlation with the response is highest to enter regression. Step-3: In this step, the contribution of the first entered variable is examined, if the second variable has been entered first.
The method selects the next variable to enter, the one most highly partially correlated with response, given that the selected two are already there in the equation. This procedure is continued until no variable is rejected or accepted.
5.10 INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS ON SAMPLE
Differences between two groups in the mean scores of variables are studied using Student t test are discussed in this section. 323
Also Chi-square test, Correlation Analysis and Regression Analysis are used to verify the hypothesis stated in the first chapter.
CHAPTER VI
324
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Analysis and interpretation are central steps in the research process. The aim of the analysis is to organize, classify and summarize the collected data so that they can be better comprehended and interpreted to give answers to the questions that triggered the research. Interpretation is the search for the broader meaning of findings. Analysis is not fulfilled without interpretation; and interpretation cannot proceed without analysis. So, both are inter dependent.
In this chapter a detailed analysis of the collected data has been attempted as per the objectives stated earlier. Hypotheses were also tested based on the findings of the study, interpretations and conclusions were drawn. In this chapter the following statistical techniques for the analysis of the data gathered for the present study viz., Descriptive analysis and Inferential statistics etc.
6.2 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS ON SAMPLE
Percentage analysis is one of the statistical measures used to describe the characteristics of the sample or population in totality. Percentage analysis involves computing measures of variables selected of the study and its finding will give easy interpretation for the reader.
Table 6.2.1 Frequency Distribution of Gender 325
Gender Frequency Percentage Male 255 49.7 Female 258 50.3 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.1 Frequency Distribution of Gender
From the above table, 49.7% of the staff belongs to male category and 50.3% of staff belongs to female category. Compare to male staff, female staff are 0.6% higher in representation.
326
Table 6.2.2 Frequency Distribution of Age Group in years
Age Group in years Frequency Percentage 20 - 30 152 29.6 31 - 40 153 29.8 41 - 50 141 27.5 Above 50 67 13.1 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.2 Frequency Distribution of Age Group in years
From the above table, 29.6% of the staff belongs to the age group of 20 – 30 years, 29.8% of the staff belongs to the age group of 31 – 40 years, 27.5% of the staff belongs to the age group of 41 – 50 years and 13.1% of the staff belongs to the age group of above 50 years. Compare to the age groups of staff, 29.8% staff belongs to the age group of 31 – 40 years. 327
Table 6.2.3 Frequency Distribution of Marital Status
Marital Status Frequency Percentage Single 119 23.2 Married 335 65.3 Divorced/Separated 59 11.5 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.3 Frequency Distribution of Marital Status
From the above table, 23.2% of the staff are belongs to the group of single (un-married), 65.3% of the staff belongs to the group of married and 11.5% of the staff belongs to the divorced / separated category. Compare to the marital status of staff, 65.3% staff belongs to the married category.
328
Table 6.2.4 Frequency Distribution of Educational Qualification
Educational Qualification Frequency Percentage UG 84 16.4 PG 378 73.7 Ph.D 51 9.9 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.4 Frequency Distribution of Educational Qualification
From the above table, 16.4% of the staff are belongs to the group of Under Graduate (UG), 73.7% of the staff belongs to the group of Post Graduate (PG) and 9.9% of the staff belongs to the Doctorate (Ph.D) category. Compare to the marital status of staff, 65.3% staff belongs to the married category. Compare to the educational qualifications of staff, the Post Graduate (PG) group are higher in representation. 329
Table 6.2.5 Frequency Distribution of Occupation
Occupation Frequency Percentage Assistant Professor I 109 21.2 Assistant Professor 262 51.1 II Associate Professor 101 19.7 Professor 41 8.0 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.5 Frequency Distribution of Occupation
From the above table, 21.2% of the staff are belongs to the group of Assistant Professor I, 51.1% of the staff belongs to the group of Assistant Professor II, 19.7% of the staff are belongs to the group of Associate Professor and 8.0 % of the staff belongs to the Professor category. Compare to the Occupation of staff, the Assistant Professor II group are higher in representation. 330
Table 6.2.6 Frequency Distribution of Working Department
Working Department Frequency Percentage Mechanical Engineering 70 13.6 Civil Engineering 109 21.2 Computer Science and 75 14.6 Engineering Electronics and Communication 116 22.6 Engineering Electrical and Electronics 78 15.2 Engineering Information Technology 48 9.4 Others 17 3.3 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.6 Frequency Distribution of Working Department
331
From the above table, 13.6% of the staff are belongs to Mechanical Engineering, 21.2% of the staff belongs to Civil Engineering, 14.6% of the staff are belongs to Computer Science and Engineering, 22.6% of the staff are belongs to Electronics and Communication Engineering, 15.2% of the staff are belongs to Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 9.4%of the staff are belongs to Information Technology and 3.3 % of the staff belongs to other departments. Compare to the working department of staff, the Electronics and Communication Engineering group are higher in representation.
332
Table 6.2.7 Frequency Distribution of Number of years working as a Teacher
No. of years working as a Teacher Frequency Percentage Below 5 122 23.8 5-10 216 42.1 Above 10 175 34.1 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.7 Frequency Distribution of Number of years working as a Teacher
From the above table, 23.8% of the staff are belongs to the group of below 5 years, 43.1% of the staff belongs to the group of 5 – 10 years and 34.1% of the staff belongs to above 10 years teaching experience category. Compare to the number of years working as teacher, 42.1% staff belongs to the 5 – 10 years of teaching experience group are higher in representation. 333
Table 6.2.8 Frequency Distribution of Number of years working in present college
No. of years working in present college Frequency Percentage Below 1 164 32.0 1-5 273 53.2 Above 5 76 14.8 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.8 Frequency Distribution of Number of years working in present college From the above table, 32.0% of the staff are belongs to the group of below 1 year, 53.2% of the staff belongs to the group of 1 – 5 years and 14.8% of the staff belongs to above 5 years working in the present college category. Compare to the number of years working as teacher in the present college, 53.2% staff belongs to the 1 – 5 years of 334 teaching experience in the present college group are higher in representation.
Table 6.2.9 Frequency Distribution of Monthly salary
Monthly salary in Rupees Frequency Percentage Below 20000 81 15.8 20001-25000 259 50.5 25001-30000 120 23.4 Above 30000 53 10.3 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.9 Frequency Distribution of Monthly salary
From the above table, 15.8% of the staff are belongs to the group of monthly salary below Rs.20,000, 50.5% of the staff belongs to the group of Rs.20,001 – 25,000, 23.4% of the staff belongs to the group of Rs.25,001 – 30,000 and 10.3% of the staff belongs to the category of above 30,000 335 rupees as monthly salary. Compare to the monthly salary, 50.5% staff belongs to Rs.25, 001 – 30,000 group are higher in representation.
Table 6.2.10 Frequency Distribution of Maximum number of students in a class
Maximum number of students in a class Frequency Percentage 40-60 388 75.6 60-80 125 24.4 Total 513 100.0
Figure 6.2.10 Frequency Distribution of Maximum number of students in a class
From the above table, 75.6% of the class rooms belong to 40 – 60 students category and 24.4% of the class rooms belongs to 60 – 80 students category. Compare to both, the 40 – 60 students in a class 336 room category are 75.6% higher in representation.
Table 6.2.11 Frequency Distribution of Number of periods teach every day
No. of periods teach every day Frequency Percentage Upto 3 27 5.3 4-5 435 84.8 6-7 51 9.9 Total 513 100.0
From the above table, 5.3% of the teachers teach up to 3 periods, 84.8% of the teachers teach 4 - 5 periods category and 9.9% of the teachers teach 6 - 7 periods every day category. Compare to both, the 4 – 5 periods teach every day category are 84.8% higher in representation.
Table 6.2.12 Frequency Distribution of Safe in college
Safe in college Frequency Percentage Yes 86 16.8 No 427 83.2 Total 513 100.0
From the above table, 16.8% of the teachers say ―YES‖ and 83.2% of the teachers say ―NO‖ for the safety in the college. Compare to both, the no safety in the college category are 83.2% higher in representation.
Table 6.2.13 Frequency Distribution of College violence policy
College violence policy Frequency Percentage 337
Yes 19 3.7 No 494 96.3 Total 513 100.0
From the above table, 3.7% of the teachers say ―YES‖ and 96.3% of the teachers say ―NO‖ for the college violence policy in the college. Compare to both, the no college violence policy in the college category are 96.3% higher in representation.
Table 6.2.14 Frequency Distribution of Violence prevention program
Violence prevention program Frequency Percentage Yes 10 1.9 No 503 98.1 Total 513 100.0
From the above table, 1.9% of the teachers say ―YES‖ and 98.1% of the teachers say ―NO‖ for the violence prevention program in the college. Compare to both, the no violence prevention program in the college category are 98.1% higher in representation.
Table 6.2.15 Frequency Distribution of Satisfied with job
Satisfied with job Frequency Percentage Yes 45 8.8 No 468 91.2 Total 513 100.0
From the above table, 8.8% of the teachers say ―YES‖ and 91.2% of the teachers say ―NO‖ for the satisfaction in the teaching job. Compare to both, the satisfaction in the teaching job category are 91.2% higher in representation. 338
Table 6.2.16 Mean and SD of adjustment score of all samples with respect to sources of stress
Item Sources of stress Mean SD No. Factor I: College Management 1 No proper organization structure 4.06 0.963 2 Reporting system is not through proper channel 4.01 0.869 3 Chairman is the only man to decide everything 3.80 0.825 4 Management is treating the staffs like bonded slaves 4.27 0.755 5 Making engineering education as a business 4.31 0.802 6 Uneducated peoples in the management committee 3.76 0.940 7 No academic committee meetings 3.64 1.004 8 No proper written rules and regulations 4.07 0.872 9 Owner is an illiterate Politician 3.38 1.102 10 Political interference in college Administration 3.67 0.972 20 No casual leave/Vacations/on-duty/ permissions for staffs 4.06 0.907 22 Original certificates are under the management‘s custody 4.15 0.832 25 Staffs are frequently threatened by management 4.17 0.778 29 Too much interference with my private, social or family life 4.07 0.853 31 Attitudes and behavior of the Principal 4.15 0.817 32 Heads of departments are the spy/reporters to management 3.94 0.975 59 No proper salary structure / increments is followed (not as per 4.22 0.825 AICTE norms) 60 No PF/EPF/ LIC facilities / fringe benefits 4.15 0.841 Factor II: Professional demands and responsibility 11 Lack of recognition for extra hard work 4.13 0.835 12 Inadequate disciplinary policy/sanctions of college 3.72 0.926 14 Shortage of labs/equipments/ Poor facilities 3.62 0.915 15 Poor promotion opportunities / Policies 4.02 0.884 16 Lack of facilities, labs and equipments 4.19 0.812 17 Lack of staff participation in decision-making 4.26 0.758 18 Lack of direction towards career planning 4.15 0.773 19 No authorities/power/academic freedom given to staffs 4.19 0.807 21 No permission/opportunities for higher studies/career 4.04 0.920 development 23 Termination / relieving of staffs without any notice 4.28 0.820 339
24 Insecurity about future 3.74 0.972 26 Cutting salaries without any intimation/proper reasons 3.97 0.905 27 No facilities for training to staff members 4.05 0.912 28 No rewarding/motivation system for best performers 4.16 0.801 30 Attitudes and behavior of some other teachers / colleagues 4.22 0.777 33 Emotional involvement with students or subordinates 4.34 0.786 46 No proper promotion opportunities 4.34 0.781 50 Low status/recognition of the teaching profession 4.33 0.770 55 Unclear role specifications/role conflict 4.33 0.793 56 Lack of recognition for good teaching 4.36 0.763 57 Lack of parental interest 4.36 0.791 58 Inadequate salary/ Less salary compared to other professions 4.34 0.821 Factor III: Student’s misbehavior 34 Punishing for misbehaviour of students 4.35 0.787 35 Constant monitoring of student‘s behavior 4.33 0.823 36 Student‘s feedback about the teacher 4.31 0.797 37 Poorly motivated students 4.33 0.804 38 Student‘s poor attitudes towards study 4.30 0.805 39 Student‘s non-acceptance of teacher‘s authority 4.29 0.811 40 Noisy students 4.27 0.806 41 Student‘s impolite behavior or cheek 4.23 0.801 42 Large classes/ too many students in class 4.08 0.722 Factor IV: Workload and Time pressures 13 Lack of time for further higher study/career development 4.06 0.807 43 Administrative/too much of paper work 4.10 0.819 44 Responsibility for students (e.g. exam success) 4.01 0.955 45 Too many periods actually teaching 4.07 0.917 47 Teaching subjects different from one‘s specialty 4.21 0.825 48 Covering lessons for absent teachers 4.34 0.737 49 Supervisory duties (e.g. main gate, playground, college canteen, 4.43 0.726 toilet, floor) 51 Lack of time to prepare lessons/ to relax 4.49 0.713 52 Not enough time to do the work 4.46 0.744 53 Lack of time to spend with individual students 4.19 0.727 54 Demands on after college time 3.91 0.762
340
Table 6.2.17 Mean and SD of adjustment score of all samples with respect to coping strategies
Item No. Coping strategies Mean SD Factor I: Reducing Physical Stress 1 I get up 15 minutes earlier 3.12 1.290 2 I prepare for the morning the night before 3.19 1.204 4 I set appointments ahead 3.05 1.063 5 I don''t rely on my memory ... write it down 3.10 1.073 6 I say "no" more often 3.18 1.102 10 I always make copies of important papers 3.04 1.027 12 I look at problems as challenges 3.03 1.147 13 I look at challenges differently 2.92 1.172 20 I am aware of the decisions I make 2.84 1.161 21 I believe in myself 2.80 1.181 50 I always have a plan 2.60 1.067 52 I am responsible for my feelings 2.62 1.030 53 I learn to meet my own needs 2.62 1.010 60 I remember that stress is an attitude 2.58 0.999 Factor II: Avoiding Unwanted things 3 I avoid tight fitting clothes 2.67 1.145 8 I avoid negative people 2.60 1.026 22 I stop saying negative things to myself 2.60 1.067 23 I visualize myself winning 2.62 1.030 24 I develop my sense of humor 2.62 1.010 25 I stop thinking tomorrow will be a better 2.58 0.999 today 26 I have goals for myself 2.59 1.025 33 I stop a bad habit 2.65 1.021 36 I find support from others 2.75 1.067 37 I work at being cheerful and optimistic 3.11 1.227 47 I become a better listener 3.01 1.295 Factor III: Correct Posture 7 I set priorities in my life 2.93 1.013 9 I use time wisely 2.94 0.927 11 I repair anything that doesn''t work properly 2.86 0.900 14 I unclutter my life 2.87 0.941 38 I put safety first 2.89 0.958 39 I do everything in moderation 2.78 0.929 341
40 I pay attention to my appearance 2.81 0.983 41 I strive for Excellence NOT perfection 2.78 1.061 42 I do it today 2.62 1.025 43 I stretch my limits a little each day 2.56 0.978 Factor IV: Relaxation 15 I smile always 2.53 0.980 16 I pet a friendly dog/cat 2.51 0.994 17 I say something nice to someone 2.54 0.964 18 I walk in the rain 2.58 1.029 27 I say "hello" to a stranger 2.66 1.026 28 I look up at the stars 2.59 0.966 30 I listen to a symphony 2.54 0.987 31 I read a story curled up in bed 2.60 0.977 32 I take a bubble bath 2.73 0.989 34 I watch a ballet/dance 2.73 1.018 35 I take time to smell the flowers 2.72 1.048 44 I look at a work of art 2.62 1.047 46 I plant a tree 2.63 1.027 48 I feed the birds 2.69 1.034 51 I memorize a joke 2.77 1.065 54 I tell someone to have a good day 2.71 0.976 55 I throw a paper airplane 2.79 1.011 59 I watch a movie and eat popcorn 2.79 0.990 Factor V: Physical Exercise 19 I schedule play time into every day 2.70 0.921 29 I practice breathing slowly 2.63 1.001 45 I maintain my weight 2.81 1.093 49 I stand up and stretch 2.78 1.072 56 I exercise every day 2.80 1.001 57 I get to work early 2.95 0.935 58 I take a different route to work 3.43 1.177
6.3 INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS ON SAMPLE
Differences between two groups in the mean scores of variables are studied using Student t test are discussed in this section. Also Chi-square test, Correlation Analysis and Regression Analysis are used to verify the hypothesis stated in the first chapter.
HYPOTHESIS II 342
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between male and female with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Table 6.3.1 t - test for significant difference between male and female With respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Dimensions of sources of Gender t - p - stress Male Female value value Mean SD Mean SD College management 70.55 7.73 71.28 10.79 0.829 0.377 Professional demands and 1.501 0.134 92.53 10.56 90.88 14.06 responsibility Student's misbehavior 40.19 5.38 37.97 6.40 4.247 0.000** Workload and Time 2.245 0.025* 46.80 6.60 45.36 7.94 pressures Overall opinion of Stress 250.07 26.46 245.49 37.48 1.598 0.111 Note: 1. ** denotes the significance at 1 % level 2. * denotes the significance at 5 % level INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the dimensions of sources of stress among the male and female respondents. RESULT Dimensions of t - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 0.829 0.377 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and 1.501 0.134 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 4.247 0.000 0.01 Significant REJECTED Workload and Time 2.245 0.025 0.05 Significant REJECTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 1.598 0.111 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference in the dimensions of sources of stress in case of College management and Professional demands and responsibility among the male and female respondents. 343
In case of Student‘s misbehavior and Workload and time pressures, there is a statistically difference in the dimensions of sources of stress among the male and female respondents. In case of overall opinion of stress, there is not a statistically difference in the dimensions of sources of stress among the male and female respondents. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted (cannot be rejected), it is concluded that there is no significant difference between male and female with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Based on the overall opinion of stress mean Scores, we can say that the Male respondents (M = 250.07) have little more sources of stress than the Female respondents (M = 245.49). Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between male and female with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.3.2 t - test for significant difference between male and female With respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of coping Gender t - value p - value strategies of stress Male Female Mean SD Mean SD Reducing physical Stress 42.39 10.31 40.67 10.13 1.898 0.058 Avoiding unwanted things 28.82 6.01 27.40 5.82 2.703 0.007 Correct posture 24.59 5.61 23.98 5.71 1.208 0.228 Relaxation 69.34 14.55 69.83 13.84 0.398 0.695 Physical exercise 19.25 5.31 19.41 4.70 0.361 0.718 Overall Coping strategy 184.39 35.43 181.31 34.25 1.001 0.318
INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the dimensions of sources of stress among the male and female respondents. Dimensions of coping t - P - Level of RESULT 344
strategies of stress Value Value significance Null Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 1.898 0.058 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 2.703 0.007 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 1.208 0.228 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Relaxation 0.398 0.695 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Physical exercise 0.361 0.718 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Overall Coping strategy 1.001 0.318 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference in all the cases of dimensions of coping strategies among the male and female respondents except in case of Avoiding unwanted things. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted (cannot be rejected), it is concluded that there is no significant difference between male and female with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Based on the Overall coping strategy of stress mean Scores, we can say that the Male respondents (M = 184.39) have little more coping strategies of stress than the Female respondents (M = 181.31).
HYPOTHESIS II
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.3.3 ANOVA for significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress
Dimensions of sources Age group in years f - value p - value of stress 20 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 Above 50 College management 71.24 70.46 70.92 71.24 0.206 0.892 9.02 9.48 9.95 8.98 Professional demands 92.46 91.20 90.74 93.15 0.854 0.465 and responsibility 12.51 12.39 12.96 11.42 345
Student's misbehavior 40.15 38.61 38.31 39.27 2.728 0.043 5.79 5.94 6.22 6.02 Workload and Time 46.93 45.86 45.28 46.30 1.299 0.274 pressures 6.97 7.35 7.65 7.34 Overall opinion of 250.78 246.13 245.26 249.96 0.944 0.419 Stress 31.02 32.37 34.68 31.51
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of F - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 0.206 0.892 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and 0.854 0.465 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 2.728 0.043 0.05 Significant REJECTED Workload and Time 1.299 0.274 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 0.944 0.419 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference in all the dimension of sources of stress between the age group of teachers except in case of Student‘s misbehavior. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted (cannot be rejected), it is concluded that there is no significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Apart from not reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was quite small (31.02 to 34.68). 346
Thus, the age of the teachers has no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
Table 6.3.4 ANOVA for significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of coping Age group in years f - value p - value strategies of stress 20 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 Above 50 Reducing physical Stress 43.50 40.42 40.11 42.57 3.664 0.012 10.47 9.88 9.52 11.39 Avoiding unwanted things 29.32 27.44 27.31 28.54 6.10 5.07 6.31 6.37 3.731 0.011 Correct posture 25.13 23.67 23.67 25.06 2.733 0.043 5.57 5.51 5.48 6.33 Relaxation 70.83 69.09 68.47 70.27 0.794 0.498 12.80 12.98 15.09 17.54 Physical exercise 20.06 18.94 19.07 19.15 4.66 4.59 5.18 6.15 1.541 0.203 Overall Coping strategy 188.84 179.56 178.63 185.58 2.806 0.039 32.54 31.25 36.29 42.40
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. RESULT Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 3.664 0.012 0.05 Significant REJECTED 347
Avoiding unwanted things 3.731 0.011 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 2.733 0.043 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 0.794 0.498 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Physical exercise 1.541 0.203 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Overall Coping strategy 2.806 0.039 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference in all the dimensions of coping strategies of stress between the age group of teachers except in case of Relaxation and Physical exercise. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Apart from reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was quite high (31.25to 42.40). Thus, the age of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress.
HYPOTHESIS III
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between marital statuses of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.3.5 ANOVA for significant difference between marital statuses of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Dimensions of sources Marital status f - p - of stress Single Married Divorced/ value value separated College management 70.88 71.45 67.97 3.488 0.031 9.77 8.97 10.50 Professional demands 91.85 92.13 88.95 and responsibility 12.24 12.28 13.75 1.651 0.193 Student's misbehavior 40.10 38.97 37.59 3.611 0.028 5.84 5.89 6.77 348
Workload and Time 46.66 46.11 44.68 1.463 0.233 pressures 7.02 7.25 8.29 Overall opinion of Stress 249.50 248.66 239.19 31.75 31.73 37.44 2.361 0.095
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between marital statuses of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
RESULT Dimensions of F - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 3.488 0.031 0.05 Significant REJECTED Professional demands and 1.651 0.193 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 3.611 0.028 0.05 Significant REJECTED Workload and Time 1.463 0.233 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 2.361 0.095 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference in all the dimension of sources of stress between the marital status of teachers except in case of College management and Student‘s misbehavior. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted (cannot be rejected), it is concluded that there is no significant difference between marital status of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Apart from not reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was small (31.75to 37.44). Thus, the marital status of the teachers has no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. 349
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between marital statuses of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.3.6 ANOVA for significant difference between marital statuses of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of sources of Marital status f - value p - value coping strategies of stress Single Married Divorced/ separated Reducing physical Stress 43.19 40.74 42.61 2.903 0.056 10.34 10.10 10.56 Avoiding unwanted things 29.66 27.31 29.46 6.71 5.45 6.32 8.818 0.000 Correct posture 26.03 23.53 25.03 9.458 0.000 6.14 5.22 6.27 Relaxation 72.96 68.05 71.51 5.972 0.003 13.51 13.65 17.06 Physical exercise 20.72 18.64 20.51 9.776 0.000 4.76 4.79 5.92 Overall Coping strategy 192.57 178.28 189.12 35.45 32.78 40.20 8.729 0.000
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between marital statuses of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. 350
RESULT Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 2.903 0.056 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 8.818 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 9.458 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 5.972 0.003 0.05 Significant REJECTED Physical exercise 9.776 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Overall Coping strategy 8.729 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference in all the dimensions of coping strategies of stress between the marital statuses of teachers except in case of reducing physical Stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between marital statuses of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Apart from reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the marital status also was quite high (32.78to 40.20). Thus, the marital status of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress.
HYPOTHESIS IV
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.3.7 ANOVA for significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Dimensions of sources of Educational Qualification f - value p - value stress UG PG Ph.D College management 71.14 71.32 67.55 3.695 0.026 9.07 9.24 10.51 Professional demands and 92.69 91.90 88.61 351
responsibility 11.47 12.50 13.47 1.889 0.152 Student's misbehavior 40.75 38.84 38.02 4.384 0.013 5.43 5.90 7.25 Workload and Time pressures 47.00 46.18 43.78 6.46 7.31 8.41 3.225 0.041 Overall opinion of Stress 251.58 248.24 237.96 2.960 0.053 28.42 32.50 37.41
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of F - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 3.695 0.026 0.05 Significant REJECTED Professional demands and 1.889 0.152 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 4.384 0.013 0.05 Significant REJECTED Workload and Time 3.225 0.041 0.05 Significant REJECTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 2.960 0.053 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference in all the dimension of sources of stress between the educational qualifications of teachers except in case of Professional demands and responsibility and Overall opinion of Stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected (three cases it is rejected and the overall opinion of stress has also no great deviation with 0.05), it is concluded that there is a significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Apart from reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was quite high 352
(28.42to 37.41). Thus, the educational qualification of the teachers has impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.3.8 ANOVA for significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Dimensions of sources of coping Educational Qualification f - value p - value strategies of stress UG PG Ph.D Reducing physical Stress 42.36 41.01 44.00 2.256 0.106 10.80 9.87 11.74 Avoiding unwanted things 29.18 27.66 29.65 6.57 5.76 5.98 4.187 0.016 Correct posture 25.44 23.88 25.39 3.737 0.024 6.02 5.56 5.53 Relaxation 71.36 68.62 73.88 13.57 13.88 16.46 3.921 0.020 Physical exercise 20.05 18.85 21.75 8.773 0.000 5.28 4.65 6.23 Overall Coping strategy 188.38 180.01 194.67 5.334 0.005 36.19 33.43 39.67
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of RESULT strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Null 353
Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 2.256 0.106 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 4.187 0.016 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 3.737 0.024 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 3.921 0.020 0.05 Significant REJECTED Physical exercise 8.773 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Overall Coping strategy 5.334 0.005 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference in all the dimensions of coping strategies of stress between the educational qualifications of teachers except in case of Reducing physical Stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Apart from reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the marital status also was quite high (33.43 to 39.67). Thus, the educational qualification of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress.
HYPOTHESIS V
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
Table 6.3.9 ANOVA for significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Dimensions of Occupation f - p - sources of stress Assistant Assistant Associate Professor value value Professor I Professor II Professor College management 70.47 71.06 71.65 69.39 .671 .570 8.22 9.94 8.94 9.88 Professional demands 91.34 91.34 93.02 91.71 and responsibility 11.01 13.25 12.11 11.97 .480 .697 Student's misbehavior 40.14 38.63 39.04 39.15 1.621 .183 5.61 6.15 5.68 6.78 354
Workload and Time 46.31 45.82 46.64 45.68 pressures 6.96 7.44 7.17 8.12 .383 .765 Overall opinion of 248.26 246.85 250.36 245.93 .333 .801 Stress 28.20 34.29 31.53 34.71
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
RESULT Dimensions of F - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 0.671 0.570 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and 0.480 0.697 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 1.621 0.183 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Workload and Time 0.383 0.765 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 0.333 0.801 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference in all the dimension of sources of stress between the occupations of teachers. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted, it is concluded that there is not a significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Apart from not reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the occupations also was quite small (28.20to 34.71). Thus, the occupations of the teachers have no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress.
355
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.3.10 ANOVA for significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of coping Occupation f - p - strategies of stress Assistant Assistant Associate Professor value value Professor I Professor II Professor Reducing physical 42.83 40.85 40.63 44.59 2.457 .062 Stress 9.82 10.28 9.97 11.24 Avoiding unwanted 29.66 27.38 27.45 30.22 things 6.24 5.76 5.61 6.15 6.078 .000 Correct posture 25.57 23.92 22.93 26.54 6.520 .000 5.53 5.73 5.11 5.74 Relaxation 72.72 68.65 67.25 73.07 12.67 14.27 14.45 15.24 3.961 .008 Physical exercise 21.08 18.68 18.48 21.00 8.808 .000 4.65 4.71 4.90 6.50 Overall Coping strategy 191.85 179.48 176.73 195.41 6.247 .000 32.59 34.46 34.31 37.76
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. RESULT Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 2.457 0.062 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 6.078 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 6.520 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 3.961 0.008 0.05 Significant REJECTED Physical exercise 8.808 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Overall Coping strategy 6.247 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED
356
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference in all the dimensions of coping strategies of stress between the occupations of teachers. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Apart from reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the occupations also was quite high (32.59 to 37.76). Thus, the occupation of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress.
HYPOTHESIS VI
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
Table 6.3.11 ANOVA for significant difference between working departments of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources `of stresses Dimensions of Working department f - p - sources of stress 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 value valu e College 71.81 69.63 71.27 70.15 71.56 71.77 73.82 .993 .429 management 6.98 8.80 8.58 9.91 10.86 10.76 10.19 Professional 94.34 89.96 92.28 90.84 92.23 91.52 93.35 demands and 9.12 11.35 10.97 13.48 14.02 14.56 15.74 1.074 .377 responsibility Student's 41.21 38.83 38.99 38.53 38.99 38.19 38.76 1.872 .084 misbehavior 4.58 5.80 5.67 6.30 6.56 6.61 6.78 Workload and Time 48.33 44.80 46.24 45.78 46.55 45.06 46.94 pressures 6.14 6.71 6.84 7.42 8.03 8.78 8.07 1.959 .070 Overall opinion of 255.70 243.23 248.77 245.29 249.33 246.54 252.88 1.288 .261 Stress 22.99 28.80 29.66 34.73 37.28 38.79 40.08
INTERPRETATION
357
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of F - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 0.993 0.429 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and 1.074 0.377 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 1.872 0.084 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Workload and Time 1.959 0.700 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 1.288 0.261 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference in all the dimension of sources of stress between the working department of teachers. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted, it is concluded that there is not a significant difference between working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Apart from not reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the working department also was quite high (22.99 to 40.08). Thus, the working department of the teachers has no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.3.12 ANOVA for significant difference between working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Dimensions of Working department f - p - sources of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 value value 358
stress Reducing 44.39 41.35 40.79 41.05 42.62 39.48 38.18 1.806 .096 physical Stress 11.33 10.53 11.21 8.95 10.59 9.03 7.31 Avoiding 30.27 28.14 27.11 27.72 28.58 26.77 27.65 unwanted things 6.38 5.99 6.77 5.31 5.56 5.87 4.40 2.522 .020 Correct posture 25.66 24.39 24.08 23.99 24.92 22.46 23.12 1.896 .080 5.48 5.57 6.24 5.19 6.10 5.41 5.09 Relaxation 73.04 70.02 68.99 68.41 70.15 65.63 71.88 14.92 12.80 15.04 13.26 16.44 13.74 9.40 1.594 .147 Physical 21.13 19.52 18.64 18.64 19.79 17.98 20.29 3.006 .007 exercise 5.00 5.48 5.16 4.51 5.16 4.55 2.59 Overall Coping 194.49 183.41 179.60 179.81 186.06 172.31 181.12 2.453 .024 strategy 36.76 34.13 38.94 29.96 37.54 32.78 25.52
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. RESULT Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 1.806 0.096 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 2.522 0.020 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 1.896 0.080 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Relaxation 1.594 0.147 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Physical exercise 3.006 0.007 0.05 Significant REJECTED Overall Coping strategy 2.453 0.024 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference in three cases and there is not a statistically difference in another three cases in the dimensions of coping strategies of stress between the working department of teachers. 359
As the Null Hypothesis is rejected in overall coping strategy, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Apart from reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was quite high (25.52to 38.94). Thus, the working department of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress.
HYPOTHESIS VII
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Table 6.3.13 ANOVA for significant difference between numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress
Dimensions of sources No. of years working as a teacher f - value p - value of stress Below 5 5 - 10 Above 10 College management 71.05 71.25 70.42 .395 .674 7.75 9.74 10.01 Professional demands 91.97 91.90 91.26 and responsibility 11.23 12.45 13.32 .164 .849 Student's misbehavior 40.11 38.92 38.53 2.624 .073 5.42 5.96 6.41 Workload and Time 46.51 46.30 45.50 pressures 6.68 7.36 7.72 .859 .424 Overall opinion of 249.64 248.38 245.71 .590 .555 Stress 27.67 32.72 35.35
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between numbers of 360
years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of F - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 0.395 0.674 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and 0.164 0.849 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 2.624 0.073 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Workload and Time 0.859 0.424 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 0.590 0.555 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference between number of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted, it is concluded that there is not a significant difference between numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Apart from not reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was quite high (27.67 to 35.35). Thus, number of years of working as a teacher has no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.3.14 ANOVA for significant difference between numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of sources No. of years working as a teacher f - value p - value of stress Below 5 5 - 10 Above 10 Reducing physical Stress 42.77 40.81 41.54 1.429 .241 361
10.27 9.98 10.53 Avoiding unwanted 29.37 27.37 28.14 things 6.51 5.14 6.36 4.474 .012 Correct posture 25.50 23.38 24.56 5.914 .003 5.70 5.29 5.92 Relaxation 71.83 68.11 69.86 13.43 12.56 16.29 2.749 .065 Physical exercise 20.42 18.55 19.55 5.806 .003 5.12 4.42 5.46 Overall Coping strategy 189.89 178.20 183.65 4.516 .011 34.89 30.71 38.70
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
RESULT Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 1.429 0.241 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 4.474 0.012 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 5.914 0.003 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 2.749 0.065 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Physical exercise 5.806 0.003 0.05 Significant REJECTED Overall Coping strategy 4.516 0.011 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference in all the dimensions of coping strategies of stress between numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress except in case of Reducing physical Stress and Physical exercise. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected in overall coping strategy, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between numbers of 362
years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Apart from reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was quite high (30.71to 38.70).Thus, number of years of working as a teacher has impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. HYPOTHESIS VIII
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
Table 6.3.15 ANOVA for significant difference between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Dimensions of sources No. of years working in f - value p - value of stress present college as a teacher Below 1 1 - 5 Above 5 College management 69.85 71.77 70.14 2.456 .087 9.13 9.30 10.08 Professional demands and 90.25 92.84 90.75 responsibility 12.68 12.36 12.08 2.478 .085 Student's misbehavior 38.51 39.61 38.37 2.342 .097 6.08 5.90 6.16 Workload and Time pressures 45.17 46.88 45.13 7.49 7.17 7.32 3.570 .029 Overall opinion of Stress 243.78 251.10 244.39 3.099 .046 32.28 32.05 33.81
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of F - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis 363
College management 2.456 0.087 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and 2.478 0.085 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 2.342 0.097 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Workload and Time 3.570 0.029 0.05 Significant REJECTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 3.099 0.046 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference between number of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress except in case of Workload and time pressures and overall opinion of stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected in case of overall opinion of stress, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, number of years of working in present colleges a teacher has an impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
Table 6.3.16 ANOVA for significant difference between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of sources of No. of years working in f - value p - value stress present college as a teacher Below 1 1 - 5 Above 5 Reducing physical Stress 42.15 41.00 42.07 .760 .468 10.50 9.82 11.22 Avoiding unwanted things 28.16 28.02 28.30 6.42 5.33 7.03 .077 .926 364
Correct posture 24.55 23.77 25.55 3.226 .041 6.11 5.13 6.29 Relaxation 69.78 68.37 73.55 14.79 12.66 17.19 4.037 .018 Physical exercise 19.70 18.85 20.32 3.209 .041 4.88 4.69 6.14 Overall Coping strategy 184.33 180.01 189.79 2.578 .077 36.55 31.13 42.26
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
RESULT Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 0.760 0.468 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 0.077 0.926 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Correct posture 3.226 0.041 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 4.037 0.018 0.05 Significant REJECTED Physical exercise 3.209 0.041 0.05 Significant REJECTED Overall Coping strategy 2.578 0.077 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not statistically difference in three cases and there is statistically difference in another three cases in the dimensions of coping strategies of stress between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted in overall coping strategy, it is concluded that there is no significant difference between numbers of 365
years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Apart from not reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was quite high (31.13to 42.26). Thus, the numbers of years working in present college as a teacher has no impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress.
HYPOTHESIS IX
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.3.17 ANOVA for significant difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Dimensions of Monthly salary f - value p - value sources of stress Below 20001- 25001- Above 20000 25000 30000 30000 College management 73.00 70.34 72.13 67.83 4.306 .005 6.79 10.39 8.28 9.13 Professional demands 94.19 90.59 93.48 89.26 and responsibility 9.89 13.77 11.45 10.42 3.291 .020 Student's misbehavior 40.83 38.47 39.60 38.13 3.968 .008 4.81 6.43 5.45 6.26 Workload and Time 48.01 45.64 46.88 43.42 pressures 6.37 7.54 6.90 7.75 5.122 .002 Overall opinion of 256.02 245.05 252.09 238.64 4.536 .004 Stress 24.90 35.53 29.34 30.93
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between monthly 366
salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of F - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 4.306 0.005 0.05 Significant REJECTED Professional demands and 3.291 0.020 0.05 Significant REJECTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 3.968 0.008 0.05 Significant REJECTED Workload and Time 5.122 0.002 0.05 Significant REJECTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 4.536 0.004 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, monthly salary of teacher has an impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
Table 6.3.18 ANOVA for significant difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of coping Monthly salary f - value p - value strategies of stress Below 20001- 25001- Above 20000 25000 30000 30000 Reducing physical Stress 43.95 40.54 41.07 43.68 3.210 .023 11.72 9.26 10.47 11.30 30.00 27.32 27.61 30.17 Avoiding unwanted things 7.59 5.20 5.99 5.52 6.861 .000 Correct posture 25.49 23.64 24.23 25.72 3.533 .015 367
6.46 5.18 5.98 5.53 Relaxation 73.12 68.27 67.71 74.91 15.87 11.66 16.60 14.94 5.768 .001 21.14 18.58 18.95 21.13 8.288 .000 Physical exercise 5.76 4.02 5.24 6.44 Overall Coping strategy 193.70 178.35 179.56 195.60 7.024 .000 42.22 28.79 37.93 36.44
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. RESULT Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 3.210 0.023 0.05 Significant REJECTED Avoiding unwanted things 6.861 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 3.533 0.015 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 5.768 0.001 0.05 Significant REJECTED Physical exercise 8.288 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Overall Coping strategy 7.024 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference in all the dimensions of coping strategies of stress between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Apart from reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was quite high (28.79to 42.22). Thus, a monthly salary of teachers has impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. 368
HYPOTHESIS X Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.3.19 ANOVA for significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Dimensions of sources of stress No. of periods teach every f - value p - day value Up to 4 - 5 Above 5 3 College management 69.85 71.77 70.14 2.456 .087 9.13 9.30 10.08 Professional demands and 90.25 92.84 90.75 responsibility 12.68 12.36 12.08 2.478 .085 Student's misbehavior 38.51 39.61 38.37 2.342 .097 6.08 5.90 6.16 Workload and Time pressures 45.17 46.88 45.13 7.49 7.17 7.32 3.570 .029 Overall opinion of Stress 243.78 251.10 244.39 3.099 .046 32.28 32.05 33.81 INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of F - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 2.456 0.087 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and 2.478 0.085 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 2.342 0.097 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Workload and Time 3.570 0.029 0.05 Significant REJECTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 3.099 0.046 0.05 Significant REJECTED
369
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference between numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress except in case of Workload and time pressures and overall opinion of stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected in case of overall opinion of stress, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher has an impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.3.20 ANOVA for significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of sources of stress No. of periods teach every day f - value p - value Up to 3 4 - 5 Above 5 Reducing physical Stress 42.15 41.00 42.07 .760 .468 10.50 9.82 11.22 28.16 28.02 28.30 Avoiding unwanted things 6.42 5.33 7.03 .077 .926 Correct posture 24.55 23.77 25.55 3.226 .041 6.11 5.13 6.29 Relaxation 69.78 68.37 73.55 14.79 12.66 17.19 4.037 .018 19.70 18.85 20.32 3.209 .041 Physical exercise 4.88 4.69 6.14 Overall Coping strategy 184.33 180.01 189.79 2.578 .077 36.55 31.13 42.26
370
INTERPRETATION
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
RESULT Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 0.760 0.468 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 0.077 0.926 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Correct posture 3.226 0.041 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 4.037 0.018 0.05 Significant REJECTED Physical exercise 3.209 0.041 0.05 Significant REJECTED Overall Coping strategy 2.578 0.077 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not statistically difference in all the dimensions of coping strategies of stress between numbers of periods teaching every day a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress except in case of correct posture, Relaxation and Physical exercise. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted in overall coping strategy, it is concluded that there is no significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Apart from not reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups also was quite high (31.13to 42.26). Thus, number of periods teaching every day a teacher has no impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress.
HYPOTHESIS XI 371
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Table 6.3.21 t - test for significant difference between maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Dimensions of sources of Maximum number of students in a t - value p - stress class value 40 - 60 60 - 80 Mean SD Mean SD College management 70.53 9.51 72.13 8.95 1.659 0.098 Professional demands and 91.62 12.88 91.94 11.11 0.252 0.801 responsibility Student's misbehavior 38.55 6.10 40.69 5.47 3.491 0.001 Workload and Time 46.09 7.53 46.05 6.70 0.049 0.961 pressures Overall opinion of Stress 246.79 33.62 250.81 28.75 1.203 0.230
INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of t - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 1.659 0.098 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and 0.252 0.801 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 3.491 0.001 0.05 Significant REJECTED Workload and Time 0.049 0.961 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 1.203 0.230 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
372
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference in the dimensions of sources of stress except in case of Student‘s misbehavior among the maximum numbers of students in a class (40 to 60 and 60 – 80 students). As the Null Hypothesis is accepted (cannot be rejected), it is concluded that there is no significant difference between the maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Based on the overall opinion of stress mean Scores, we can say that the class having 60 – 80 students (M = 250.81) have little more sources of stress than the class having 40 – 60 students (M = 246.79).
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.3.22 t - test for significant difference between maximum number of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of coping Maximum number of students in a t - value p - value strategies of stress class 40 - 60 60 - 80 Mean SD Mean SD Reducing physical Stress 41.56 9.73 41.43 11.77 0.118 0.906 Avoiding unwanted 28.12 5.52 28.06 7.17 0.089 0.929 things Correct posture 24.21 5.38 24.50 6.48 0.498 0.619 Relaxation 69.69 13.32 69.28 16.63 0.280 0.780 Physical exercise 19.41 4.81 19.11 5.60 0.573 0.567 Overall Coping strategy 182.98 32.07 182.39 42.45 0.165 0.869
INTERPRETATION
373
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. RESULT Dimensions of coping F - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 0.118 0.906 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 0.089 0.929 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Correct posture 0.498 0.619 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Relaxation 0.280 0.780 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Physical exercise 0.573 0.567 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Overall Coping strategy 0.165 0.869 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference in the dimensions of sources of stress among the maximum numbers of students in a class (40 to 60 and 60 – 80 students). As the Null Hypothesis is accepted (cannot be rejected), it is concluded that there is no significant difference between the maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Based on the overall opinion of stress mean Scores, we can say that both the classes have the same coping strategies of stresses the mean scores are same for both).
HYPOTHESIS XII
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the safeties in college with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Table 6.3.23 t - test for significant difference between safety in college with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Dimensions of sources Safety in the college t - value p - value of stress YES NO 374
Mean SD Mean SD College management 70.07 9.90 71.09 9.29 0.918 0.359 Professional demands 91.90 11.60 91.66 12.64 0.159 0.873 and responsibility Student's misbehavior 39.35 6.23 39.02 5.98 0.467 0.641 Workload and Time 46.02 7.56 46.09 7.29 0.073 0.942 pressures Overall opinion of Stress 247.34 33.14 247.85 32.43 0.134 0.894
INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between the safeties in college with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of t - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management 0.918 0.359 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and 0.159 0.873 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior 0.467 0.641 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Workload and Time 0.073 0.942 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress 0.134 0.894 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference between the safety in college with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted (cannot be rejected), it is concluded that there is no significant difference between the safety in college with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between safeties in college with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 375
Table 6.3.24 t - test for significant difference between safety in college with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Dimensions of coping Safety in college t - value p - strategies of stress YES NO value Mean SD Mean SD Reducing physical Stress 44.81 11.74 40.86 9.80 3.292 0.001 Avoiding unwanted things 29.72 6.53 27.78 5.79 2.776 0.006 Correct posture 26.02 6.24 23.93 5.48 3.148 0.002 Relaxation 75.73 16.78 68.35 13.29 4.484 0.000 Physical exercise 22.01 6.00 18.80 4.61 5.590 0.000 Overall Coping strategy 198.30 40.64 179.73 32.73 4.599 0.000
INTERPRETATION An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between safeties in college with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. RESULT Dimensions of coping t - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 3.292 0.001 0.05 Significant REJECTED Avoiding unwanted things 2.776 0.006 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 3.148 0.002 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 4.484 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Physical exercise 5.590 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Overall Coping strategy 4.599 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference between the safety in college with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between the safeties in college with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
376
HYPOTHESIS XIII
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the College violence policies with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Table 6.3.25 t - test for significant difference between College violence policy with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress
Dimensions of sources of College violence policy t - value p - stress YES NO value Mean SD Mean SD College management 64.84 7.47 71.15 9.39 -2.894 0.004 Professional demands and 84.89 6.18 91.96 12.57 -2.438 0.015 responsibility Student's misbehavior 33.89 3.53 39.27 6.00 -3.875 0.000 Workload and Time 38.84 4.89 46.35 7.27 -4.464 0.000 pressures Overall opinion of Stress 222.47 19.37 248.74 32.54 -3.492 0.001
INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between the College violence policies with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of t - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management -2.894 0.004 0.05 Significant REJECTED Professional demands and -2.438 0.015 0.05 Significant REJECTED responsibility Student's misbehavior -3.875 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Workload and Time -4.464 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress -3.492 0.001 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference between the College violence policy with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. 377
As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between the College violence policies with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between College violence policies with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
Table 6.3.26 t - test for significant difference between College violence policy with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Dimensions of coping College violence policy t - value p - value strategies of stress YES NO Mean SD Mean SD Reducing physical Stress 39.68 10.32 41.60 10.25 -0.798 0.425 Avoiding unwanted 31.05 7.58 27.99 5.86 2.207 0.028 things Correct posture 26.84 6.73 24.19 5.60 2.012 0.045 Relaxation 81.37 20.63 69.14 13.71 3.735 0.000 Physical exercise 21.95 5.95 19.23 4.95 2.327 0.020 Overall Coping strategy 200.89 47.58 182.15 34.13 2.312 0.021
INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between College violence policies with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
RESULT Dimensions of coping t - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress -0.798 0.425 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Avoiding unwanted things 2.207 0.028 0.05 Significant REJECTED Correct posture 2.012 0.045 0.05 Significant REJECTED Relaxation 3.735 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED Physical exercise 2.327 0.020 0.05 Significant REJECTED 378
Overall Coping strategy 2.312 0.021 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference between College violence policy with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress except in case of Reducing physical stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between College violence policies with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
HYPOTHESIS XIV
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the College violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
Table 6.3.27 t - test for significant difference between College violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress College violence prevention Dimensions of sources program t – p - of stress YES NO value value Mean SD Mean SD College management 62.10 11.43 71.09 9.28 -3.022 .003 Professional demands and 81.00 12.50 91.91 12.38 -2.760 .006 responsibility Student's misbehavior 33.10 5.00 39.19 5.98 -3.199 .001 Workload and Time 37.70 6.70 46.24 7.25 -3.694 .000 pressures Overall opinion of Stress 213.90 34.24 248.44 32.16 -3.359 .001
INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between the College violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. 379
RESULT Dimensions of t - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management -3.022 0.003 0.05 Significant REJECTED Professional demands and -2.760 0.006 0.05 Significant REJECTED responsibility Student's misbehavior -3.199 0.001 0.05 Significant REJECTED Workload and Time -3.694 0.000 0.05 Significant REJECTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress -3.359 0.001 0.05 Significant REJECTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is a statistically difference between the College violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. As the Null Hypothesis is rejected, it is concluded that there is a significant difference between the College violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between College violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
Table 6.3.28 t test for significant difference between College violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of coping College violence prevention t - value p - value strategies of stress program YES NO Mean SD Mean SD Reducing physical Stress 37.10 9.83 41.61 10.25 -1.380 .168 Avoiding unwanted 28.00 7.63 28.11 5.93 -.056 .955 things Correct posture 25.30 6.04 24.26 5.66 .572 .567 Relaxation 68.30 17.28 69.61 14.14 -.290 .772 380
Physical exercise 19.60 4.14 19.33 5.03 .169 .866 Overall Coping strategy 178.30 40.73 182.93 34.75 -.416 .678
INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between College violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. RESULT Dimensions of coping t - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress -1.380 0.0168 0.05 Significant REJECTED Avoiding unwanted things -0.056 0.0955 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Correct posture 0.5.72 0.0567 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Relaxation -0.290 0.0772 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Physical exercise 0.169 0.0866 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Overall Coping strategy -0.416 0.0678 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not s College violence prevention program with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress except in case of reducing physical stress.
As the Null Hypothesis is accepted, it is concluded that there is no significant difference between College violence prevention programs with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. HYPOTHESIS XV Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Table 6.3.29 t test for significant difference between the job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress Dimensions of Satisfaction with the present job t - value p - value sources of stress YES NO Mean SD Mean SD College 68.69 11.74 71.13 9.12 -1.670 0.096 381 management Professional demands and 89.71 14.60 91.89 12.24 -1.121 0.263 responsibility Student's 37.44 6.44 39.23 5.96 -1.905 0.057 misbehavior Workload and 44.07 8.12 46.27 7.23 -1.930 0.054 Time pressures Overall opinion 239.91 38.38 248.52 31.85 -1.700 0.090 of Stress
INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between the job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. RESULT Dimensions of t - P - Level of Null sources of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis College management -1.670 0.096 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Professional demands and -1.121 0.263 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED responsibility Student's misbehavior -1.905 0.057 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Workload and Time -1.930 0.054 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED pressures Overall opinion of Stress -1.700 0.090 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
From the above table it is concluded that there is not a statistically difference between job satisfaction with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted, it is concluded that there is no significant difference between job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress.
382
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.3.30 Teachers t test for significant difference between job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Dimensions of Satisfaction with the present job t - value p - value coping YES NO strategies of stress Mean SD Mean SD Reducing 44.80 10.93 41.21 10.14 2.252 0.025 physical Stress Avoiding 29.38 5.89 27.98 5.95 1.502 0.134 unwanted things Correct posture 25.60 5.54 24.16 5.66 1.634 0.103 Relaxation 70.42 16.18 69.51 14.00 0.412 0.680 Physical 19.49 5.11 19.32 5.00 0.215 0.830 exercise Overall Coping 189.69 36.79 182.18 34.62 1.382 0.168 strategy
INTERPRETATION
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to explore the significant difference between job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
RESULT Dimensions of coping t - P - Level of Null strategies of stress Value Value significance Significance Hypothesis Reducing physical Stress 2.252 0.025 0.05 Significant REJECTED Avoiding unwanted things 1.502 0.134 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Correct posture 1.634 0.103 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Relaxation 0.412 0.680 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Physical exercise 0.215 0.830 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED Overall Coping strategy 1.382 0.168 0.05 Insignificant ACCEPTED
383
From the above table it is concluded that there is no statistically difference between job satisfaction with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress except in case of Reducing physical stress. As the Null Hypothesis is accepted, it is concluded that there is no significant difference between job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
6.4 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS ON SAMPLE
Table 6.4.1 Level of source of stress
Frequenc y Percent Valid Low 143 27.9 Moderat 239 46.6 e High 131 25.5 Total 513 100.0
Table 6.4.2 Level of coping strategy
Frequency Percent Valid Low 131 25.5 Moderate 253 49.3 High 129 25.1 Total 513 100.0
HYPOTHESIS I
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between gender and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress.
Table 6.4.3 Chi-square test for association between gender and level of 384
Overall dimensions of sources of stress
Gender Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value Low Moderate High Value
Male 68 124 63 255 (26.7) (48.6) (24.7) [47.6] [51.9] [48.1] Female 75 115 68 258 0.855 0.652** (29.1) (44.6) (26.4) [52.4] [48.1] [51.9] Total 143 239 131 513
0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 65.12. Note: 1. the value within ( ) refers to Row Percentage 2. The value within [ ] refers to Column Percentage
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between gender and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 65.12). As the p value 0.652 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between gender and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This 385
indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress among male and female respondents is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS II
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between age group and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.4 Chi-square test for association between age group and level of Overall dimensions of sources of stress Age Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value group in Low Moderate High Value years 20 - 30 38 65 49 152 (25.0 %) (42.8 %) (32.2 %) (100.0 %) [26.6 %] [27.2 %] [37.4 %] [29.6 %] 31 - 40 45 76 32 153 (29.4 % ) (49.7 % ) (20.9 % ) (100.0 % ) [31.7 % ] [31.8 % ] [24.4 % ] [ 29.8 % ] 41 - 50 44 65 32 141 (31.2%) 6.868(a) 0.333 (46.1%) (22.7%) (100.0%) [30.8 %] [27.2 %] [24.4 %] [27.5 %]
Above 50 16 33 18 67 (23.9%) (49.3% (26.9%) (100.0%) [11.2%] [13.8%] [13.7%] [13.1%] Total 143 239 131 513 (27.9%) (46.6%) (25.5%) (100.0%) [100.0%] [100.0%] [100.0%] [100.0%]
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 17.11.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between age group and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. 386
In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 17.11). As the p value 0.333 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between age group and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress among the various age groups is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS III
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between marital status and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.5 Chi-square test for association between marital status and level of Overall dimensions of sources of stress
Marital Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value Status Low Moderate High Value
Single 30 54 35 119 25.2% 45.4% 29.4% 100.0% 21.0% 22.6% 26.7% 23.2% 387
Married 93 154 88 335 27.8% 46.0% 26.3% 100.0% 65.0% 64.4% 67.2% 65.3% 5.671(a) 0.225 Divorced / 20 31 8 59 Separated 33.9% 52.5% 13.6% 100.0% 14.0% 13.0% 6.1% 11.5% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 15.07.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between marital status and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 15.07). As the p value 0.225 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between marital status and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the various marital statuses is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS IV
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress 388
Table 6.4.6 Chi-square test for association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Educational Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value Qualification Low Moderate High Value
UG 21 39 24 84 25.0% 46.4% 28.6% 100.0% 14.7% 16.3% 18.3% 16.4% PG 99 180 99 378 26.2% 47.6% 26.2% 100.0% 69.2% 75.3% 75.6% 73.7% 9.047(a) 0.060 Ph.D 23 20 8 51 45.1% 39.2% 15.7% 100.0% 16.1% 8.4% 6.1% 9.9% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.02.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 13.02). As the p value 0.060 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). 389
Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the various educational qualifications is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS V
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Occupation and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.7 Chi-square test for association between Occupation and level of Overall dimensions of sources of stress
Occupation Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value Low Moderate High Value
Assistant 30 51 28 109 Professor I 27.5% 46.8% 25.7% 100.0% 21.0% 21.3% 21.4% 21.2% Assistant 72 125 65 262 Professor II 27.5% 47.7% 24.8% 100.0% 50.3% 52.3% 49.6% 51.1% Associate 26 45 30 101 2.850(a) 0.827 Professor 25.7% 44.6% 29.7% 100.0% 18.2% 18.8% 22.9% 19.7% Professor 15 18 8 41 36.6% 43.9% 19.5% 100.0% 10.5% 7.5% 6.1% 8.0% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 10.47.
INTERPRETATION 390
A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between occupations and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 10.47). As the p value 0.827 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between occupation and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the various occupations is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS VI
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between working departments and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.8 Chi-square test for association between working departments and level of Overall dimensions of sources of stress Working Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value Department Low Moderate High Value 1 17 29 24 70 24.3% 41.4% 34.3% 100.0% 11.9% 12.1% 18.3% 13.6% 2 35 55 19 109 32.1% 50.5% 17.4% 100.0% 24.5% 23.0% 14.5% 21.2% 391
3 22 35 18 75 11.769(a) 0.464 29.3% 46.7% 24.0% 100.0% 15.4% 14.6% 13.7% 14.6% 4 36 52 28 116 31.0% 44.8% 24.1% 100.0% 25.2% 21.8% 21.4% 22.6% 5 20 34 24 78 25.6% 43.6% 30.8% 100.0% 14.0% 14.2% 18.3% 15.2% 6 9 27 12 48 18.8% 56.3% 25.0% 100.0% 6.3% 11.3% 9.2% 9.4% 7 4 7 6 17 23.5% 41.2% 35.3% 100.0% 2.8% 2.9% 4.6% 3.3% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.34. INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between working departments and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi-square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 4.37). As the p value 0.464 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between working departments and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of 392
stress with respect to the various occupations is independent and not related. HYPOTHESIS VII
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between No. of years of working and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.9 Chi-square test for association between No. of years of working and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
No. of Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value years Low Moderate High Value working as teacher Below 5 33 54 35 122 27.0% 44.3% 28.7% 100.0% 23.1% 22.6% 26.7% 23.8% 5 - 10 57 104 55 216 26.4% 48.1% 25.5% 100.0% 39.9% 43.5% 42.0% 42.1% 1.603(a) 0.808 Above 10 53 81 41 175 30.3% 46.3% 23.4% 100.0% 37.1% 33.9% 31.3% 34.1% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 31.15.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between No. of years of working and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- 393
square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 31.15). As the p value 0.808 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between No. of years of working and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the number of years of working is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS VIII
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between No. of years working in the present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.10 Chi-square test for association between No. of years working in the present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
No. of Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value years Low Moderate High Value working in the present college as teacher Below 1 53 70 41 164 32.3% 42.7% 25.0% 100.0% 37.1% 29.3% 31.3% 32.0% 1 - 5 61 137 75 273 22.3% 50.2% 27.5% 100.0% 42.7% 57.3% 57.3% 53.2% Above 5 10.082(a) 0.039 29 32 15 76 38.2% 42.1% 19.7% 100.0% 394
20.3% 13.4% 11.5% 14.8%
Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 19.41.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between No. of years working in the present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 19.14). As the p value 0.039 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between No. of years working in the present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the No. of years working in the present college as teacher is independent and not related. HYPOTHESIS IX
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between monthly salary and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress 395
Table 6.4.11 Chi-square test for association between Monthly Salary and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Monthly Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value salary in Low Moderate High Value Rupees Below 16 36 29 81 20000 19.8% 44.4% 35.8% 100.0% 11.2% 15.1% 22.1% 15.8% 20001 - 75 124 60 259 25000 29.0% 47.9% 23.2% 100.0% 52.4% 51.9% 45.8% 50.5% 25001 - 28 55 37 120 19.495(a) 0.003 30000 23.3% 45.8% 30.8% 100.0% 19.6% 23.0% 28.2% 23.4% Above 24 24 5 53 30000 45.3% 45.3% 9.4% 100.0% 16.8% 10.0% 3.8% 10.3% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.53.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between monthly salary and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 13.53). As the p value 0.003 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). 396
Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between monthly salary and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the monthly salary is independent and not related
HYPOTHESIS X
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.12 Chi-square test for association between maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Maximum Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value number of Low Moderate High Value students in a class 40 - 60 112 178 98 388 28.9% 45.9% 25.3% 100.0% 78.3% 74.5% 74.8% 75.6% 60 - 80 31 61 33 125 24.8% 48.8% 26.4% 100.0% 0.782(a) 0.676 21.7% 25.5% 25.2% 24.4% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 31.92.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. 397
In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 31.92). As the p value 0.676 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the maximum number of students in a class is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS XI
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.13 Chi-square test for association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Number of Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value periods Low Moderate High Value teaching every day Up to 3 20 6 1 27 74.1% 22.2% 3.7% 100.0% 14.0% 2.5% .8% 5.3% 4 - 5 107 205 123 435 24.6% 47.1% 28.3% 100.0% 74.8% 85.8% 93.9% 84.8% 35.902(a) 0.000 398
6 – 7 16 28 7 51 31.4% 54.9% 13.7% 100.0% 11.2% 11.7% 5.3% 9.9% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.89.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 6.89). As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the number of periods teaching every day is not independent and related.
HYPOTHESIS XII
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between safety in the college and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress 399
Table 6.4.14 Chi-square test for association between safety in the college and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Safety in Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value the college Low Moderate High Value
YES 27 41 18 86 31.4% 47.7% 20.9% 100.0% 18.9% 17.2% 13.7% 16.8% NO 116 198 113 427 27.2% 46.4% 26.5% 100.0% 1.344(a) 81.1% 82.8% 86.3% 83.2% 0.511 Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 21.96.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between safety in the college and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 21.96). As the p value 0.511 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). 400
Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between safety in the college and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the safety in the colleges independent and not related. HYPOTHESIS XIII
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between college violence policy and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.15 Chi-square test for association between College violence policy and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
College Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value violence Low Moderate High Value policy YES 14 5 0 19 21.632(a) 0.000 73.7% 26.3% .0% 100.0% 9.8% 2.1% .0% 3.7% NO 129 234 131 494 26.1% 47.4% 26.5% 100.0% 90.2% 97.9% 100.0% 96.3% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
a 1 cells (16.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.85.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between college violence policy and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- 401
square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 4.85). As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between college violence policy and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to college violence policy is not independent and related.
HYPOTHESIS XIV
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between college violence prevention program and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
Table 6.4.16 Chi-square test for association between college violence prevention program and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress
College Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value violence Low Moderate High Value prevention program YES 8 2 0 10 14.093(a) 0.002 80.0% 20.0% .0% 100.0% 5.6% .8% .0% 1.9% NO 135 237 131 503 26.8% 47.1% 26.0% 100.0% 94.4% 99.2% 100.0% 98.1% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
a 3 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.55. 402
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between college violence prevention program and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. As the p value 0.002 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between safety in the college and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to the college violence prevention program is independent and not related. HYPOTHESIS XV
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between job satisfaction and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress.
Table 6.4.17 Chi-square test for association between job satisfaction and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress Satisfied Level of Source of stress Total Chi-square P value with the Low Moderate High Value teaching job YES 8 2 0 10 80.0% 20.0% .0% 100.0% 5.6% .8% .0% 1.9% NO 135 237 131 503 26.8% 47.1% 26.0% 100.0% 17.256(a) 0.000 94.4% 99.2% 100.0% 98.1% Total 143 239 131 513 27.9% 46.6% 25.5% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 403
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 11.49.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between job satisfaction and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 11.49). As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between job satisfaction and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of sources of stress with respect to job satisfactions not independent and related.
LEVEL OF COPING STRATEGY
HYPOTHESIS I
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between gender and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
Table 6.4.18 Chi-square test for association between gender and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Gender Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value Low Moderate High Value 404
Male 64 119 72 255 2.685(a) .261 25.1% 46.7% 28.2% 100.0% 48.9% 47.0% 55.8% 49.7% Female 67 134 57 258 26.0% 51.9% 22.1% 100.0% 51.1% 53.0% 44.2% 50.3% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 64.12.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between gender and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 64.12). As the p value 0.261 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between gender and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the gender is independent and not related.
405
HYPOTHESIS II
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Age group and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.19 Chi-square test for association between age group and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Age Group Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value Low Moderate High Value
20 - 30 27 76 49 152 17.8% 50.0% 32.2% 100.0% 20.6% 30.0% 38.0% 29.6% 31 - 40 39 86 28 153 25.5% 56.2% 18.3% 100.0% 29.8% 34.0% 21.7% 29.8% 41 - 50 46 67 28 141 32.6% 47.5% 19.9% 100.0% 21.129(a) 0.002 35.1% 26.5% 21.7% 27.5% Above 50 19 24 24 67 28.4% 35.8% 35.8% 100.0% 14.5% 9.5% 18.6% 13.1% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 16.85.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between age groups and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the 406
assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 16.85). As the p value 0.002 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between age group and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the age groups is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS III
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between marital status and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.20 Chi-square test for association between marital status and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Marital Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value status Low Moderate High Value
Single 17 63 39 119 14.3% 52.9% 32.8% 100.0% 13.0% 24.9% 30.2% 23.2% Married 98 165 72 335 29.3% 49.3% 21.5% 100.0%
74.8% 65.2% 55.8% 65.3% 13.869(a) Divorced/ 16 25 18 59 0.008 Separated 27.1% 42.4% 30.5% 100.0% 12.2% 9.9% 14.0% 11.5% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 14.84.
407
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between marital status and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 14.84). As the p value 0.008 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between marital status and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the marital status is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS IV
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.21 Chi-square test for association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Educational Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value Qualification Low Moderate High Value 408
UG 16 37 31 84 0.000 19.0% 44.0% 36.9% 100.0% 12.2% 14.6% 24.0% 16.4% PG 103 200 75 378 27.2% 52.9% 19.8% 100.0% 78.6% 79.1% 58.1% 73.7% 23.614(a) Ph.D 12 16 23 51 23.5% 31.4% 45.1% 100.0% 9.2% 6.3% 17.8% 9.9% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 12.82.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 12.82). As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the educational qualifications is not independent and related.
409
HYPOTHESIS V
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between occupation and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.22 Chi-square test for association between occupation and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Occupation Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value Low Moderate High Value
Assistant 16 58 35 109 Professor I 14.7% 53.2% 32.1% 100.0% 12.2% 22.9% 27.1% 21.2% Assistant 79 127 56 262 Professor II 30.2% 48.5% 21.4% 100.0% 60.3% 50.2% 43.4% 51.1% Associate 27 56 18 101 Professor 26.7% 55.4% 17.8% 100.0% 26.812(a) 0.000 20.6% 22.1% 14.0% 19.7% Professor 9 12 20 41 22.0% 29.3% 48.8% 100.0% 6.9% 4.7% 15.5% 8.0% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 10.31.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between occupations and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the 410
assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 10.31). As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between occupations and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the occupations is not independent and related.
HYPOTHESIS VI
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between working department and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.23 Chi-square test for association between working department and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Working Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value Department Low Moderate High Value
1 14 27 29 70 20.0% 38.6% 41.4% 100.0% 10.7% 10.7% 22.5% 13.6% 2 29 48 32 109 26.6% 44.0% 29.4% 100.0%
22.1% 19.0% 24.8% 21.2% 25.011(a) 3 24 32 19 75 32.0% 42.7% 25.3% 100.0% 18.3% 12.6% 14.7% 14.6%
4 29 70 17 116
25.0% 60.3% 14.7% 100.0%
22.1% 27.7% 13.2% 22.6% 411
5 18 41 19 78 0.015 23.1% 52.6% 24.4% 100.0% 13.7% 16.2% 14.7% 15.2% 6 15 24 9 48 31.3% 50.0% 18.8% 100.0% 11.5% 9.5% 7.0% 9.4% 7 2 11 4 17 11.8% 64.7% 23.5% 100.0% 1.5% 4.3% 3.1% 3.3% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 2 cells (9.5%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.27.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between working department and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi-square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 4.27).As the p value 0.015 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between working department and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the working department is independent and not related. HYPOTHESIS VII
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Number of years working as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress 412
Table 6.4.24 Chi-square test for association between Number of years working as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Number of Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value years Low Moderate High Value working as teacher Below 5 24 58 40 122 19.7% 47.5% 32.8% 100.0% 18.3% 22.9% 31.0% 23.8% 5 - 10 57 119 40 216 26.4% 55.1% 18.5% 100.0% 43.5% 47.0% 31.0% 42.1% 12.277(a) Above 10 50 76 49 175 0.015 28.6% 43.4% 28.0% 100.0% 38.2% 30.0% 38.0% 34.1% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 30.68.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between Number of years working as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 30.68). 413
As the p value 0.015 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between Number of years working as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the Number of years working as teacher is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS VIII
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Number of years working in present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.25 Chi-square test for association between Number of years working in present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Number of Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value years Low Moderate High Value working in present college as teacher Below 1 44 75 45 164 26.8% 45.7% 27.4% 100.0% 33.6% 29.6% 34.9% 32.0% 1 - 5 66 150 57 273 24.2% 54.9% 20.9% 100.0% 50.4% 59.3% 44.2% 53.2% 0.032 10.591(a) Above 5 21 28 27 76 27.6% 36.8% 35.5% 100.0% 16.0% 11.1% 20.9% 14.8% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 414 a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 19.11.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between Number of years working in present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 19.11). As the p value 0.032 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between Number of years working in present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the Number of years working in present college as teacher is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS IX
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between monthly salary and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.26 Chi-square test for association between monthly salary and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
415
Monthly Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value Salary Low Moderate High Value
Below 20000 18 30 33 81 22.2% 37.0% 40.7% 100.0% 13.7% 11.9% 25.6% 15.8% 20001 - 65 151 43 259 25000 25.1% 58.3% 16.6% 100.0% 49.6% 59.7% 33.3% 50.5% 25001 - 37 55 28 120 30000 30.8% 45.8% 23.3% 100.0% 38.099(a) 0.000 28.2% 21.7% 21.7% 23.4% Above 30000 11 17 25 53 20.8% 32.1% 47.2% 100.0% 8.4% 6.7% 19.4% 10.3% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.33.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between monthly salary and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 13.33). As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. 416
Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between monthly salary and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the occupations is not independent and related.
HYPOTHESIS X
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.27 Chi-square test for association between Maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Maximum Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value number of Low Moderate High Value students in a class 40 - 60 86 214 88 388 22.2% 55.2% 22.7% 100.0% 65.6% 84.6% 68.2% 75.6% 60 - 80 45 39 41 125 36.0% 31.2% 32.8% 100.0% 21.937(a) 0.000 34.4% 15.4% 31.8% 24.4% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 31.43.
417
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between Maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi-square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 31.43). As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between Maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the Maximum number of students in a class is not independent and related.
HYPOTHESIS XI
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress.
Table 6.4.28 Chi-square test for association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress No. of Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value periods Low Moderate High Value teaching every day 418
Upto 3 6 11 10 27 22.2% 40.7% 37.0% 100.0% 4.6% 4.3% 7.8% 5.3% 4 - 5 115 228 92 435 26.4% 52.4% 21.1% 100.0% 87.8% 90.1% 71.3% 84.8% 27.099(a) 0.000 6 - 7 10 14 27 51 19.6% 27.5% 52.9% 100.0% 7.6% 5.5% 20.9% 9.9% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.79.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 6.79). As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the number of periods teaching every day is not independent and related.
419
HYPOTHESIS XII
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Safety in the present college and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.29 Chi-square test for association between Safety in the present college and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Safety in the Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value present Low Moderate High Value college YES 18 32 36 86 20.9% 37.2% 41.9% 100.0% 13.7% 12.6% 27.9% 16.8% NO 113 221 93 427 26.5% 51.8% 21.8% 100.0% 15.409(a) 0.000 86.3% 87.4% 72.1% 83.2% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 21.63.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between Safety in the present college and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 21.63). 420
As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between Safety in the present college and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the Safety in the present college is not independent and related. HYPOTHESIS XIII Null Hypothesis: There is no association between College violence policy and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.30 Chi-square test for association between College violence policy and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
College Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value violence Low Moderate High Value policy YES 6 3 10 19 31.6% 15.8% 52.6% 100.0% 4.6% 1.2% 7.8% 3.7% NO 125 250 119 494 25.3% 50.6% 24.1% 100.0% 10.707(a) 0.005 95.4% 98.8% 92.2% 96.3% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 2 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 4.78.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between College violence policy as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not. 421
In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 4.78). As the p value 0.005 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted). Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between College violence policy as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the College violence policy as teacher is independent and not related. HYPOTHESIS XIV
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between College violence prevention program and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress Table 6.4.31 Chi-square test for association between College violence prevention program and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
College Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value violence Low Moderate High Value prevention program YES 5 2 3 10 50.0% 20.0% 30.0% 100.0% 3.8% .8% 2.3% 1.9% 4.263(a) 0.119 NO 126 251 126 503 25.0% 49.9% 25.0% 100.0% 96.2% 99.2% 97.7% 98.1% 422
Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 3 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.51.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between College violence prevention programas teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not.
As the p value 0.119 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted).
Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between College violence prevention program and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the College violence prevention program is independent and not related. HYPOTHESIS XV
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Job satisfaction and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Table 6.4.32 Chi-square test for association between job satisfaction and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress
Satisfied Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value with the job Low Moderate High Value 423
YES 9 20 16 45 20.0% 44.4% 35.6% 100.0% 6.9% 7.9% 12.4% 8.8% NO 122 233 113 468 26.1% 49.8% 24.1% 100.0% 2.955(a) 0.228 93.1% 92.1% 87.6% 91.2% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 11.32.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between Job satisfaction as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress or not.
In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 11.32).
As the p value 0.228 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted).
Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between Job satisfactions teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of 424
coping strategies of stress with respect to the Job satisfactions teacher is independent and not related.
HYPOTHESIS Null Hypothesis: There is no association between the Level of source of stress and the Level of coping strategy.
Table 6.4.33 Level of source of stress * Level of coping strategy
Level of Level of coping strategy Total Chi-square P value source of Low Moderate High Value stress Low 54 58 31 143 37.8% 40.6% 21.7% 100.0% 41.2% 22.9% 24.0% 27.9% Moderate 63 122 54 239 26.4% 51.0% 22.6% 100.0% 48.1% 48.2% 41.9% 46.6% 28.220(a) 0.000 High 14 73 44 131 10.7% 55.7% 33.6% 100.0% 10.7% 28.9% 34.1% 25.5% Total 131 253 129 513 25.5% 49.3% 25.1% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 32.94.
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between the Level of source of stress and the Level of coping strategy or not. In the table Chi-Square Tests result, ―0 cells have expected count less than 5 is 0.0%. So, the sample size requirement for the chi- square test of independence is satisfied. This means that the assumption for the test is not violated, as all the expected cell sizes are greater than 5 (greater than 32.94). 425
As the p value 0.000 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is lesser than .001, the null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, it is concluded that there is an association between the Level of source of stress and the Level of coping strategy. This indicates the level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress with respect to the Level of source of stress is not independent and related.
Null Hypothesis: There is no association between monthly income and level of satisfaction on quality of services
Table 6.4.34 Chi-square test for association between monthly income and level of satisfaction on quality of services Monthly Level of Satisfaction on quality Total Chi-square P value Income of service Value (in Rs) Low Average High
Below 34 43 19 94 15000 (36.2) (45.7) (18.1) [47.2] [38.1] [26.2] 15000- 32 55 29 116 14.555 0.005** 30000 (27.6) (47.4) (25.0) [44.4] [48.7] [44.6] Above 6 15 17 40 30000 (15.0) (37.5) (47.5) [8.3] [13.3] [29.2] Total 72 113 65 250 Note: 1. The value within ( ) refers to Row Percentage 2. The value within [ ] refers to Column Percentage
INTERPRETATION A Pearson chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there is a significant association between monthly income and level of satisfaction on quality of services or not.
426
As the p value 0.005 (Asymp. Sig. = 0.001), is greater than .001, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected (i.e. null hypothesis is accepted).
Hence, it is concluded that there is no association between monthly income and level of satisfaction on quality of services. This indicates the monthly income with respect to the Level of satisfactions independent and not related. Null Hypothesis: There is no significant inter relationship between the College management, Professional demands and responsibility, Student‘s misbehavior and Workload and Time pressures with regard to sources of stress. CORRELATIONS Professional College demands and Student's Workload and management responsibility misbehavior Time pressures College 1 0.803(**) 0.632(**) 0.703(**) management 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 513 513 513 513 Professional demands and 0.803(**) 1 0.848(**) 0.892(**) responsibility 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 513 513 513 513 Student's 0.632(**) 0.848(**) 1 0.883(**) misbehavior 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 513 513 513 513 Workload and 0.703(**) 0.892(**) 0.883(**) 1 Time pressures 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 513 513 513 513 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
INTERPRETATION 427
A Pearson product-moment correlation was run to determine the relationship between the College management (CM), Professional demands and responsibility (PDR), Student‘smisbehavior(SM) and Workload and Time pressures (WTP) with regard to sources of stress. ‘r’ P - REMARKS VARIABLES N RELATIONSHIP VALUE VALUE SIGNIFICANT RESULT CM - PDR 513 .803 .000 Positive Significant Reject CM - SM 513 .632 .000 Positive Significant Reject CM - WTP 513 .703 .000 Positive Significant Reject Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level and 0.01 level (2-tailed). As the p value (Sig. Value 2-tailed) is less than .05 and .01 in all the cases, we reject the null hypothesis. There are highly positive correlations between these variables which indicate the relationship among them. Hence, there is a significant inter relationship between the College management, Professional demands and responsibility, Student’s misbehavior and Workload and Time pressures with regard to sources of stress.
6.5 REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Regression is the determination of statistical relationship between two or more variables. In simple regression two variables are used. One variable (independent) is the cause of the behaviour of another one (dependent). When there are more than two independent variables the analysis concerning relationship is known as multiple correlations and the equation describing such relationship is called as the multiple regression equation.
428
Regression analysis is concerned with the derivation of an appropriate mathematical expression is derived for finding values of a dependent variable on the basis of independent variable. It is thus designed to examine the relationship of a variable Y to a set of other variables X1, X2, X3………….Xn. the most commonly used linear equation in Y=b1 X1 + b2 X2 +……+ bnXn + b0
Here Y is the dependent variable, which is to be found. X1 , X2 ,… and Xn are the known variables with which predictions are to be made and b1, b2 ,….bn are coefficient of the variables.
Variables Entered/Removed(b)
Model Variables Entered Variables Removed Method 1 Physical exercise, Correct posture, Avoiding unwanted things, Relaxation, . Enter Reducing physical Stress(a)
a All requested variables entered. b Dependent Variable: Overall opinion of Stress
Model Summary
R Model R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .290(a) .084 .075 31.273
a Predictors: (Constant), Physical exercise, Correct posture, Avoiding unwanted things, Relaxation, Reducing physical Stress
ANOVA(b) 429
Sum of Mean Model Squares df Square F Sig. 1 Regression 45635.975 5 9127.195 9.333 .000(a) Residual 495839.955 507 977.988 Total 541475.930 512 a Predictors: (Constant), Physical exercise, Correct posture, Avoiding unwanted things, Relaxation, Reducing physical Stress b Dependent Variable: Overall opinion of Stress
Coefficients(a) Unstandardized Standardized Model Coefficients Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 236.951 7.704 30.758 0.000 Reducing physical 1.094 0.239 0.345 4.570 0.000 Stress Avoiding unwanted 0.630 0.377 0.115 1.672 0.095 things Correct posture 0.739 0.343 0.129 2.157 0.032 Relaxation 0.477 0.156 0.208 3.050 0.002 Physical exercise 0.060 0.440 0.009 0.137 0.891 a Dependent Variable: Overall opinion of Stress
INTERPRETATION Multiple Regressions was conducted to determine the best linear combination of Reducing physical Stress, Avoiding unwanted things, Correct posture, Relaxation and Physical exercise for predicting Overall opinion of Stress.
Preliminary analyses were conducted to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, multi-collinearity and homoscedasticity. The Means, Standard Deviations, and inter- correlations can be found. This combination of all five variables significantly predicts Overall opinion of Stress, F (5, 507) = 9.33, p =0.000 which is lesser than .05 (Sig. Value 2-tailed), and significantly 430 contribute to the prediction.
The beta weights suggest that Reducing physical stress (0.345) only contribute more to predict Overall opinion of Stress. This means that this variable makes the strong unique contribution to explaining the dependent variable, when the variance explained by all other variables in the model is controlled for. The adjusted R squared value was .075. This indicates that 7.5% of the variance in Overall opinion of Stress was explained by the model. According to Cohen (1988), this is a small effect.
431
CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND FINDINGS
7.1 INTRODUCTION In this section the prominent findings of the research will be discussed and where relevant research is available, reference is made to it. The discussion focuses on the causes of stress within an inclusive education environment, relationships between biographical characteristics and stress, differences in stress and access to training and developmental support. Conclusions are drawn from the results obtained and recommendations for future research are identified and suggested.
In terms of the National Qualifications Framework, teachers have to teach learners of any age, at any level of education and regardless of their circumstances (Bhengu, 1997, as cited by Olivier & Venter, 2003) whereby all learners attend a school in the community. This means that any learner can attend a mainstream school, regardless of disability, social background, cultural origin, religion or language (Ngidi & Sibaya, 2002; Olivier & Venter, 2003).
Some of the challenges that educators are faced with are a movement to accommodate diverse groups in the country. Many educators who were trained under the old traditional or conventional system, which was teacher centred, have to adapt their teaching style to the new outcomes-based system, where learner participation is encouraged (Luczyn & Pretorius, 2002; Ngidi & Sibaya, 2002). Together with a change in teaching style, educators also have to cope 432 with a greater workload in the form of additional administration work and serious disciplinary problems. Many teachers perceive disciplinary problems as a result of the abolishment of corporal punishment, resulting in tremendous insecurity and stress amongst educators (Edward, 2000; Greydanus, Ptatt, Spates, Blake- Dreher,Greydanus-Gearhart, & Patel, 2003).
This study explored the factors contributing to teachers‘ professional stress in the private schools of Gilgit-Baltistan. In particular, the study investigated to determine teachers stress caused by their jobs in schools as well as their coping behaviors against these factors. With the passage of time, teachers‘ duties and responsibilities are increasing and so do the expectations from students. Parents, in particular, are anxious and are ready to sacrifice everything for their children‘s success. Teachers have to fulfill parents‘ increasing expectations, and address the everyday school challenges, be aware of time constraints, and perform family responsibilities at same the time. Furthermore, as we come to know every day from the published articles on the education in the newspaper and magazines that in India there is a wave of progressivisms in educational field. As a result, some private schools all over the country adopting foreign textbooks and want teachers to teach according to the modern teaching methods with the emphasis on increasing demands of head teachers and growing expectations of the community without much support to teachers in schools. Consequently, there is increasing pressure on teachers to meet the numerous demands emanating from various directions. 433
Furthermore, teaching is a very complex and challenging job requiring teachers to deliver their best to achieve the teaching and learning goals. Therefore, teachers feel stressed and frustrated, particularly, when they have to work in less supportive and unfavorable environments. 7.2 SUMMARY AND FINDINGS OF THE STUDY There is no significant difference between male and female with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Based on the overall opinion of stress mean Scores, we can say that the Male respondents have little more sources of stress than the Female respondents. There is no significant difference between male and female with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Based on the Overall coping strategy of stress mean Scores, we can say that the Male respondents have little more coping strategies of stress than the Female respondents. There is no significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, the age of the teachers has no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. There is a significant difference between age group of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Thus, the age of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. There is no significant difference between marital statuses of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. 434
Thus, the marital status of the teachers has no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. There is a significant difference between marital statuses of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Thus, the marital status of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. There is a significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, the educational qualification of the teachers has impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. There is a significant difference between educational qualifications of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Thus, the educational qualification of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. There is not a significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, the occupations of the teachers have no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. There is a significant difference between occupations of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Thus, the occupation of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. There is not a significant difference between working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of 435
sources of stress. Thus, the working department of the teachers has no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. There is a significant difference between working department of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Thus, the working department of the teachers has an impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. There is not a significant difference between numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, number of years of working as a teacher has no impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. There is a significant difference between numbers of years working as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Thus, number of years of working as a teacher has impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. There is a significant difference between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, number of years of working in present college as a teacher has an impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. There is no significant difference between numbers of years working in present college as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Thus, the numbers of years working in present college as a teacher has no impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. 436
There is a significant difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, monthly salary of teacher has an impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. There is a significant difference between monthly salaries of teachers with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Thus, a monthly salary of teachers has impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. There is a significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Thus, numbers of periods teaching every day as a teacher has an impact on the overall dimension of sources of stress. There is no significant difference between numbers of periods teaching every day a teacher with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Thus, number of periods teaching every day a teacher has no impact on the overall dimension of coping strategies of stress. There is no significant difference between the maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. Based on the overall opinion of stress mean Scores, we can say that the class having 60 – 80 students have little more sources of stress than the class having 40 – 60 students. There is no significant difference between the maximum numbers of students in a class with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. Based on the overall 437
opinion of stress mean Scores, we can say that both the classes have the same coping strategies of stress as the mean scores are same for both). There is no significant difference between the safeties in college with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is a significant difference between the safeties in college with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is a significant difference between the College violence policies with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is a significant difference between College violence policies with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is a significant difference between the College violence prevention programs with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no significant difference between College violence prevention programs with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is no significant difference between job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no significant difference between job satisfactions with respect to overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is no association between gender and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between age group and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. 438
There is no association between marital status and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between occupation and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between working departments and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between No. of years of working and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between No. of years working in the present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between monthly salary and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is an association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is an association between college violence policy and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between safety in the college and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is an association between job satisfaction and level of overall dimensions of sources of stress. There is no association between gender and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. 439
There is no association between age group and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is no association between marital status and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is an association between educational qualifications and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is an association between occupations and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is no association between working department and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is no association between Number of years working as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is no association between Number of years working in present college as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is an association between monthly salary and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is an association between Maximum number of students in a class and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is an association between number of periods teaching every day and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is an association between Safety in the present college and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. 440
There is no association between College violence policy as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is no association between College violence prevention program and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is no association between Job satisfaction as teacher and level of overall dimensions of coping strategies of stress. There is an association between the Level of source of stress and the Level of coping strategy. There is no association between monthly income and level of satisfaction on quality of services. There is a significant inter relationship between the College management, Professional demands and responsibility, Student‘s misbehavior and Workload and Time pressures with regard to sources of stress. Reducing physical stress only contribute more to predict Overall opinion of Stress.
7.3 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SELECTED ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS
Data presented in the previous chapter (Table 6.2.2) illustrated that, age of teachers under the study was categorized into three categories namely, young, middle and old age group. Around eighty seven per cent of the total respondents (each 87.0% from the males and females) belonged to young and middle age groups i.e. 20- 30 and 31-50 years. 441
Marital relationship is one of the most significant and unique among all human relationship and is not a mere convention, but an implicit condition of human society. Majority of the teachers (62.5%) were married. Among them 91.0 per cent of the males and 73.0 per cent of the females were married.
Sixty-eight per cent of the total teachers were from nuclear family. Among them 65.0 per cent were males and 71.0 per cent were females and others were from joint family. Developments in technology and job opportunities directly or indirectly have disintegrated traditional family value system of joint families. Nuclear family system is the trend in the present society.
Further, more than half of the sample (44.0% of the males and 67.0% of the females) had small family i.e. up to four members. At national and international level, government has been encouraging small family norms for the development of the nation. Correspondingly, educated people are in favour of small family.
A cursory glance at table 6.2.4 also revealed that the education of the engineering college teachers ranged from under graduation and doctoral level. Majority of the teachers, i.e. 73.3 per cent (51.0% of the males and 70.0% of the females) were postgraduates. However, lesser percentage of the females (29.0%) was doctorate degree holders as compared to males (48.0%). The reason for this may be that 442 post graduation was the minimum requirement to take up job as a teacher at college level. Correspondingly the most common fact is that women has to shoulder the dual responsibilities of job and family after her marriage, therefore may be the lesser per cent of the female teachers with doctorate degree as compared to male teachers.
More than half of teachers (72.3%) were Assistant professor I / Assistant Professors II (44.0% of the males and 67.0 % of the females). The reason for higher percentage in Assistant professor I / Assistant professor II cadre in this study may be because in the process of sample selection, they readily accepted to be the respondents. Most of the senior teaching staffs were not willing to become respondents due to higher job responsibilities.
From table 6.2.7, it was apparent that, 42.1 per cent of teachers (27.0% of the males and 53.0% of the females) had completed 5-10 years of service. As explained earlier the maximum were from as Assistant professor I / Assistant professor II cadres.
Further, it was evident that type of family, education, designation, family type and family size of the teachers were in line with findings of Siddammanavar (2002).
Regarding monthly income of the teachers, majority of the teachers (39.5%) belonged to middle-income group i.e. ranged between Rs.16, 865/- Rs.23, 556/-. Among them 41.0 per cent of male 443 teachers and 38.0 per cent of female teachers belonged to middle- income group as they had less than 14 years of service.
Majority of the respondent‘s spouse (35.0%) were professionals. Among them 15.0 per cent of the male respondent‘s spouses were professionals such as professor and 55.0 per cent of the female respondent‘s spouses were professionals such as engineer, doctor, professor, manager, lawyers etc.
Regarding annual income of the family, majority (37.5%) of the teachers belonged to middle-annual income group and among them 35.0 per cent of male teachers and 40.0 per cent of female teachers belonged to middle annual income group i.e. Ranged between Rs.3,45,041/- to Rs.5,15,680/-. 7.4 FACTORS CAUSING STRESS AMONG THE ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS AS PER EMPLOYMENT ORGANIZATION SOURCES OF STRESSORS (EOSS) SCALE
7.4.1 Work stressors among the engineering college teachers
Majority of the teachers (28.5%) repeat, they were stressed always, as the complex nature of their work did not baffle them. Contradictory 14.5 per cent were waiting for the day to come, when they could relax (14.5%) and (14.0%) were fed up by keeping themselves busy all the times to meet the dead lines. Further gender wise it was revealed that, 34.0 per cent of the male 444 and 23.0 per cent of the female were stressed always because of the complex nature of the work did not baffled them. Whereas 17.0 per cent of the male and 12.0 per cent of the females reported that they were waiting for the day to relax and 16.0 per cent of the males and 12.0 per cent of the female teachers were fed up in keeping themselves busy all the time to meet deadlines
Better job design renders the work of the teacher more meaningful, enriching and rewarding. The stressors attached to the work either facilitates smooth functioning or act as hurdles there by affecting the performance of the subject. The cause of stress always among the teachers may be because of the nature of the work, time pressure, deadlines and boredom etc. So it can be said that, work in the organisation can induce stress when the activities to be performed were too difficult or complex, repetitive or monotonous. The teachers were stressed when work was expected beyond their capacity with set / strict deadlines.
The results of the present study were in agreement with the studies reported on work load, complexity of work by Fulcheri et al. (1995), busy schedule of work by Bhattacharya and Guha (2006) and occupational work load of Latha and Panchanatham (2007).
Fulcheri et al. (1995) also observed that size of work loads, the complexity of tasks and responsibilities were the major sources of stress factors. Bhattacharya and Guha (2006) conducted a study on stress and coping: A study on lady criminal lawyers of Kolkata 445 city. The significant factors that are generating stress are busy schedule of work, odd duty hours, poor interaction, leading tendency of superiors, and poor interpersonal relationship among the colleagues in the work environment. Latha and Panchanatham (2007) found out the job stressors and their implications on the job performance of 40 software professionals. However, the working environment was congenial as the promotional opportunities and facilities provided to them were adequate, but workload and long working hours were the major stressors for IT professionals.
7.4.2 Role stressors among the engineering college teachers
Maximum percentage of the teachers (15.5 per cent) reported that they experienced stress always because employment organizational responsibilities interfered with their family organisational role. The respondent also reported that they were constrained in their role fulfillments due to lack of knowledge and skills (8.5 %) at times they need to sacrifice their values in meeting their role obligations (8.0%) and felt concerned due to poor information inflow which restricted their output. Genderwise analysis revealed that 19.0 per cent of the male and 12.0 per cent of the female teachers reported that they experienced stressed always because their employment organisational responsibilities interfered with their family organisational role. The teachers experienced stress always because they need to sacrifice their values in meeting role obligations (6.0 per cent of the males and 446
10.0 per cent of the females). They were constrained in their role fulfillments due to lack of knowledge and skills (5.0% of the males and 12.0% of the females) and repeated incidence where their contributions were taken very lightly put them off (1.0 % of the males and 9.0 % of the females).
Role theory depicts an organisation as a patterned system of dynamically interacting matrix of roles. These roles are linked to one another according to technology, workflow and authority. Role can be a source of stress where there is role ambiguity, role expectation conflict, role erosion, role over load, resource in adequacy etc.
The research conducted by Madhu et al. (1990) also reported that role conflict, role ambiguity as role stressors. Further the role conflict, role ambiguity and role overload that cause stress was reported Peterson (1995) and Upadhyay and Singh (1999). Hasnain et al. (2001) reported that, role over load and role erosion was found to be major sources of role stress in all three groups (20 engineers, 20 managers and 20 teachers).
Madhu et al. (1990) also reported that role conflict and role ambiguity experienced by the teachers were most significant in the petroleum organization. Peterson (1995) explored role conflict; role ambiguity and role overload as reported by industrial workers and found that managers were more stressed due to role overload from his study ―organizational issues for managers‖. Upadhyay and Singh 447
(1999) reported that the executives showed significant higher levels of stress than college teachers on role over load, role ambiguity, role conflicts factor.
7.4.3 Personal development stressors among the degree college teachers
Majority i.e. 60.0 per cent of the teachers reported that they experienced stress always, because they were basically lazy persons and thereby were happy with fewer responsibilities, followed by stress always was experienced due to the extra effort they need to prove themselves in their role put pressure on them (13.5%), they wished to achieve the top position gave them extra energy to work in their organization, was the cause of stress always among 10.5 per cent. Where as 11.0 per cent of the teachers reported that they experienced stress always because they end up seeking suggestions from their colleagues due to their in experience.
The opportunities for personal development in the organisation can act as stimulants and enable the individual to perform their roles with out experiencing stress. Promotional
Opportunities and facilities motivate them to work. If these are not prevailing in the organisation, it will become a stressor for the teacher.
Gender wise analyses of the results revealed that 448 experience of stress always by majority of males (66.0%) and females (54.0%), because they were basically lazy persons and were happy with fewer responsibilities. Where as 6.0 per cent of males and 21.0 per cent of females reported that they were stressed always due to the extra effort they need to take to prove themselves in their role put pressure on them. Apart from that, 8.0 per cent of males and 14.0 per cent of females were stressed always because they end up seeking suggestion from their colleagues due to their in experience.
Females were experiencing more personal development stressors as compared to male counterparts. This may be due to the gender discrimination. As success is attached with occupational status, but they might not be getting ample opportunities in their job and are delayed in carrier development in comparison with expectation, they need extra effort to take to prove them selves. Many times they have to sacrifice their ambition infavour of familial ambition.
Findings of the present study strongly corroborate the earlier reports of Fulcheri et al. (1995), Upadhyay and Singh (1999), Gaur and Dhawan (2000), Tang et al. (2001), Triveni et al. (2006).
Fulcheri et al. (1995) also observed that delays in career development and a slow erosion of status are the main reasons for frustration among the managers. Upadhyay and Singh (1999) revealed that the teachers showed significant higher levels of 449 stress than executives on intrinsic impoverishment and status factors. They experienced stress because their personal wishes and strong desire for better and prosperous career were felt to be blocked by others. Gaur and Dhawan (2000) reported teachers experienced more stress as far as opportunities and obstacles of career development are concerned. Tang et al. (2001) reported that teachers experience a great deal of stress in the course of their career. Triveni et al. (2006) concluded that the major sources of job stress perceived by 90 veterinary assistant surgeons were numerous meeting, workload, lack of personal growth, lack facilities and monotonous nature of work.
7.4.4 Interpersonal relation stressors among the engineering college teachers
Higher percentage (23.5%) of the teachers reported that affectionate behavior from their colleagues was un-imaginable to them. Extracting work from their subordinates was an ordeal for them, was reported by 13.0 per cent of the teachers. Ten per cent of the teachers were stressed always because they lacked the freedom to ask any sort of help when they need from their superiors.
Role does not exist by it self as it consists of activities, which are related to the activities of the other people in the organization. Every role has a set of complementary role relationships that includes his / her immediate superiors, colleagues and subordinates in the organization. The kind of relationship the 450 individual has with the members in the organization determines the level of interpersonal relation stressors.
Madhu et al. (1990) reported that, the contribution of the interpersonal relation factors to job stress was found significant among the teachers. Upadhyay and Singh (1999) reported teachers experience significant higher levels of stress than executives on under participation and poor peer relation. Interpersonal stressors at work place have strong influence on the teacher was reported by Potter et al. (2002).
Gender wise analysis revealed that 22.0 per cent of males and 25.0 per cent of females reported that affectionate behavior from their colleagues was un-imaginable to them. Where as extracting work from their subordinates was an ordeal for 8.0 per cent of the males and 18.0 per cent of the female teachers. Two per cent of the male and 10.0 per cent of female teachers were stressed always because their relations with their colleagues caused a great deal of anxiety. Female teachers experienced more interpersonal stress as compared to male teachers. The probable reason may be due to the fact that the carrier oriented females, needs to play multifunctional role and face the inevitable conflict between organizational and family demands during the early development of their carrier. The adverse consequences of such conflicts were reported in poor interpersonal relations and in their poor performance. In all the walks of life, stress is influenced by communication skills, behaviour, social network, perceived social 451 support and there by affect the interpersonal relations
Osmany and Khan (2003) reported that poor peer relation was experienced by married working women. Whereas leading tendency of superiors and poor interpersonal relationship with the colleagues generate stress among the lady criminal lawyers was reported by Bhattacharya and Guha (2006). 7.3.5 Organizational climate stressors among the engineering college teachers
The climate that persists in the organization can be potential sources of stressors. Organizational climate stressors may affect the individual‘s freedom, autonomy and identity. The freedom to plan the work, weightage given to the views and opinions, participation in decision making, sense of belongingness, free and fair communication and sympathetic approach towards personal problems which affects / influence the organisation climate.
Higher per cent of the teachers (22.0%) reported that they experienced stress always due to lack of their involvement in decision making in their organization reduced their responsibilities. On the other hand, 22.0 per cent of the teachers also reported that they were stressed always because of the participatory model followed in their organizational set up, enhanced their responsibilities to the point of exhaustion. Stress 452 was experienced always by each 12.5 per cent of the teachers revealed that they were stressed always because of the secrecy maintained by their superiors in decision making was disgusting and decisions made by superiors keeping in view the good of the organization rather than the individual members were unpalatable.
Basha and Ushashree (1997) reported that, if perception of organizational climate is good then the stress experienced by the teacher would be less. Newstorme and Davis (1998) found that when job autonomy provided to managers was high; they enjoyed their work and had freedom to do the task according to their own wills that they experience less stress. Similar results were reported by Das and Singhal (2003). Rastogi and Kashyap (2003) reported that teachers perceive minimum stress because of their working climate is best in comparison to nurses and clerks. Where as Latha and Panchanatham (2007), revealed that teachers of IT industry do not feel stress as their industry is providing better working environment, promotional opportunities but the workload acts as the major stressors for them.
Gender wise analysis revealed that, almost equal per cent of teachers from both categories experienced stress always due to the organizational climate for the above said statements. The probable reason may be that, as earlier explained that, the organizational climate is same for both categories. They are capable of handling the positions, involving decision-making and can deal effectively with their work and social environments 453 without stress, playing an inhibitory role.
7.5 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF STRESS
The term ‗stress‘ has increasingly become an integral part of everyday use. In the present study almost all teachers experienced stress to a very low level to moderate level. Majority of the teachers (73.0% of the males and 68.0% of the females) were found to have low level of stress followed by 25.0 per cent of the male and 22.0 per cent of the female teachers experienced very low level of stress (Table-6.7). The reason may be due to the higher educational level there by knowledge and awareness. They cope up with stress, which may be attributed to their experience and also based on their management techniques to minimize their stress.
Nevertheless, 2.0 per cent of the male and 10.0 per cent of the female teachers were moderately stressed. Results illustrated that, higher percentage of the female teachers were moderately stressed than m a l e c o u n t e r p a r t s . This m a y be mainly d u e to the d u a l responsibility performed by the females, which might have lead to role conflicts, insufficient time and help needed to cope up with situation.
The studies conducted by Pandey and Srivastava (2000), Anitha Devi (2007) reported that the level of stress was least among teachers. The reasons attributed were that teaching 454 profession is generally associated with limited working hours, with clear cut duties, reasonable pay, longer periods of vacation due to which they can give enough time for recreation with family members and social activities, less role overload. Their nature of job remains unchanged; as a result, they experience low level of stress. 7.6 GENDER WISE DIFFERENCE WITH THE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF EMPLOYMENT ORGANIZATION SOURCES OF STRESSORS
The gender wise difference with the different components of employment organization sources of stressors (Table 9) revealed that there was no significant difference between male and female teachers with work stressors, role stressors and organizational climate stressors components of EOSS in the organization. This may be because, teachers generally have similar job responsibilities as their nature of job remains unchanged, and they have lesser role overload. Generally teaching profession is associated with a set of working hours, clear cut duties, reasonable pay, longer period of vacation due to which they can give enough time to family, children and social activities. Hence they perceived more or less similar type of stress in work, role and organizational climate.
Contradictory results was reported by Bhagawan (1997) found that male teachers experienced more stress compared to female teachers where as Barkat and Asma Praveen (1999) showed females showed lower degree of role stress than their male 455 counterparts. Aminabhavi and Triveni (2000) revealed that male and female bank teachers do not differ significantly in their occupational stress.
Significant difference was found between male and female teachers regarding personal development and interpersonal relation stressors. Female teachers were experienced these stressors more as compared to males may be because female teachers have to compete with their male counterparts to prove their capability as it is a male dominated society. They have to exert more to prove their efficiency and sometimes have to sacrifice their professional ambition in favour of the family. Female teachers experienced more interpersonal relation stressors because they have to share their time fulfilling their responsibilities both at work place and with the duties and responsibilities towards their family but they would like to participate in a meaningful way at their work place also. Hence stressful situations arise both at home and office front.
Similar results reported by Beena and Poduval ( 1992) showed that female executives experienced higher rate of stress. Pradhan and Khattri (2001) indicated no gender difference in the experience of burn out, but female doctors experience significantly more stress. Triveni and Aminabhavi (2002) conducted a study to know the gender difference in occupational stress of professional and non- professionals revealed that women professionals experience significantly higher occupational stress than men due to under 456 participation. Osmany and Khan (2003) found that unmarried working women reported high stress at work place due to political pressure and for married women; it may be due to poor peer relation and family responsibility.
7.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND THE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF EMPLOYMENT ORGANIZATION SOURCES OF STRESSORS
Relationship between demographic characteristics and the different components of employment organization sources of stressors revealed that work stressors were negatively and significantly correlated with age, designation, total service at 0.05 per cent level of significance and monthly income of the teachers at 0.01 per cent level of significance.
From the correlation between these demographic characteristics and work stressors it was evident that as the age, designation, total service and monthly income of the respondent increased, their level of work stress decreased. The high work stress was observed among the younger age group teachers may be because they were in the early career stage and most of their carriers were at a stage of transitions. However, the teachers of older age group might have settled in their career and hence the job may not be a cause of stress for them. Work in the organization can induce stressors for the individual who were in the lower cadre, because they perceive the 457 work to be performed is too difficult, complex or repetitive. They are very much sensitive to uncomfortable working condition which extract energy from them, younger age group are more susceptible to stress due to lack of experience. With low level of experience, the individual needs to adjust to the working condition of the organisation as they were new on their job. Monthly income has negative and highly significant relation with work stress. Monthly income will be more when the teacher will be having higher job experience and higher position in the organization.
The result illustrated that as age, designation, length of service and monthly income increased, the level of stress due to role stressors decreased. Teachers of younger age group experience role stress more, at times they have to sacrifice their values to meet the role obligations. They were stressed due to the contradictory instructions given by the different members and also poor information inflow restricted their output. They may not be clear about the type of work, behaviour their higher authority and colleagues expect from them. However, reverse for the teachers of older age group. As age of the teachers increases, he/ she normally occupies a better position in their job in turn developing likings for the job. At older age, the role burden usually gets diluted because of their potentiality, increased capacity to analyze their role due to the job clarity. There by, they could perform their roles better. As the job experience increases, the role stress decreases. There will be less role conflicts that occur in the organization because of the higher exposure to various situations in their role. They perform 458 their role efficiently with the different role stressors in the organizations. As the individual occupy better occupational status, their income will be relatively more and the role stress will be less.
Role stressors were negatively and significantly correlated with age, designation, total service and monthly income of the teachers at 0.01 per cent level of significance.
The personal development stressors of the teachers decreased with age, designation and monthly income. The teachers at older age had generally achieved the higher position in the organization. They had comparatively higher job satisfaction because of the exposure to higher academic training, conference, seminars and promotional opportunities etc. Personal development of a teacher is attached with the occupational prestige and achievement, wealth, fame and power. All these factors contribute to increase higher job satisfaction and less of personal development stress among them.
However, teachers in lower cadre, struggle to get ahead occupationally. Some time they do not have the job security. Their personal wishes and strong desires are not only to earn money but also for getting a permanent post, better and prosperous career. Personal development stressors are more prominent among lower cadre teachers as need for status is a very important determinant of motivation, where as it may not be a cause of stress among the teachers of higher cadre. Teachers experienced more personal development stress because of the low level of experience in job; 459 opportunities to get into higher status job were naturally less. Similarly getting scope for the exposure to the latest opportunities were less, hence they struggle to achieve the level of excellence set up in the organizations which causes stress. As the individual occupies better occupational status, their income will be relatively more and self image also improves. Highly remunerative occupation leads to job satisfaction, thereby may lead to lesser personal development stress. The job security, various performance appraisals, occupational status and income of the individual if assured there seems to be better coping of personal development stress. Personal development stressors were negatively and significantly correlated with age, designation, total service and monthly income of the teachers at 0.01 per cent level of significance. Interpersonal relation means relationship with superiors, colleagues and subordinates in the organisation. Higher age of the teachers not only assures experience but also power to judge the relationship with other teachers in the organisation. Due to mental maturity and emotional stability they can overcome the interpersonal relation stressors. These factors mentioned above might have contributed for better adjustment and lesser interpersonal relation stressors for senior teachers. Where as, in case of lower age groups the poor job skills make them over responsive and their inexperience, anxiety, intolerance etc. apparently lead them to stress. The higher experience in job assures better adjustment and good 460
Interpersonal relations in the organisation due to their rational thinking. Good quality of work one maintains in the organisation leads to progress and satisfaction in their social life. Adequate financial resources contribute to a maximum extent in solving personal and social problems. It is the fact that financial status creates observable behavioural changes in the individual. A person‘s income directly influences his / her status, recognition, position in the society.
Interpersonal relations stressors were negatively and significantly related to age, total service (at 0.01 per cent level of significance) and monthly income (at 0.5 per cent level of significance).
Organizational climate stressors decreased with increased age, designation and monthly income. Teachers at older age with higher experience have the better perception of the organizational climate. Their views and opinions were generally given weightage and more preference they get for the participation in decision-making. They generally get more sympathetic approach towards their personal problems. Where as teacher at lower age with low experience may feel organizational climate put threat to a person‘s freedom and autonomy, inadequate opportunities for participation, lacking sense of belongingness, hence causes stress among younger age groups. Individuals‘s income is directly influenced by his / her position in the organization. Higher the income, lower was the 461 perception of organizational climate stressors. The organizational climate stressors were negatively and significantly correlated with age, total service at 0.01 per cent level of significance and with monthly income at 0.05 per cent level of significance.
Finally it can be summarized that overall age, designation, total service and monthly income of the teacher were negatively and significantly correlated with total stressors. Reddy and Ramamurthy (1991) reported moderating variables among executives experiencing stress include not only age but also the years of service in the employment. Blix et al. (1994) found that faculty having less than 10 years of experience had higher stress than faculty with more than 20 years of experience. Mayes (1996) revealed that age moderated the relationship among various stressors and physiological symptoms as well as psychological depression and life satisfaction. Ryhal and Singh (1996) revealed that assistant professors experienced higher job stress than associate professors and professors. Bhagawan (1997) revealed that higher the teaching experience, lesser the perceived burn out. Virk et al. (2001) reported that age and job level can have strong influence on job stress. Bhatia and Kumar (2005) reported that industrial teachers at supervisor rank and below supervisor rank with more experience of service had more occupational stress due to more feeling of depersonalization and more emotional exhaustion. Anitha Devi (2007) revealed that, the older person experience lower life stress 462
and role stress. Younger people experience more stress as compared to older people. The higher the numbers of years of service the lesser life and role stress. The lower the income, greater stress experienced vice versa.
7.8 INFLUENCE OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS ON TOTAL STRESSORS
The demographic characteristic were age, education, designation, total service, monthly income, family type, family size and annual income of the family influenced the various sources of stressors. The observation of the results of step wise regression analysis revealed that age of the respondent influenced significantly to sources of stress. This may be because age is a dynamic variable, which influences the factor of learning, development of skills, potentiality, working efficiency and effectiveness. It could be summarized that, as the individual‘s age increases the potentiality and capacity to analyze the stressors increases, consequently the experience of stress decreases, where as young age people are more susceptible to stress due to lack of experience. The result was supported by the findings of earlier studies conducted by Reddy and Ramamurthy (1991) reported that moderating variables among executives experiencing stress include not only age but also the years of service in the employment. Virk et al. (2001) reported that age and job level can have strong influence on job stress. 463
7.9 COPING STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY THE ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS The present investigation was aimed to discuss the results of different coping strategies adopted by the male and female engineering college teachers.
7.9.1 Physical stress management strategies and therapies adopted by the engineering college teachers
The methods adopted for reducing physical stress viz. Reducing physical stress, relaxation, correct posture, diet, physical exercise, medicinal therapy and natural care were considered under physical stress management strategies.
A glance at table 11 depicted that, majority of the male (46.0%) and of the female (46.0%) teachers adopted setting priorities and keeping ready well a head respectively for reducing physical stress. Incase of use of labour saving devices, more per cent of female teachers (28.0%) adopted this technique to minimize physical stress as compared to males (13.0%) due to the shortage of time and they have to perform many activities in a stipulated time period.
Taking rest as a relaxation technique was adopted by majority of the males and females (47.0% and 60.0%) teachers. Taking rest was more common among females. Taking out time for leisure and drinking water was adopted by 46.0 per cent of males 464 and 32.0 per cent of female teachers respectively. Relaxation is like a recharging a battery. Relaxing for few hours or minutes will make an individual feel fresh and keep fit to face another day of life or the events they come across.
The teachers opined use of correct posture as a physical stress management technique. Avoiding strenuous postures was adopted by majority of male teachers (52.0%) where as majority of female teachers (48.0%) adopted convenient placement of things to reduce physical stress under maintaining correct posture. Very meager per cent of the male (8.0%) and of the female (6.0%) teachers adopted ergonomically designed furniture.
In case of diet as a strategy for physical fitness and there by minimizing physical stress, taking balanced diet was adopted by majority of male (60.0%) and female (59.0%) teachers followed by consuming more foods many times in small quantities (28.0% of the males and 26.0% of the females). This may be because teachers have more knowledge about health, physical fitness and the benefits of diet, which may have made them more aware as stress this stress management technique.
Each 76.0 per cent of males and females practiced walking as physical exercise followed by yoga (22.0% of the males and 33.0% of the females). Where as, yoga was more practiced by females as compared to males. Stress can be relieved by adopting healthy habits and through regular exercise. 465
Medicinal therapy depicted a clear picture that maximum percentage of the male (54.0%) and of the female (78.0%) teachers did not practice any techniques under medicinal therapy. None of the female teachers were making use of smoking, alcohol consumption and mood altering drugs. Where as using of sleeping pills was adopted by male and female teachers (24.0% and 18.0%). The low preference to all the medicinal therapy techniques reflected that very few of the teachers adopted these techniques.
Under natural care for physical stress management, majority of the male teachers (41.0%) adopted water therapy where as hot water therapy was adopted by majority of female teachers (51.0%) as water has most relaxing effect at body temperature. Herbal therapy was also considered as effective for reducing stress by 19.0 per cent of the male and 30.0 per cent of the female teachers.
Majority of teachers from both the categories were practicing physical stress management strategies related to relaxation, correct posture, diet, physical exercise for reducing physical stress etc. The effectiveness of these techniques is also reported by many researchers relaxation, correct posture, di et, medicinal therapy and n a t u r a l c a r e w e r e reported by Aula et al. (2004), standard furniture and high fiber diet by Harshpinder and Aujla (2001), relaxation, exercise, diet and yoga by Upamanyu (1997).
466
7.9.2 Mental stress management strategies and most liked activities adopted by the engineering college teachers
The methods for reducing mental stress viz. religious / meditation, psychotherapy, social support, altering situation, reducing responsibility and most liked activities were considered under mental stress management strategies.
Table 6.3.2, illustrated that Offering prayer was practiced by majority of the males (45.0%) and females (43.0%) followed by meditation (45.0% of the male and 31.0% of the female teachers). Maximum percentage of the teachers adopted these techniques as mental stress management strategies. This may be because many people feel that developing their spiritual strength will help them in developing a sense of well being. After all, stress cannot bother, when peace of mind prevails.
Majority of the male (58.0%) and of the female (67.0%) teachers considered positive thinking as an effective method to over come stress. This method was more adopted by females rather than males. Both the categories practiced sharing and recreation with family, but recreation with family was more practiced by higher percentage of males (56.0%) as compared to females (50.0%). Crying to relieve stress was adopted by 14.0 per cent of the female teachers; none of the male teachers adopted this technique to minimize stress. Positive mental attitude gives the individual better control of the life and makes the person an achiever. 467
Social support as stress management strategies revealed that working in group was practiced by majority percentage of teachers (44.5%) followed by talking to some one (43.5%)and attending social gatherings (27.0%). Equal per cent of the female teachers (49.0%) considered working in group and talking to some one was most effective method to reduce mental stress. Sometimes talking to someone may not only relieve tension but may also help to find out a solution to the stressful situation. It can be concluded that use of social support was also an effective stress management technique. As human being is a part of social system and have interaction with society.
Higher percentage (40.0%) of the teachers were avoiding painful reminders to reduce their mental stress. Gender wise it was evident that maximum percentage of the males (36.0%) maintained well organized home as a method to reduce stress where as maximum percentage of female teachers (46.0%) practiced avoiding painful reminders. Change is the essence of life. It can be said that resisting change gives rise to conflicts and conflicts lead to stress. Change in the right direction is the only way to prepare for future.
Reducing responsibility as a stress management technique, postponing of certain tasks was followed by maximum percentage of the male teachers (35.0%) and legitimately avoid disliked tasks was followed by maximum per cent of female teachers 468
(34.0%).The strategy for delegation of work was preferred by 33.0 per cent of the male and 31.0 per cent of the female teachers. The reason may be due to the shortage of time to perform certain tasks, which may cause of stress. They adopted such type of mental stress management techniques only to minimize mental stress.
Further, watching T.V. was adopted by maximum percentage of the males (58.0%) as compared to the female counter parts (53.0%) and listening songs was adopted by maximum percentage of the females (65.0%) as compared to male counter parts (51.0%) as most liked activities. The listening to music as a way of reducing stress clearly revealed that music relieves oneself from stress and every individual can enjoy a stress free life with music.
Majority of teachers from both categories were making use of mental stress management strategies related to religious/meditation, psychotherapy, social support, altering situation, reducing responsibility and performing most liked activities etc. Earlier studies also showed that outing, listening to music (Bhattacharya and Guam, 2006), yoga (Sikthingnanavel, 2006), friendship and social support (Aditi and kumari, 2005), meditation, psychotherapy, social support, altering situation, reducing responsibilities (Aujla et al., 2004) are effective stress management techniques. 7.10 GENDER WISE DIFFERENCE WITH REGARDS TO COPING STRATEGIES AMONG THE ENGINEERING COLLEGE TEACHERS 469
Coping refers to the person‘s cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage, reduce, minimize, master or tolerate the internal or external demands of the person‘s environment transaction that is appraisal as taxing or exceeding the person‘s resources. Coping has two major functions dealing with problems that is causing distress and regulating emotions. Table 6.13, recorded the information regarding the gender wise difference in practicing the coping strategies among the degree college teachers. There was no significant difference found between male and female teachers in the practicing of physical stress management strategies. The result showed that the mean scores of both male and female teachers were more or less similar. It can be concluded that both the categories adopted the physical stress management strategies in similar pattern.
From the same table, it was evident that, the gender difference existed while practicing of mental stress management strategies. Female teachers were practicing more mental stress management as compared to males and difference was found statistically significant. The result was found contradictory with the study of Khan et al. (2005). The finding was that, significance difference was not found to exist between male and female teachers on different types of coping strategies except use of humour teachers have adopted a range of coping strategies most tend to be functional or active and some were dysfunctional or passive (i.e. self distraction and use of humour). Male and female teachers did not 470 give response on alcohol consumption as coping strategies.
7.11 STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES PRACTICED BY THE SELECTED TEACHERS IN THEIR DAILY LIVING
The table 6.3.4 reflected the stress management techniques/ activities practiced by the selected teachers in their daily living. Gender wise it was evident that higher percentage of both male and female teachers adopted watching T.V., talking to closed ones, performing religious activities, listening to music, taking rest, setting priorities and walking as stress reducing techniques mostly in their daily living. In a developing society, teacher has assumed a greater responsibility to bring out citizens who could carry out the profession in a dignified and productive manner hence teacher‘s role is extremely demanding. In turn, it creates stress among them. Teachers had more interaction with the society, which might have made them better aware of these stress management strategies to achieve higher happiness, bless, creativity, and higher mental faculties. Pandey and Srivastava (2000) showed that teachers expressed significantly better active coping than bank employees did. Aujla et al. (2004) majority of working and non- working were using various stress management techniques viz. Relaxation, music, prayer, recreation with family, planning etc. Planning and relaxation were most preferred techniques between both the groups.
7.12 SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
Majority of the teachers were from the middle age group and 471
were married, with small family size and most of the teachers belonged to nuclear family. Majority of the teachers had qualification up to post graduation level followed by doctorate level. Maximum percentage of the teachers was lecturers/ assistant professors having less than 14 years of service. Majority of the teachers belonged to middle income group while seventy five percent of their spouses were employed. The teacher‘s monthly income range was between Rests. 16, 865/- to Rest. 23, 556/- and the annual family income range was from Rs. 3, 45, 041/- to Rs. 5, 15, 679/-.
Experience of stress always because of the complex nature of their work did not baffle them as reported by the majority of teachers. The reason may be because they were highly educated, exposed to the latest technologies which helps to understand their work. Interference of the employment organizational responsibilities with their family organizational role was the cause of stress always as reported by majority of the teachers. Majority of the teachers revealed that their stress was basically due to their laziness and also they were happy with fewer responsibilities. Lack of affectionate behaviour from their colleagues was reported as cause of stress always by maximum percentage of the teachers. Higher percentage of the respondent experienced stress always because of lack of their involvement in decision making in their organization that 472
reduced their responsibilities on their shoulder and the participatory model followed in their organizational set up enhanced their responsibilities to the point of exhaustion.
Highest percentages of the teachers were in low stress category followed by very low stress category. Gender wise, significant difference was observed in case of personal development stressors and interpersonal relation stressors ( at 5 % level of significance) while it was non significant in case of work, role and organizational climate stressors.
Age, total service, monthly income were negatively and significantly correlated with different component of employment organization sources of stressors viz. work, role, personal development, interpersonal relation, organizational climate and total stressors. But designation was significantly and negatively correlated with work, role, personal development and total stressors. Out of the total eight demographic characteristics, age was the highly influencing factor on the total stressors which was statistically highly significant.
Keeping ready well a head, taking rest, avoiding strenuous posture, taking balanced diet walking, using sleeping pills, hot water therapy were practiced by majority of the 473 teachers when they were physically stressed. Where as majority from both the categories were not considered medicinal therapy as a stress management technique. Further, offering prayer, positive thinking, working in- group, avoiding painful reminders, delegating the tasks and listening songs were practiced by maximum per cent of the teachers when they were mentally stressed. There was no significant gender difference found with respect to physical stress management where as it was significant in case of mental stress management strategies. Higher percent of the teachers practiced talking to closed ones followed by taking rest in their daily living to reduce their stress level.
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ARTICLES
Alexander, M., Cohen, S., MacGrillen, H., & Murie, F. (1994). Hard Labour: Stress, Ill-Health and Hazardous Employment Practices. London: London Hazards Centre.
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CONFERENCES / WORKSHOPS
Beattie, M. (2000, April 20-24) Educational leadership: Modeling mentoring, making and remaking a learning community. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research association, New Orleans.
Carter, S. (1994). Teacher stress and burnout. Organizing Systems to Support Competent Social Behavior in children and Youth, Volume III: Western Regional Resource Centre, University of Oregon.
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NEWS PAPERS / DAILIES
Aptel, M. & Cnockaert, J.C. (2002). Stress and Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders of the upper extremities. TUTB Newsletter, 19-20.
Bunting, C. (2000). Stress on the emotional Landscape. Are teachers suffering from institutional depression? Times Educational Supplement, November 10.
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Economy Bureau, ―Foreign degrees in India soon,‖ The Financial Express, 29 Nov. 2006.
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The Hindu, ‗Stress causing psychological problems in IT-Professionals‘, 31st January 2005.
WEBSITES
Links to sites with additional information on professional stress include:
www.stress.org - Current and Past Stress Scoops, Current and Past Newsletters. www.nimh.nih.gov - National Institute of Mental Health. www.nami.org - National Alliance for the Mentally Ill. www.nmha.org - National Mental Health Association. www.amtamassage.org - American Massage Therapy Association. 502
www.cognitivetherapynyc.com - American Institute for Cognitive Therapy. www.aabt.org - Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. www.psych.org - The American Psychiatric Association. www.psychologicalscience.org - The American Psychological Society. www.naswdc.org - The National Association of Social Workers. www.apna.org - The American Psychiatric Nurses Association. www.aacap.org - American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. www.cmhc.com - Mental Health Net. www.mentalhealth.com - Encyclopedia of mental health information. www.tm.org - Transcendental Meditation. www.wildmind.org - Meditation techniques. www.meditationcenter.com - Meditation techniques. www.4therapy.com/consumer/assessment/taketest.php - Find a therapist www.4therapy.com/consumer/assessment/taketest.php -Assess stress Levels www.scmh.org.uk - Association for Mental Health of Northern Ireland. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_education - Engineering Education. www.lifepositive.com psychology/stress/stress-workplace – Workplace stress. www.languageinindia.com - Teacher stress in Indian Language. www.osh.govt.nz/hazards/stress/managestress - Occupational stress: sources and solutions. www.bctf.ba.ca/researchreports/2001wlc03/report.html/ResearchReports/R esearch - analysis of Work life of Teachers Survey Series. www.successconsciousness.com/lack-motivation-enthusiasm - Teacher stress and Job Dissatisfaction. www.associatedcontent.com/article - Reasons why students misbehave in class. www.fisherandassociates.org/Pages/american_jail_article - workplace stress and burnout. 503
www.stress.org - The American Institute of Stress. www.cdc.gov - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. www.nctsnet.org/nccts/nav.do?pid=hom_main - Center for Mental Health Services (Substance Abuse, Mental Health). www.nimh.nih.gov - National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). www.ncptsd.org/facts/disasters/fs_survivors_disaster.html - National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. www.stress.org - The American Institute of Stress. www.adaa.org - Anxiety Disorders Association of America. www.star-society.org - Stress and Anxiety Research Society (STAR). www.nimh.nih.gov - National Institute of Mental Health. www.nami.org - National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (NAMI). www.nmha.org - National Mental Health Association. www.cognitivetherapynyc.com - American Institute for Cognitive Therapy. www.aabt.org - Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. www.psych.org - The American Psychiatric Association. www.psychologicalscience.org - The American Psychological Society. www.helping.apa.org - The American Psychological Association. www.naswdc.org - The National Association of Social Workers. www.apna.org - The American Psychiatric Nurses Association. www.aacap.org - American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. www.cmhc.com - Mental Health Net CMHC Systems. www.mentalhealth.com - Internet Mental Health. www.umich.edu/advproj/dentstress - Stress and Coping among Dental educators. www.ispawet.org/en/uzole - Professional Stress among Latvian Teachers. www.ieu.asn,au/ohs/stressburnout - Stress and Burnout of teachers. www.news.bbcco.uk/hi/English/ education - Teacher Shortages Worst for Decades. www.microstate.net/micsem/Roots - BBC News Online. 504
www.workcover.wa.gov.au/injmang/jc_stress - Overview of occupational stress in Western Australia. www.edweek.org/ew/1998/06hawaii.h18 - Education Week on the Web. www.eiconsortium.org/.../ei_issues_and_common_misunderstandings - Bringing Emotional Intelligence to the Workplace. http://www.flinders.edu.au/teach/Practicum/pdf/coping.pdf - Suffering workload stress.
MEDITATION SITES
www.tm.org - Transcendental Meditation. www.shambhala.org - Mindfulness Meditation. www.meditationcenter.com - Meditation Instruction. www.well-connected.com - Nidus Information Services. www.nimh.nih.gov - National Institute of Mental Health. www.nami.org - National Alliance for the Mentally Ill. www.nmha.org - National Mental Health Association. www.amtamassage.org - American Massage Therapy Association. www.cognitivetherapynyc.com - American Institute for Cognitive Therapy. www.aabt.org - Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy (AABT). www.psych.org - The American Psychiatric Association. www.psychologicalscience.org - The American Psychological Society. www.naswdc.org - The National Association of Social Workers. www.apna.org - The American Psychiatric Nurses Association. www.aacap.org - American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. www.cmhc.com - Mental Health Net. www.mentalhealth.com - Encyclopedia of mental health information. www.tm.org - Transcendental Meditation. www.wildmind.org; www.meditationcenter.com - Meditation techniques. 505
www.4therapy.com/consumer/assessment/taketest.php - Find a therapist. www.4therapy.com/consumer/assessment/taketest.php; www.cdc.gov/nios h/87-111.html; www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/87-111 - Assess stress levels.
THESIS / PROJECTS
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Angadi, A. S., 2008, Emotional intelligence and stressors among working couples. M.H.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad, Karnataka.
Annapurna, T., 1995, Correlates of life satisfaction, job satisfaction and anxiety among elderly and middle adults. M.H.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad, Karnataka
Ansari, M. R., 1991, An investigation into the stress of agriculture university teachers, Ph.D. Thesis, IARI, New Delhi.
Arunkumar, T. S. ‗Stress Management among IT Professionals‘, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kerala, Tiruanantpuram, Kerala, India. Saturday, Oct 15, 2005
Chaka, L. T. (1998). An Investigation into perceived sources of stress and coping amongst correctional officers of the Department of Correctional Services: Pietermaritzburg, Kwazulu/Natal, South Africa. Unpublished M.Ed dissertation, University of Natal.
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Khandai, R., 2006, A study on decision making pattern of urban working and non working women in home activities in Dharwad district of Karnataka state. M.H.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad, Karnataka.
506
Misra, M. Awrtivenesrr and role stress in police officers. Unpublished M.A. dissertations Department of psychology, Ludtnow University Lucknow, 1997.
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Sayi, L.N. (2009). An investigation into the relationship between burnoutness and work orientation among women teachers. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Visakhapatanam: Andhra University.
Siddammanavar, S.S., 2002, A critical analysis of stress and social awareness among female teachers of colleges. M.H.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad, Karnataka.
507
Siddiqui, Ismat Jahan (2009). A study of stress, causes and use of coping strategies among the university administrators. Unpublished doctoral thesis. New Delhi: Jamia Millia Islamia.
Singh, H. (2003). A comparative study of stress among male and female teachers in relation to their personality needs and adjustment, Ph.D. thesis, Merut: CCS University.
Siva Sankar, V. (2009). Stress and coping strategies in middle age. Unpublished doctoral thesis in Psychology, Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara University.
Srinivasan, P. T., and George, S. (2005). A Study on Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Management Styles among Management Teachers and Students, UGC Funded Project, Department of Management Studies, University of Madras.
Vyas, M.V.(2002). The job Satisfaction of primary school teachers with reference to sex, marital status and educational qualification, Doctoral Ph.D. Thesis, Saurasthra: Saurasthra University.
Webb, Shannon (2004). Exploring the Relationship of Emotional Intelligence to Transformational Leadership within Mentoring Relationships, PhD Thesis, University of South Florida.
APPENDIX - A
PROFESSIONAL STRESS QUESTIONAIRE FOR TEACHING STAFFS IN SELF-FINANCING ENGINEERING COLLEGES
Dear Engineering Teacher,
My name is T. MANVEL RAJ, and I am a doctoral Research Scholar in Management at Bharathidhasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu. I am working as Principal, Sri Krishna Engineering College, Chennai. I am writing to request your participation in my doctoral dissertation study, which examines how exposed to the atmosphere in the self-financing engineering college environment may affect professional stress. I have enclosed a brief survey questionnaire which is designed to measure sources of stress, to identify groups of people that feel stress more often than others, and to identify how they cope. Findings from these surveys will be compiled and could be used to inform decisions regarding the personal and professional well being of educators.
I hope to gather responses from the teaching staffs working in self- financing engineering colleges in and around Chennai city. Your assistance is vital to the success of this project. By completing and returning your survey you indicate your voluntary consent to participate and your understanding that there is no 508 personal risk directly involved with this research. This survey is completely anonymous and confidential. Your participation is voluntary and return of the questionnaire will be considered as consent to participate in the survey.
Please read the following before you complete the questionnaire: 1. Please answer all questions. 2. Please be frank and honest in your answers; give the first answer you think of. 3. Please answer the questions in pen by tick mark. 4. Please take care to check the scale being used at the beginning of each section. 5. If you wish to change your answer, please cross it out and clearly identify your new answer. 6. When completed, please check that all questions have been answered. 7. Return the questionnaire by mail or to the email address at the end of this document. I would greatly appreciate receiving your responses within 2 weeks. Please return your completed survey in the self-addressed, stamped envelope provided via mail. If you have any questions or problems that arise in connection with this study, please feel free to contact me at 9841513435 or via email at [email protected]. Thank you in advance for your time in completing this questionnaire and your help. Sincerely, T. MANVEL RAJ
QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire has three sections: Section one: Demographic information Section two: Sources of Professional Stress Section three: Coping strategies This should take up approximately 30 minutes of your time.
I. DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Direction: Thank you for your agreeing to participate in this study. Your participation is appreciated sincerely. Please indicate your answer to each question by ticking √ or filling the answer.
Respondent name (optional):------Form No.:------
1. What is your gender? Male Female
2. What is your age? 509
20 -30 3 l - 40 41 - 50 51 and above
3. What is your current marital status?
Single Married De-facto Divorced Separated
4. What is your highest professional qualification?
Under Graduate Post Graduate Doctorate Post doctorate
5. What is your Professional designation?
Assistant Professor - I Assistant Professor - II Associate professor
Professor
6. Which is your working department?
Mech. Civil CSE ECE EEE IT Others………..
7. How long have you been working as a teacher?
First year 1 to 4 years 5 to 10 years 11 to 24 years Over 25years
8. How long have you been working in this college?
First year 1 to 4 years 5 to 10 years 11 to 24 years Over 25 Yrs
9. What is your monthly salary in Indian Rupees?
Less than 15000 15001 – 20000 20001 – 25000 25001 – 30000
Others…………
10. What is the maximum number of students in your class?
Up to 40 41 – 60 61 – 70 71 – 80 Others………….
11. How many classes (periods) do you teach every day?
1 - 2 3 - 4 4 - 5 6 - 7 8 and above Extra-classes
12. Do you feel safe in your college? YES NO 510
13. Does your college have a college violence policy? YES NO
14. Does your college have a violence prevention program? YES NO
15. Are you satisfied with your job? YES NO
II. SOURCES OF PROFESSIONAL STRESS
Please indicate the amount of stress you experience associated with the following factors by ticking the appropriate number.
(1) - Extremely Not Stressful, (2) – Not Stressful, (3) - Moderate, (4) - Stressful and (5) - Extremely Stressful
Item Source of Stress Level of Stress No. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1 No proper organization structure 2 Reporting system is not through proper channel 3 Chairman is the only man to decide everything 4 Management is treating the staffs like bonded slaves 5 Making engineering education as a business 6 Uneducated peoples in the management committee 7 No academic committee meetings 8 No proper written rules and regulations 9 Owner is a illiterate Politician 10 Political interference in college Administration 11 Lack of recognition for extra hard work 12 Inadequate disciplinary policy/sanctions of college 13 Lack of time for further higher study/career development 14 Shortage of labs/equipments/ Poor facilities 15 Poor promotion opportunities / Policies 16 Lack of facilities, labs and equipments 17 Lack of staff participation in decision-making 18 Lack of direction towards career planning 19 No authorities/power/academic freedom given to staffs 20 No casual leave/Vacations/on-duty/ permissions for staffs 21 No permission/opportunities for higher studies/career development 22 Orginal certificates are under the management‘s custody 23 Termination / relieving of staffs without any notice 24 Insecurity about future 511
25 Staffs are frequently threatened by management 26 Cutting salaries without any intimation/proper reasons 27 No facilities for training to staff members 28 No rewarding/motivation system for best performers 29 Too much interference with my private, social or family life 30 Attitudes and behavior of some other teachers / colleagues 31 Attitudes and behavior of the Principal 32 Heads of departments are the spy/reporters to management 33 Emotional involvement with students or subordinates 34 Punishing for misbehaviour of students 35 Constant monitoring of student‘s behavior 36 Student‘s feedback about the teacher 37 Poorly motivated students 38 Student‘s poor attitudes towards study 39 Student‘s non-acceptance of teacher‘s authority 40 Noisy students 41 Student‘s impolite behavior or cheek 42 Large classes/ too many students in class 43 Administrative/too much of paper work 44 Responsibility for students (e.g. exam success) 45 Too many periods actually teaching 46 No proper promotion opportunities 47 Teaching subjects different from one‘s specialty 48 Covering lessons for absent teachers 49 Supervisory duties (e.g. main gate, playground, college canteen, toilet, floor) 50 Too many periods actually teaching 51 Lack of time to prepare lessons/ to relax 52 Not enough time to do the work 53 Lack of time to spend with individual students 54 Demands on after college time 55 Unclear role specifications/role conflict Low status/recognition of the teaching profession 56 Lack of recognition for good teaching 57 Lack of parental interest 58 Inadequate salary/ Less salary compared to other professions 59 No proper salary structure / increments is followed (not as per AICTE norms) 60 No PF/EPF/ LIC facilities / fringe benefits
III. COPING STRATEGIES
Please indicate the amount of coping associated with the following factors by ticking the appropriate number. 512
(1) - Ineffective or never used, (2) - A little effective, (3) - Moderately effective, (4) - Very effective and (5) - Extremely effective.
Item Coping Strategy Amount of Coping No. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1 I get up 15 minutes earlier 2 I prepare for the morning the night before 3 I avoid tight fitting clothes 4 I set appointments ahead 5 I don''t rely on my memory ... write it down 6 I say "no" more often 7 I set priorities in my life 8 I avoid negative people 9 I use time wisely 10 I always make copies of important papers 11 I repair anything that doesn''t work properly 12 I look at problems as challenges 13 I look at challenges differently 14 I unclutter my life 15 I smile always 16 I pet a friendly dog/cat 17 I say something nice to someone 18 I walk in the rain 19 I schedule play time into every day 20 I am aware of the decisions I make 21 I believe in myself 22 I stop saying negative things to myself 23 I visualize myself winning 24 I develop my sense of humor 25 I stop thinking tomorrow will be a better today 26 I have goals for myself 27 I say "hello" to a stranger 28 I look up at the stars 29 I practice breathing slowly 30 I listen to a symphony 31 I read a story curled up in bed 33 I stop a bad habit 35 I take time to smell the flowers 36 I find support from others 37 I work at being cheerful and optimistic 38 I put safety first 39 I do everything in moderation 40 I pay attention to my appearance 41 I strive for Excellence NOT perfection 43 I stretch my limits a little each day 513
44 I look at a work of art 45 I maintain my weight 46 I plant a tree 48 I feed the birds 49 I stand up and stretch 50 I always have a plan 51 I memorize a joke 52 I am responsible for my feelings 53 I learn to meet my own needs 54 I tell someone to have a good day 55 I throw a paper airplane 56 I exercise every day 57 I get to work early 58 I take a different route to work 59 I watch a movie and eat popcorn 60 I remember that stress is an attitude
THANK YOU FOR TAKING THE TIME TO COMPLETE THIS SURVEY
APPENDIX - B
MOST STRESSED OUT COUNTRIES
Percentage increase in stress levels in selected countries
Taiwan 69% Hong Kong 54% Mexico 54% Turkey 54% India 53% Philippines 53% Japan 51% Russia 51% South Africa 50% Singapore 46% Ireland 41% GLOBAL 39% AVERAGE Greece 39% Poland 39% 514
Germany 37% Spain 37% France 36% Australia 34% USA 34% UK 33% New Zealand 32% Italy 30% Canada 26% Netherlands 25% Sweden 23%
Source: Conditions of work digest: Preventing stress at work
APPENDIX - C
MOST STRESSFUL JOBS
Occupations with high stress levels Occupation Rating scale Miner 8.3 Police officer 7.7 Prison officer 7.5 Teacher Construction worker 7.5 Airline pilot 7.5 Journalist 7.5 Advertising executive 7.3 Dentist 7.3 Actor 7.2 Doctor 6.8 Broadcasting personnel 6.8 Nurse 6.5 Film production crew 6.5 Ambulance personnel 6.3 Firefighter 6.3 Musician 6.2 Social worker 6.0 Personnel manager 6.0
Source: Conditions of work digest: Preventing stress at work
APPENDIX - D 515
LIST OF ENGINEERING COLLEGES IN AND AROUND CHENNAI
SI. College Name of College Web Site/Phone/Fax Number Address No. Code ZONE - 1 1. 101 Aalim Muhammed Salegh www.aalimec.ac.in Avadi - IAF College of Engineering Chennai - 600 055 2. 102 Bhajarang Engineering Ayathur, Veppampattu www.bhajarangenggcollege College (R.S), Thiruvallur Dist. 602 .com 024 3. 104 Gojan Educational www.gojaneducation.com Alamathi Institutions (School of Chennai - 600 052 Business and Technology) 4. 105 J.A.Engineering College Koyambedu, www.jaec.edu.in Chennai - 600107 5 106 Jaya Engineering College www.jec.ac.in C.T.H.Road, Thiruninravur (Near Avadi) Chennai 602 024, 6 107 L.C.R. College of Engineering and www.lcr.ac.in Kanchipadi, Thiruvallur - Technology 631204 7 108 Magna College of Redhills - Tiruvallur High Engineering www.magnace.org Road, Magaral, Chennai - 600055 8 109 P.M.R. Institute of ADAYALAMPATTU Technology www.pmrsoft.com Chennai - 600 095 9 110 Prathyusha Engineering Aranvoyalkuppam, College www.prathyusha.edu.in Poonamallee-Tiruvallur road, Tiruvallur - 602025. 10 111 Raja Rajeswari www.rrec.ac.in Adayalampattu, Chennai - Engineering College 600 095 11 112 R.M.D. Engineering Kavaraipettai, College www.rmdec.ac.in Gummidipoondi Taluk, Tiruvallur Dist - 601206 12 113 R.M.K. Engineering Kavaraipettai, College www.rmkec.ac.in Gummidipoondi Taluk, Tiruvallur Dist - 601206 13 103 R.M.K. College of Puduvayal, Gummidipoondi Engineering and www.rmkcet.ac.in Taluk, Tiruvallur Dist - Technology 601206 14 114 S.A. Engineering College www.saec.ac.in Thiruverkadu Post, Chennai - 600 077 15 115 Sriram Engineering [email protected], Perumalpattu, College [email protected] Chennai – 602 024 16 117 St. Peter‘s Engineering www.spec.ac.in Avadi, College Chennai – 600 054. 17. 119 Vel Tech Engineering www.vel-tech.org Avadi, College Chennai-600 062 18. 120 Velammal Engineering www.velammal.org Ambattur-Redhills Road, College Chennai – 600 066 19. 122 Vel Sri Rangarajan www.vel-tech.org Avadi, Sakunthala Hi-Tech Chennai-600 062 Engineering College 516
20. 124 Sams College of 82, panappakkam, Near Engineering and www.samscet.ac.in periyapalayam, Chennai – Technology 601102 21. 125 Siva Institute of Frontier Vengal, Thiruvallur Dist, www.sift.edu.in Technology Chennai - 601103 ZONE - 2 26 202 D.M.I. College of www.dmicollege.ac.in Palanchur - Engineering Nazarethpet Post Chennai - 602 103 27 211 Rajalaksmi Engineering www.rajalakshmi.com Thandalam College Chennai 602 105 28 212 Rajiv Gandhi College of www.rgcesri.org Sriperumbudur Engineering 602 105 29 213 S.K.R. Engineering www.skrenggcollege.ac. Poonamallee, College Chennai – 602 103 30 214 Sakthi Mariamman www.smecollege.edu Thandalam, Engineering College Chennai- 602 105 31 216 Saveetha Engineering www.saveetha.com Thandalam, College Sriperumbudur Taluk 602 105 32 217 Sree Sastha Institute of www.sasthaenggcollege.com Chembarambakkam, Engineering and Chennai – 602 103 Technology 33 218 Sri Muthukumaran www.smitcollege.com Chikkarayapuram Institute of Technology Chennai - 600 069. 34 219 Sri Venkateswara College www.svce.ac.in Sriperumbudur - of Engineering 602105 35 220 Sri Padmavathi College www.sapthagirigroup.com Thandalam, of Engineering Sriperumbudur Taluk 602 105 ZONE - 3 36 301 Mohammed Sathak A.J. www.msajce.in Egattur - 603 103 College of Engineering 37 303 Anand Institute of Higher www.aiht.ac.in Kazhipattur Technology 603 103 38 304 Eswari Engineering www.eec.ac.in Manapakkam, Chennai College 600089 39 305 Hindustan College of www.hindustancollege.com Kelambakkam – Engineering 603 103. 40 306 Jeppiaar Engineering www.jeppiaarcollege.org Jeppiaar Nagar, College Chennai 600 096 41 307 Jerusalem College of www.jerusalemengg.ac.in Pallikaranai, Engineering Chennai 601302 42 310 Misrimal Navajee Thorapakkam, Munoth Jain Engineering www.mnmjec.ac.in Chennai, 600 096 College 43 311 K.C.G. College of www.kcgcollege.com Karapakkam, Technology 600 096 44 312 45 313 Shree Motlal Kanhaiyalal www.smkfomra.net kelambakkam, Chennai Fomra Institute of - 603 103 Technology 46 315 Sri Sivasubramania Nadar www.ssnce.ac.in SSN Nagar - 603110 College of Engineering 47 316 Vel‘s Srinivasa College www.velsrinivasa.com Thalambur, of Engineering and Chennai - 603 103 Technology 517
48 317 St. Joseph‘s College of www.stjosephs.ac.in Jeppiar Nagar, Engineering Chennai 600 096, 49 318 T.J. Institute of Karapakkam, www.tjit.edu.in Technology Chennai 600 096 50 319 Thangavelu Engineering www.thangavelucolleges.com Karapakkam, College Chennai 600 096 ZONE - 4 51 404 B.S. Abdur Rahman Vandalur, www.crescentcollege.org Cresent Engineering Chennai - 600048
College 52 407 G.K.M. College of G.K.M. Nagar, Engineering and www.gkmcet.net.in Chennai - 600 063 Technology 53 409 Karpaga Vinayaga www.kvcengg.com Madhuranthagam College of Engineering - 603 308 and Technology 54 411 Madha Engineering www.madhagroup.org Kundrathur, College Chennai - 600 069 55 414 Prince Shri Venkateswara Ponmar, Padmavathy Engineering www.psvpec.ac.in Chennai - 600 048 College 56 418 Sri Laksmi Ammal Selaiyur, www.slaec.co.in Engineering College Chennai-600 073 57 419 Sri Sairam Engineering www.srisairamengg.com West Tambaram, College Chennai-44 58 420 Tagore Engineering www.tec.ac.in Vandalur, College Chennai - 600 048 59 423 Asan Memorial College www.asanenggcollege.com Chengalpattu – of Engineering and 603 105 Technology 60 424 Dhanish Ahmed College Padappai, (Near of Engineering www.dhanishenggcollege.com Tambaram), Chennai-601301 61 426 Sri Ramanujar Kolapakkam www.srirec.ac.in Engineering College Chennai 600 048 62 427 Sri Krishna Engineering Padappai, (Near College www.srikrishnacollege.com Tambaram) Chennai 601301 63 428 Sri Krishna Institute of Padappai, (Near Technology www.srikrishnait.com Tambaram) Chennai 601301 64 429 Gopal Ramalingam Padappai, (Near Memmorial Engineering www.grmec.ac.in Tambaram) College Chennai 601301
518
LIST OF PAPERS PUBLISHED
1. Dr. T. Manvel Raj, Dr. A. Mohamed Siddique and Dr. T. Shalini Rani, ―professional stress among engineering college teachers and their coping strategies‖, International Journal of Management (IJM), ISSN 0976 – 6502, ISSN 0976, May- August, 2012, Volume 3, Issue 2, pp. 80-97.
2. T. Manvel Raj, A. Mohamed Siddique and T. Shalini Rani, ―Strategies to Retain Teachers in Engineering Colleges: Probable Causes and Possible Solutions‖, International Journal of Stress Management, © 2012 American Psychological Association, 2012, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 52– 63.
3. Dr. T. Manvel Raj, Dr. A. Mohamed Siddique and Dr. T. Shalini Rani, ―Professional stress and coping attitudes of engineering college teachers‖, ZENITH, International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 2012, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 123-133.
4. T. Manvel Raj, A. Mohamed Siddique and T. Shalini Rani, ―A study on professional stress of engineering teachers in the chennai region‖, International Journal of Business Research and Management (IJBRM), Vol. 3, No.1, 2012, pp.236-251.