Sustainable Economic Use of Native Australian Birds and Reptiles

Home , Birds International, Black rock skink, Cockatiel, Dendrelaphis punctulatus, King quail, List of endangered birds

Can controlled trade improve conservation of species?

Summary of a report of the same name for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation by ACIL Economics Pty Ltd (ACN 058 284 521) in conjunction with Agriculture Western Australia

February 1997 RIRDC research Paper Series no 97/26

- ii -

ISBN 0 642 24638 6 ISSN 1321 2656

"Sustainable Economic Use of Native Australian Birds and Reptiles" The full report

The views expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are those of the author/s and not necessarily those of persons consulted or the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person who relies in whole, or in part, on the contents of this report unless authorised in writing by the Managing Director of RIRDC.

This publication is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research, study, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced in any form, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted without the prior written permission from the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction should be directed to the Managing Director.

Researcher Contact Details ACIL Economics & Policy Pty Ltd ACN 058 284 521 Economics, Policy and Strategy Consultants GPO Box 1322 CANBERRA ACT 2601

Phone: 06 249 8055 Fax: 06 257 4170

RIRDC Contact Details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 1, AMA House 42 Macquarie Street BARTON ACT 2600

PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604

Phone: 06 272 4539 Fax: 06 272 5877 email: [email protected] Internet: http://www.dpie.gov.au/rirdc

Published in February 1997 Printed by DPIE Copyshop

- iii -

PREFACE

The Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation's (RIRDC) charter covers goals directed to the management of natural resources and assistance to businesses to capture global market opportunities. The Corporation's vision is for an innovative, efficient and profitable Australian rural sector producing and marketing products from improving production systems into a range of world markets. The raising and breeding of animals is a specific primary industry activity for which RIRDC has a responsibility within its New Animal Products Program.

Funding of the project "Sustainable economic use of native Australian Birds and Reptiles" was viewed as a genuine and important role for RIRDC. The overall aim of the study was to identify the potential of, and propose a management regime for, an industry based on exports of native birds and reptiles while also enhancing conservation and biodiversity.

Research is continually required on ways of conserving Australian native animals. The fauna has unique biodiversity yet its conservation is continually constrained by biological, social and economical needs, particularly that related to agriculture. The natural biodiversity has to be retained and numbers increased as necessary. To do this effectively essential habitats have to be protected and expanded. This can be achieved by supplementing intrinsic value of the species where appropriate with an economic value through the application of sustainable use.

Sustainable use was identified as a major factor in the report prepared on the project findings. This report was prepared by ACIL Economics and Policy Pty Ltd in conjunction with Agriculture Western Australia. Before distributing the report RIRDC invited a range of interested parties to a meeting in September 1996 to discuss the conclusions developed in the project. Suggestions were invited on how to further proceed to implement a conservation strategy with the aim of sustainable economic use of Australian Birds and Reptiles.

At the meeting there was common agreement that only so much can be achieved by using national estates for conservation of Australian birds and reptiles. Enhanced conservation has to be stimulated by providing the correct incentives for private investment. This does not mean uncontrolled use of Australian fauna but economic incentives, for instance, whereby landowners contribute to conservation on their farms. Landowners must be given financial encouragement to protect and expand habitats such as bushland rather than replace natural ecosystems in endeavours of other agricultural pursuits that might provide more immediate dividends. Given an economic incentive to conserve, landowners will treat assets such as Australian birds and reptiles as a renewable resource.

- iv -

There were varying opinions at the meeting on the role of captive breeding and ranching in increasing supply and the relevance of these activities to sustainable use and conservation. Also there were different thoughts on the selection of species that could be initially proposed, although many believed that the choice of species should be based on existing knowledge on the conservation status and biology of species, breeding, habitats and economic considerations.

The report outlines the potential value of Australian birds and reptiles on international markets. While it was agreed at the meeting that the opportunity for exporting would deter smuggling there was recognition of the commercial restrictions imposed by the requirements of the Commonwealth Wildlife Protection Act 1982. This Act is administered by Environment Australia and it is the legislation that regulates the export of native wildlife and enables Australia to fulfil international obligations under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.

Animal welfare organisations were invited to the meeting, but no representatives attended. The meeting acknowledged the importance of animal welfare needs in captive breeding and ranching. However, most participants agreed that sustainable use issues have to be separately addressed and judged within a framework of sound animal welfare practices.

There was agreement that among aims of future research and development there should be testing of the concepts of sustainable use of Australian birds and reptiles by the introduction of experimental management conditions. This activity should be undertaken in partnership with Commonwealth, State and Territory wildlife agencies in whom responsibility for the management of native wildlife is vested. Initially this could be for a selection of species in a focus area. Already both the Northern Territory and South Australian governments, for instance, have made moves to introduce strategies, and trial management plans for the sustainable use of certain native animals. The objectives of the management plans include an emphasis on experimentation based on knowledge so that adaptive approaches and opportunities can be made. Fostering cooperation between landowners and regulatory authorities in sustainable use and conservation is highlighted.

The move towards expanding experimental management plans for the sustainable use of live Australian birds and reptiles as proposed represents a significant departure from current government policy on commercial use and export. There is therefore a need for consultation on commercial opportunities with conservation agencies and interested organisations. To this end this report has been circulated to appropriate government departments for assessment and consideration of present and future policy decisions in sustainable use of native birds and reptiles. Dr Peter McInnes Research Manager

Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

CONTENTS

Page

Synopsis 4

INTRODUCTION 5 Background 5 Aims, methods and structure of the investigation 6

CURRENT BIRD AND REPTILE MANAGEMENT — POLICIES, LAWS AND PROCEDURES 8 History of wildlife legislation and ‘ownership’ of wildlife 8 Aboriginal use of wildlife 9 Separation of responsibilities between the Commonwealth and States 10 Commonwealth controls on wildlife exports 11 State legislation and responsibilities 16 National parks or nature conservation reserves 34 Species preservation programs 35 Wildlife and plant breeding programs 40 Research 41

KEY FACTORS AFFECTING CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE 42 Impact of modern development on wildlife 42 Habitat change 43 Predators 47 Mechanisms for dealing with introductions 47 Direct human impact 48 Conservation off reserves 49 Pest management 54

5 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

CURRENT TRADE SITUATION 58 Australian comparative advantage in the bird and reptile trade 58 Methods used to estimate overseas markets 59 Birds 60 Reptiles 70 Size of Australian domestic trade and markets 75

MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR DELIVERING COMMERCIAL OPPORTUNITIES AND ENHANCING CONSERVATION 78 Valuing the wildlife resource 78 Proposed goal 80 The need for wildlife management 80 Altering the environment to favour wildlife 80 CITES ranching guidelines 82 Elements of a proposed management regime for ranching birds and reptiles 85 Trade in captive-bred animals 89 Identification of species in trade 90 CITES and captive breeding 91

CONSIDERATION OF ISSUES 93 Making best use of Australia’s resources 93 Government funding 93 Commercial use of wildlife is an emotive subject 94 Importance of open debate 95 Freedom to develop new ideas for innovation 95 Valuing the wildlife resource 97 Changing the current position is politically difficult 102 Smuggling 102

6 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

Wild birds as pests 103 Evaluating policy options 104

CONCLUSIONS 109

FURTHER RESEARCH 110

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 111

REFERENCES 113

APPENDIX 120 Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Regulations 1992 120 Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Regulations 1992 123 Schedule 3 of the Wildlife Regulations 1992 125 Threatened Australian Bird Taxa 128

7 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

Synopsis

Some Australian native birds and reptiles which are common on the Australian market have high economic value in foreign markets because the commercial export of all live wild animal species, even budgerigars is not permitted. This report outlines a management regime which has the ultimate aim of increasing wild populations of the less common species. It also aims to remove some of the anomalies in current national policies on bird ownership and subsequent trade which have little conservation benefit. It does not propose the export of adult wild-caught ‘pest ‘birds because of concerns about animal welfare.

Permitting the commercial use of native birds and reptiles within strict rules, can contribute to the national economy. The market is large and pet ownership of birds and reptiles is substantial throughout the world. It meets social needs, improves wildlife awareness and is generally within acceptable animal welfare standards, especially for smaller species. A controlled international trade would reduce smuggling, while allowing pet owners and fanciers personal freedom.

A carefully regulated trade that focused on the conservation of wild populations and that only imposed on captive bred birds and reptiles where the case is well made, would help to reverse environmental degradation and achieve the goal of increasing the distribution and numbers of wild species. Giving native species which occur on private land a commercial value would enable them to compete with non-native species for habitat and encourage landholders to improve the resources on which they depend. Landholders are best able to control the key factors impacting on wild animals, such as exotic predators and destruction of habitat, They need incentives to manage species, and provide shelter and protection on a much larger scale than is possible under government funded programs, Surplus young offspring of common species such as galahs and long necked tortoises, which are readily available on the domestic market and yet very valuable overseas, could be harvested and reared on farms. This would be a precursor to initiating the main conservation benefit of ranching more valuable species such as Major Mitchell cockatoos in conjunction with preservation of habitat.

It is sometimes suggested that capturing wild birds that are a nuisance and selling them will solve pest problems. However capturing adult birds can be cruel particularly in regard to their ability to adapt to captivity and transport. These animal welfare issues need closer examination. Young, hand-reared birds which are tame and easily handled make the best pets and have the strongest market .

8 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

INTRODUCTION

Background

Commercial use and trade in Australian wildlife is already substantial. Domestic aviculture has been established for over a century. Wild flowers and bush tucker are traded in a growing international market with general public acceptance; kangaroo leather and meat is exported; so too is emu meat, oil and crocodile products. But using wildlife is controversial and opinions are divided and often strongly felt. Different policies apply to live and dead animals, and animal welfare is a primary public concern. Other people believe any form of use of animals, especially wild animals, is morally indefensible.

Laws protect individual specimens and attempt to reduce the adverse impact of humans upon them. They contain many anomalies and inconsistencies in the protection given to different species in different jurisdictions. Within Australia, commercial trade and the keeping and breeding of pet birds and reptiles is permitted under a licensing system administered by State wildlife services. Export of live birds and reptiles nevertheless is tightly restricted and commercial trade prohibited even for the ubiquitous budgerigar and cockatiel. Price pressures are bottled up which creates a temptation for international smuggling and cruelty is often a by-product of such traffic. Current policy also fails to deal adequately with the impact of the breadth and extent of habitat change on species off reserves and the ravages of predators and

competitors everywhere.

Current export restrictions aim to constrain an industry from developing, yet the industry could be of benefit to the conservation of species. New technology such as DNA fingerprinting could be used to establish transferable property rights.1 ACIL and Agriculture Western Australia have undertaken this review as a scoping study of options and possible improvements to see if the twin objectives of increased economic activity and improved conservation practices and outcomes can be simultaneously achieved. It was funded by the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) which is a government agency concerned with promoting opportunities for new and emerging industries. Commonwealth and State wildlife authorities and conservation organisations nevertheless have primary

1 Kingwell R (1994) Should Australia export its native birds? Review of Marketing and Agricultural Economics 62: 261

9 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

responsibility for the policy issues. Any management regime that permitted controlled export of native birds and reptiles would also have to be consistent with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).

Aims, methods and structure of the investigation

The aims of the project were:

• to review any potential benefits of allowing expansion of the current pet trade and the avicultural herpetocultural industries that are based on Australian birds and reptiles. • to provide a scientific underpinning to any changes and improvements to policy including enhancement of animal welfare and conservation

status • to propose management regimes that permit the export of captive-bred birds and reptiles, and consider the export of wild birds or their offspring while also enhancing habitat protection and biodiversity.

The project has reviewed:

• current legislative protection for wild and captive-bred birds and reptiles; • current conservation issues and the benefits to conservation that could

flow from higher market value of wild animals; • prices paid for species both domestically and overseas and the size of

the international trade in Australian birds and reptiles, notwithstanding the lack of Australian approval for export; • opportunities for enhancing populations and biodiversity based on

altering the factors affecting the status of wild native birds and reptiles; • principles for more open discussion and improving the availability of

information; • options for improving current practice and delivering a modified

management regime; • animal welfare and ethical implications of capturing and transporting birds and reptiles; and • the international coordination of wildlife trade.

10 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

The views and comment of a wide range of organisations and institutions were sought. In particular opinions were obtained on the feasibility of commercialisation from organisations such as aviculturists, herpetologists and wildlife management societies, and animal welfare, conservation and preservation organisations.

Interested parties were asked their opinions about an expanded trade in birds and reptiles as pets, and the merits and disadvantages of captive breeding, or catching in the wild, or rearing of wild-caught young. They were asked how best to conserve Australian wildlife and ensure the welfare, health and humane treatment of both captive and wild birds.

The structure of the report presents current policies laws and procedures for wildlife conservation; the threats to species conservation and the adequacies of current practice; the opportunities of expanding a trade including the conservation benefits which could follow; and the difficulties and disadvantages of implementing such a scheme.

11 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

CURRENT BIRD AND REPTILE MANAGEMENT — POLICIES, LAWS AND PROCEDURES

Australian policies, laws and procedures dealing with wildlife conservation are very complex. They consist of overlying State and federal laws to protect animals and control trade; preservation of areas of habitat in national parks and reserves; and programs and schemes for safeguarding habitat outside. They often take the relatively easy route of protecting individual animals.

History of wildlife legislation and ‘ownership’ of wildlife

Controls for use and the management of wild animals have evolved differently throughout the world. Some formerly wild species were domesticated as history progressed. Others were managed in the wild through various cultural customs. For example in Europe, access to game species that remained wild eg deer, grouse, pheasants, was restricted to a small section of the population, the nobility. In modern times, access to wild animals is by right of entry to land by fee paying hunters. In Aboriginal Australia, complex systems of kinship taboos restricted the use of wild

animals.

With the establishment of British law in Australia, ownership of native wild animals was taken up by the Crown on behalf of all people; a change which gave few concessions to Aboriginal people.

As more and more species were totally protected, and game seasons for hunting or pest control were established for some species. Wildlife habitat was also protected in

nature conservation reserves.

Today the taking or killing of wild animals is controlled by legislation that either protects them, in the case of native animals, or mandates their destruction, in the case of exotic pest species. It also regulates the use of poisons and control techniques, and reduces cruelty through prescribing and promulgating codes of practice. Special protection and penalties apply to endangered species. The commercial sale of products of native wild animals taken from the fauna conservation reserve network is totally prohibited and the national parks services do any culling or control that is required on their lands.

A number of native animals are commercially used, kangaroos, emus in farms, mutton birds, and crocodiles. Venom is extracted from snakes. Most fish are used

12 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

commercially but no marine reptiles or mammals.

Aboriginal use of wildlife

Aboriginal exemptions

Traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities can use the native flora and fauna on their land for their own consumption. They have also sought access to national parks to hunt and the response by the park services has been contentious in some States. Commercial use of wildlife, however, by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island people is not exempt. Hunting wildlife for food on Aboriginal land is not the same as hunting or raising animals for sale. Legally, even the sale of an animal to another person within an Aboriginal community is commercial use of wildlife. Commercial ventures are subject to normal legislation and quality-control requirements.

Opportunities for Aboriginal people

In some areas where employment opportunities are poor, some State and Territory governments have adopted ‘affirmative action’ to allow Aboriginal communities the first right to develop commercial ventures using wildlife, providing legislative requirements are met. For example, in Western Australia and Queensland, Aborigines have been encouraged to lead the setting up of commercial farms for emus and

crocodiles. This report proposes that Aboriginal people, particularly Aboriginal landholders, could also lead in establishing ranching operations for other species such as freshwater turtles, goannas and some species of parrots and finches with a view to exporting them. These concepts are developed in the Draft ATSIC Rural Industry Strategy 19942 and in Wilson et al 1992.3 The aim is to enable enterprise diversification and employment generation and the use of wild birds and reptiles. The current prohibition denies Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders the development opportunities and the use of their resources which are available to

Papua New Guineans and Indonesians.

2 Draft Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Rural Industry Strategy (1994) ATSIC Canberra.

3 Wilson, G, McNee, A. and Platts, P, (1992) Wild Animal Resources, Their Use by Aboriginal Communities, Bureau of Resource Sciences, AGPS, Canberra.

13 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

Separation of responsibilities between the Commonwealth and States

Because the Commonwealth derives its authority from powers nominated and the Constitution makes no reference to either the environment, wild animals or conservation, the States are primarily responsible for these residual powers. All wildlife is protected and permits and licensing procedures issued by the Australian States and Territories only allow plants and animals to be killed for use if they are pests or for sport. Some state legislation also permits the taking of kangaroos as a resource to be used on a sustainable basis.

Legislation also permits some species of native animals to be captured or their eggs taken and then bred in captivity for private purposes or for sale. In some species, such as crocodiles, this is done on a large scale and supports crocodile farms. The practice is known as ranching (see later discussion). It has also been done to a limited degree and for short periods to enable the establishment of emu farms, tortoise farms, aviculture and herpetoculture for the pet industry.

The Commonwealth Government deals with matters of international and interstate trade, commerce, external affairs, trading corporations, taxation, quarantine, defence and territories of the Commonwealth and places owned or acquired by the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth therefore controls the export of wild native animals and the import of exotic or new species. It is responsible for upholding the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

The Commonwealth also extends its influence through the granting of financial

assistance to State governments, and by virtue of its role as a national government.

Discussion between the Commonwealth and States on matters of national significance in the management of both native animals and exotic introduced species is conducted through the councils of ministers and their supporting standing committees and specialist technical committees. National policies are also developed by the Commonwealth.

The National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity promotes the adoption of ecologically sustainable agricultural and pastoral management practices in the interests of encouraging and sustaining biological diversity. The strategy also promotes ecologically sustainable wildlife management practices. The National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development commits

14 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

signatories to protect biodiversity and maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems; promote the rapid completion and implementation of national and regional strategic plans for the management of pests and weeds; and review legislation for the control of pests.

Commonwealth controls on wildlife exports

History

Australia instituted controls on export of fauna in 1921. The controls were administered by the Australian Customs Service under various regulations of the Customs Act. Policies on the application of these controls were developed progressively in consultation with representatives of State wildlife agencies, until by 1960 the export of live Australian fauna for commercial purposes was prohibited and restricted for private purposes to the export of commonly held household pets leaving Australia permanently with their owners. Strict criteria applied to the export of specimens of native fauna for scientific research or zoological display. In 1976 the Customs (Endangered Species) Regulations were introduced to enable Australia to control import and export of species covered by CITES to which Australia had become a signatory in 1971.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

Under CITES, more than 124 nations are now regulating international trade to prevent the decline of species threatened or potentially threatened with extinction. Trade, which is defined as import, export, or re-export, of a long list of such threatened animal and plant species, is either virtually prohibited (Appendix I species) or

restricted (Appendix II or III species).

The convention requires that international shipments of these species, and products made from them, requires an import or export permit, or both, issued in advance by the official management authorities of the countries involved. Permits are issued after findings by scientific authorities that the trade won’t be detrimental to the survival of the species in question.

A key recommendation of CITES is that member nations endeavour to restrict the collection of wild animals for the pet trade and encourage the breeding of animals for this purpose with the objective of eventually limiting the keeping of pets to those species which can be bred in captivity.

15 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

In addition, Article XIV of CITES states that member nations have the right to adopt:

(a) stricter domestic measures regarding the conditions for trade, taking, possession or transport of specimens of species listed in Appendices I, II or III, or the complete prohibition thereof; or (b) domestic measures restricting or prohibiting trade, taking, possession, or transport of species not included in Appendices I, II or III.

The convention also makes provision for the ranching of species, ie the sustainable harvesting from the wild of progeny, but this is usually done for consumptive use rather than the pet industry.

Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982

Passage of the Commonwealth Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 with support from all parties consolidated these controls and transferred administrative responsibility for them from the Australian Customs Service to the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service (ANPWS). The Act came into effect on 1 May 1984 and has been amended several times, including in 1995.

The Act is the legislative basis for controls on the export and import of wildlife and wildlife products.

Controls apply to transactions undertaken by museums, zoos and scientific institutions, commercial organisations, tourists, migrants and the general public In addition to controlling the export of Australian native animals and plants (except those listed in Schedule 4 to the Act) the Act implements Australian legislative requirements as a signatory to CITES by controlling import and export of plants and animals listed on Appendix I and Appendix II of the convention and products derived form them. Schedules 1, 2 and 3 to the Act generally incorporate Appendices I and II of CITES. The Act also controls the import of live animals to prevent establishment of further pests that could damage the Australian environment.

Administration of the Wildlife Protection Act

The Director of National Parks and Wildlife as the ‘designated authority’ established under the Act and as the delegate of the minister, is responsible for administration of the legislation. The Director is also the Chief Executive Officer of the Australian Nature Conservation Agency (ANCA) and the day-to-day administration of the legislation is undertaken by the Wildlife Protection Authority within ANCA.

16 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

The Wildlife Protection Act enables permits or authorities to be issued for a wide variety of purposes but specifies the criteria that must be met before they can be granted. Decisions to grant or refuse applications for permits and authorities and associated decisions are subject to review by the Administrative Appeals Tribunal (AAT). Responsibility for enforcement of the controls rests with the Australian Customs Service (ACS) and the Australian Federal Police (AFP).

Commercial trade in wildlife products

Captive-bred products

Private and commercial trade in wildlife products, but not live animals, is permitted if the products are derived form captive-bred animals or artificially propagated plants. Australia has an established trade in exporting skins of captive-bred crocodiles, emu products, artificially propagated native plants, including orchids, and captive-bred native butterflies and fish.

Wild harvested products

Commercial trade in products of animals and plants taken from wild populations is also permitted, provided the species is not listed on Appendix I of CITES and is not a member of the cetacean group (whales, dolphins, porpoises), where a management program has been approved under the Act, or the specimen has been declared a controlled specimen. Management programs currently allow the export of products derived form a range of species including kangaroos, brush possum, mutton birds and wildflowers from Western Australia.

Export of live animals

Following a conference of State and federal agencies in 1960 the commercial export of live Australian native vertebrate animals other than fish was prohibited. This prohibition is now embodied in the Wildlife Protection Act and also applies to export by private individuals except that permission may be granted to allow export (in specified circumstances) of certain parrot species (listed in Schedule 7 of the Act) which are household pets.

Although subject to considerable debate in subsequent decades, this prohibition has never been altered. Successive Commonwealth governments have reaffirmed the policy while meetings of the Council of Nature Conservation Ministers (CONCOM), now part of the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council

17 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

(ANZECC), have consistently endorsed the position. More specifically, in 1985 CONCOM considered the question of whether approval should be given to the trapping and export of native birds causing damage. The idea was rejected on the grounds that the advantages of permitting export were outweighed by the disadvantages. As a result the export ban on native birds, including those associated with damage, remains in force.

Subject, however, to government approval native birds, including viable eggs, may be exported for domestic, scientific, or zoological purposes.

Pet exports

Export of native birds as domestic pets is limited to individuals taking up permanent residence overseas. Such exports are restricted to a maximum of two birds of any of six species. The six species are:

• sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galenta) • galah (Cacatua roseicapilla) • little corella (Cacatua sanguinea) • long-billed corella (Cacatua tenuirostris) • cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) • budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)

Before the Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Amendment Bill 1995, a total of six birds could be taken overseas as pets provided the exports did not contravene any State laws.

Scientific exports

Transactions involving scientific institutions are permitted where the institution is primarily non-commercial, has demonstrated the capacity to undertake the proposed research, makes the results of such research publicly available and, where the transaction involves live animals, the institution has established that it is able to properly care for and securely confine the animal concerned. Where scientific institutions are undertaking transactions that do not involve live animals, and both are registered by ANCA or the CITES authority of another country, transactions may be undertaken without obtaining a permit for each consignment.

18 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

Zoo transactions

Transactions of animals between publicly-owned or administered Australian and overseas zoos are permitted provided the zoos can demonstrate that they have high standards of management, animal husbandry and accommodation and have the facilities and expertise to properly care for the animals being sought. In the case of Australian fauna being sent overseas the animals must be surplus to the requirements of the Australian zoo and may not be taken from the wild to be sent overseas.

Prosecutions under the Wildlife Protection Act and related conspiracy charges

In early 1995, persons attempting to export Australian native bird eggs were sentenced to up 18 months imprisonment and fined. One was jailed for 13 months and in related cases conspiracy charges were laid in New Zealand. In what AQIS described as an illegal export racket with international connections, charges have also

been laid in the UK.

Management plans for commercial export of wildlife products

CITES, and the powers the Commonwealth derives from it under the Wildlife Protection Act, have a significant impact both on the development of intensively managed wild animal ‘farms’ and extensive harvesting of native wildlife species. If animals are taken from the wild by killing and exported, they are subject to the development of a management plan, including population surveys and documentation of harvesting. The kangaroo management program is the model. Animals in farms, such as emus, could also be subject to management plans if they have been caught in the wild.

The saltwater crocodile, a reptile in the context of this report, is listed as an Appendix 1 endangered species internationally, but not the Australian population and so its products are subject to CITES. Where skins are the product of ranching, and eggs and young are taken from the wild and reared in captivity, special provisions apply to

enable trade to proceed. They are described later.

Species of wildlife that cannot be harvested commercially include turtles because trade in them is banned under CITES and their export would not receive clearance

under the Wildlife Protection Act.

The further development of other wildlife resources for export including reptiles and birds for commercial export would require the preparation of a management plan

19 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

under the Wildlife Protection Act. For example, tortoises that are currently bred in South Australia for the domestic pet trade and sold as ‘penny’ tortoises, if traded internationally would require management plans.

Snakes are farmed and milked in a number of States. The legal issues which arise when permits are requested to export venom are complex. Venom is a ‘wildlife product’ under the WP Act and and so the requirements for management plans may apply unless farming provisions can be substantiated such as those that apply to emu farming.

Summary of national policies on international trade in wildlife

The Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Export and Import) Act 1982 has the following provisions: • prohibits the export of native birds and reptiles as live animals; • permits the export of products, ie dead emus, mutton birds, kangaroos, crocodiles and possums; and • prohibits the export and taking of products from marine mammals and reptiles, but allows the export of fish and crustacea.

State legislation and responsibilities

Overview

Responsibility for conserving Australian birds and reptiles in the wild lies with State wildlife departments. They cooperate with one another to do likewise and are supported by the Commonwealth. State wildlife departments also aim to conserve representative samples of habitats of species including those of wild bird populations. The primary focus of species conservation, however, is to protect individual birds and reptiles by trying to prevent people illegally taking them from the wild. Licensing systems are in place in order to prevent the illegal trafficking of

birds and reptiles from the wild.

Wildlife departments are also concerned that introduced birds, and in WA, even out of State native species, that establish populations in the wild can endanger the survival of native species through competition for food and nesting sites. The sulphur-crested cockatoo introduced from the eastern States to WA is an example.

20 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

Departments of agriculture seek to protect primary industry from the damage that birds can cause to crops. These birds are mainly exotic, but can include native Australian birds. For example the Agriculture Protection Board is actively preventing the starling, an exotic bird, from establishing in WA.

Pest control provisions4

Australian Capital Territory

All wildlife in the Australian Capital Territory and Jervis Bay is protected by the Nature Conservation Act 1980. Penalties are imposed for the killing or taking of wildlife. Provision is also made for certain bird species to be declared ‘restricted wildlife’ under the Act.

Wildlife may only be killed if it is considered by wildlife authorities to be a danger and nuisance to people. Destruction permits are not issued for any species of native birds, even if they are considered to be causing damage to crop or stock.

Australian external territories

Norfolk Island, the Coral Sea Islands Territory, the Ashmore and Cartier Islands Territory, Christmas Island, Cocos Island, Heard Island, MacDonald Island and the Australian Antarctic Territory constitute Australia’s offshore territories. Under the provisions of the Commonwealth National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 all species, including imported species, are protected. A ministerial declaration is required for a species to be labelled unprotected.

In the case of Norfolk Island, national parks areas are subject to the controls of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, while the remainder of the island is controlled by Norfolk Island Legislative Assembly ordinances.

Victoria

In Victoria the Wildlife Act 1975 and the Wildlife Regulations 1992 make provision for the ‘protected status’ of wildlife that is causing damage to be waived in such areas. This is outlined in section 7A (1) of the Act:

“Whenever it appears to the Minister that a species or kind of protected

4 Descriptions of legislation based on material compiled by Environment and Natural Resources Committee of the Victorian Parliament, 1995

21 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

wildlife is causing injury or damage to -

(a) any building, vineyard, orchard, garden or other property;

(b) any crop, grass, trees or other vegetation; or

The Governor in Council may upon the recommendation of the Minister by an Order published in the Government Gazette declare that species or kind of wildlife to be unprotected wildlife in the area and for the period specified therein. Long-billed corellas have been declared ‘unprotected’ in 24 shires and sulphur-crested cockatoos in 51 shires. In these shires the killing or taking of wildlife in accordance with the provisions of an Order declared pursuant to this section shall not constitute an offence against this Act or be unlawful by virtue of any of the provisions of this or any other Act.

In such areas long-billed corellas and sulphur-crested cockatoos may be taken or destroyed by landowners or occupiers who are engaged in the rural production of commercial crops and by members of the families of such landowners or occupiers, and the employees of such landowners or occupiers.

Further, the birds shall be taken or destroyed by the above-mentioned persons only by the use of firearms on freehold and leasehold property used for the purpose of growing commercial crops.”

In addition, section 30 of the Wildlife Regulations 1992 provides for a ‘Commercial Wildlife (Wildlife Controller) Licence’. Licensed controllers — of which there are currently 12 to 15 — are authorised to take long-billed corellas, sulphur-crested cockatoos and galahs. A landholder may therefore engage a wildlife controller to remove birds causing damage. Wildlife controllers must pay a royalty at a rate of $5 for each bird captured.

In summary, wild native birds causing damage in Victoria can be controlled:

• on individual properties provided the property owner has been issued with an Authority to Control Wildlife (Destruction Authority); • within shires where they have been declared ‘unprotected’.

The legislation prohibits the destruction of any native wildlife declared either to be ‘endangered’ or ‘notable’.

22 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

New South Wales

The National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 protects all Australian native birds and reptiles. The Act is administered by the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service.

Schedule 12 of the Act identifies three wildlife categories for which special protection applies. Two of these categories refer to vulnerable or rare fauna and threatened fauna (the third refers to marine mammals). Penalties apply for taking or killing birds that fall within any of the special protection categories.

Section 121 of the Act permits landowners and occupiers to take or kill protected and unprotected wildlife, including birds in order to control damage. Licences are issued specifying the number of birds of a given species that may be taken and the time period in which damage control may be conducted. Licences are not issued for those species that are specially protected. The sulphur-crested cockatoo is one of the species for which damage control licences are issued.

Section 96 of the Act permits the Governor in Council to declare protected species ‘unprotected’ in defined districts and areas. Sulphur-crested cockatoos and galahs have both been declared locally unprotected in the Central and Western Divisions of New South Wales.

Northern Territory

The Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1993 protects all native species in the Northern Territory. The Act is administered by the Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory. Under Division 2, section 29 of the Act, the wildlife authority may issue a permit to kill or take any protected fauna. They are generally issued only when horticultural or agricultural activities are threatened, and only after other management alternatives have been exhausted (scaring, netting, bird frite cartridges, etc). The number of birds to be so killed or taken must be specified on the permit.

Queensland

The protection of native animals is controlled by the Nature Conservation Act 1992 and the Nature Conservation Regulation 1994. The Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage (Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service) may grant a Damage Mitigation Permit to take common wildlife causing damage which, if unchecked, may cause significant economic loss to individuals. Native birds so taken

23 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

cannot be used in trade or commerce unless a Conservation Plan approved under the legislation allows such use.

Notwithstanding such a permit, all native birds are protected in Queensland. Special provision also applies to bird species in need of ‘permanent protection’. Such permits are designed to be of limited duration and for the minimum number of birds necessary to reduce the damage or injury.

South Australia

In South Australia the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972, administered by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, is the relevant legislation under which native animals are protected. Penalties for breaches of the Act are defined by a 1987 amendment which identified three further categories of protection: ‘endangered’, ‘vulnerable’ and ‘rare’. Under section 53 of the Act, destruction permits can be issued for species causing, or likely to cause, damage to the environment, crops, stock or other property. Permits are issued for the destruction of long-billed corellas and sulphur-crested cockatoos.

Tasmania

The National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970, The Wildlife Regulations 1971, and subsequent amendments protect native species in Tasmania. However, while cockatoos and galahs are protected, the long-billed corella is not. The long-billed corella is considered an introduced pest species in Tasmania and it is the policy of the government to eradicate it (there are approximately 100 long-billed corellas in Tasmania).

The Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service receives relatively few complaints about damage . If a flock of fewer than 25 cockatoos is causing damage, a ‘shoot to scare’ permit can be issued for the duration of one month. If the flock numbers more than 25 then a ‘shoot to kill’ permit may be issued. Five birds a day may be shot, and a maximum of 25 birds over a one-month period.

Western Australia

Native species are protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950. The Act is administered by the Department of Conservation and Land Management. This Act, and the Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act 1976 administered by the Agricultural Protection Board of Western Australia, provide for the declaration of

24 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

year-round open seasons on certain species causing damage. Both management bodies cooperate to ensure that declarations of native species as pests are similar.

There is no limit on the number of such birds that can be taken and a licence is not required. Such open seasons tend to be applied within defined areas. Sulphur- crested cockatoos are listed as non-protected south of 20 degrees latitude south; shooting, trapping and poisoning are permitted. Sulphur-crested cockatoos are not native to Western Australia.

An open season on galahs, albeit controlled by shooting only, is declared for the South-West Land Division, Eucla Land Division and two additional shires. Wildlife officers may also issue destruction permits in other locations for any protected bird that is considered dangerous.

Keeping birds and reptiles in captivity

New South Wales

The licensing system administered by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service operates to regulate the keeping, buying, selling and trapping of birds and reptiles.

Licensing

If more than 19 protected birds are held in captivity, an aviary registration certificate is required. It’s also needed if a bird owner wishes to sell protected birds.

Ten species may be bought or sold without a licence. They are still protected but an aviary registration certificate is not required for:

• brown king and stubble quail • peaceful and diamond doves • budgerigars and cockatiels • little and long-billed corellas • sulphur-crested cockatoos • zebra finches.

The only birds which can be trapped in the wild are introduced species including; mallard duck, spotted turtle dove, European gold finch and green finch and nutmeg manakin (spice finch, house and tree sparrows, common starling, black bird and Indian minor).

25 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

Licensed fauna dealers (usually a pet shop) can sell birds. So can persons holding an aviary registration certificate but the birds must be sold to either a licensed fauna dealer or another person with an aviary registration certificate. Persons buying birds from any source should obtain a receipt to prove that they have been obtained legally.

Acquiring birds from other States.

Birds can be imported into NSW only by the holders of current aviary registration certificates and the Wildlife authority in the exporting state.

Record keeping

The onus is on the holder of protected fauna to prove that they were obtained legally. Holders of aviary registration certificates must keep a fauna record book up to date and accurate. It is exchanged annually and records of birds bred, bought or disposed of are updated by the wildlife service. Holders of any protected birds should keep a record of the source of all new birds.

Sick or injured birds

Sick or injured birds should be cared for by volunteer groups such Wildlife Rescue Emergency Service (WIRES).

Suitability of aviaries.

The NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service advocates that birds be kept in aviaries rather than cages inside houses. It advocates contact with agricultural societies for advice and obtaining the best information about water, shade and shelter, nesting facilities, room for flight, safety from predators, hawks, cats, rats and dogs, and adequacy of diet.

Victoria

In Victoria, licences are available which enable people to keep wildlife for private purposes. Relevant wildlife licensing provisions, conditions, limitations and

restrictions are set out in the Wildlife Act and Regulations.

Principal requirements

The main relevant provisions of wildlife legislation are that:

• wildlife must not be taken from the wild or released to the wild without

26 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

written permission of the Secretary of the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. This includes removing dead wildlife from the

wild; • persons trading in wildlife must have both an appropriate and current licence; • importing and exporting wildlife require import and export licence permits;

• wildlife must not be acquired before the appropriate licence has been obtained; • injured, abandoned or sick native animals must be handed to persons authorised to deal with them through wildlife shelters; • licences are renewable, some annually others every three years with payment of prescribed fees • wildlife held under private wildlife licences must remain at the specified premises unless going to a vet or being traded;

Animal welfare

Birds kept and housed are subject to a code of practice administered by the

Department of Agriculture. It stipulates cage sizes, and other requirements.

Commercial wildlife licence

Persons operating retail outlets (shops or businesses) require a commercial wildlife licence for any species of indigenous birds other than budgerigars, zebra finches and

cockatiels.

Private keeping of wildlife

Licences are not required for the following: • king quail Coturnix chinensis • partridge (all species) Perdis spp. Alectoris spp. • pheasant — all species Phasianus spp. • non-indigenous quail (all species, including Lophortyx californicus Californian quail and Japanese or European Coturnix coturnix quail)

27 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

• budgerigar Meloipsittacus undulatus • zebra finch Poephila guttata • cockatiel Nymphicus hollandicus

Licences are not required to keep, possess or breed the following common species although they must be kept for six months before sale or disposal:

Birds • peaceful dove Geopelia placida • diamond dove Geopelia cuneata • galah Cocatua roseicapilla • sulphur-crested cockatoo Cacatua galerita • little corella Cacatua sanguinea

Reptiles • common long-necked tortoise Chelodina longicollis • Murray River tortoise Emydura macquarii • marbled gecko Phyllodactylus marmoratus • Cunninghams’s skink Egernia cunninghami • white’s skink Egernia whitii • blotched blue-tongued lizard Tiliqua nigrolutea • common blue-tongued lizard Tiliqua scincoidees • stumpy-tailed lizard Trachydosaurus rugosus

Amphibians • plains froglet Ranidella parinsignifera • common frogolet Ranidella signifera • spotted marsh frog Limnodynastes tasmaniensis • southern bullfrog [also known as Limnodynastes dumerili pobblebonk (banjo) frog} • southern brown tree frog Litoria ewingi

28 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

Protected wildlife record book

Persons trading from a shop or business premises require a commercial wildlife licence and therefore need to keep a wildlife record book, even for the common species above. Animals held must be documented accurately and up-to-date records kept for the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Annual returns are

required on forms provided.

Private wildlife licence

Category 1, 2 and 3 private wildlife licences

A private wildlife licence authorises the holding of specimens on Schedules 123. They are shown in the Appendix to this document. Persons holding wildlife must not sell or dispose of such species within at least six months. The schedules group species that are more common and those that are less common and more difficult to care for.

Western Australia

In Western Australia, Australian birds and reptiles are protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act and Regulations, which are administered by the Department of

Conservation and Land Management.

Licensing requirements

There are 10 common species for which no licence is required: • king quail • peaceful dove and diamond dove • cockatiel or weero and budgerygah • chestnut-breasted mannikin • star finch and long-tailed (blackheart) finch • banded (double-bar) finch and zebra finch

If these are the only birds kept, no licence is required.

Avicultural licence

Holders of more than 10 of the following 5 birds commonly found in aviaries need an avicultural licence to keep or dispose of them: • Bourke’s parrot • scarlet-chested parrot

29 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

• pictorella mannikin • turquoise parrot • masked finch

Holders of more than 4 of the following birds require a licence to keep or dispose of them: • sulphur-crested cockatoo • galah • little corella and long-billed corella (central west) • long-billed corella (eastern) • western rosella • Port Lincoln ringneck • red-capped (WA king) parrot • turquoise parrot

Bird species with potential pest status; permit to keep declared animals

The keeping of certain exotic birds may, again depending on the species and numbers held, require a Permit to Keep Declared Animals. Only one Australian bird, the sulphur-crested cockatoo, requires both an Agricultural Protection Board (APB) licence and, depending on numbers held, a Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM) licence. The permit is issued by CALM on behalf of the APB,

usually for a once-only fee of $4.

Minimum aviary standard

Minimum aviary standards are set in WA as a safeguard against species that have the potential to replace local birds by competing for food and nesting sites escaping and establishing in the wild Minimum aviary specifications apply to the: • rainbow lorikeet and scaly-breasted lorikeet • musk lorikeet • Australian (eastern) king parrot • sulphur-crested cockatoo • crimson rosella and eastern rosella • little lorikeet

All aviaries are required to be well built, and have sufficient shelter and flight areas

for the birds and kept clean.

Importing or exporting birds

30 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

All States require corresponding import/export licences to move birds interstate. In WA the fee is $20 per consignment, unless the bird is a family pet and the fee is waived. Five Australian birds cannot be imported into WA because they are not native to that State and have the potential to acclimatise and threaten local species. These are: • Cape Barren goose • beautiful firetail finch • diamond firetail • red-browed finch • sulphur-crested cockatoo

Importing the Cape Barren goose is prohibited, so as to keep the more common

eastern subspecies separate from the rare western subspecies.

The sulphur-crested cockatoo may be imported if it can be established that it is a bona fide family pet.

Advanced avicultural licence

The advanced avicultural licence places extra controls on the acquisition and disposal of these birds. Species are included in the ‘advanced’ category because they are either subject to nest destruction and illegal taking and trading, are difficult to breed or need special aviary conditions. Some species kept by advanced avicultural licensees may be relatively common but most are uncommon, declining and threatened species: • spinifex (red-plumed) pigeon • brush bronzewing • Major Mitchell (pink) cockatoo and gang-gang cockatoo • Baudin’s black cockatoo and Carnaby’s black cockatoo • yellow-tailed black cockatoo and red-tailed black cockatoo • eclectus parrot • purple-crowned lorikeet and varied lorikeet • swift parrot • green rosella and northern rosella • Cloncurry parrot • Naretha (little) blue bonnet • golden-shouldered parrot and rock parrot

The red-tailed black cockatoo, for example, is placed it this higher category because it

31 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

is difficult to keep and breed in captivity, it has low numbers in the wild because of

habitat destruction and it is subject to illegal trapping and trafficking.

Acquiring and disposing of birds

If birds are on the exempt list, or a licence is not required because of small numbers held, owners can proceed with the transfer. If an avicultural licence is required the birds can be transferred provided both parties are licensed. In the case of birds covered by the advanced avicultural licence, both persons must be licensed and the person disposing of the birds must obtain an authority from CALM before, or within one working day of, the disposal. CALM will automatically update the licence record for both parties. If the birds are transferred to a licensed bird dealer, the authority is still required. On the other hand, birds are acquired from a dealer, CALM will be

notified via an ‘advice of sale’ and monthly returns sent by the dealer.

US legislation policy on imports to the United States

Federal law

The US currently imports many exotic birds per year. After October 1996 however it will be illegal to import any species that is not on an approved list compiled by the Secretary of the Interior under the Wild Bird Conservation Act of 1992. To be on the list a species must be subject to a management plan in its country of origin, that provides for the conservation of the species and its habitat.

Under current legislation, a number of species of birds and reptiles that are commonly sold abroad are either controlled or prohibited for import into the United

States. Species and items that are restricted include:

• most psittacine birds (parrots, macaws, etc.);

• feathers in a variety of forms, including flowers, pictures, wearing;

• live and mounted migratory birds;

• endangered species including bald and golden eagles;

• apparel, Indian artefacts, necklaces, headbands and curios decorated with feathers.

Restrictions on injurious wildlife

Several live animals may not be imported to the USA because they are deemed to be

harmful to the environment, to people, or to animals and plants in the United States.

32 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

Controls on wildlife taken in violation of US state, federal, foreign, or Indian tribal law

The US Lacey Act aims to help foreign countries and individual US states enforce their wildlife conservation laws. Under the Lacey Act, it is a violation of federal law to import, export, transport, sell, receive, acquire, or purchase in interstate or foreign commerce any wildlife, including fish, that was taken, transported, possessed, or sold in violation of any State or foreign law, or taken or possessed in violation of other federal law or Indian tribal law.

In addition to the US Fish and Wildlife Service, other federal agencies are concerned with the importation and exportation of wildlife and plants. The US Customs Service sets duty on many imported wildlife items. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) — to protect the U.S. livestock and agricultural industry from diseases of foreign origin, USDA regulates importation (& in some cases the exportation) of

plants, birds, & certain animals.

State Law

Within the United States, individual States have the major responsibility for regulating the use (including hunting) of resident wildlife native to a State. In addition, many states have laws controlling the introduction of wildlife that is not

native and regulating the sale and possession of wildlife within their borders.

Animal welfare

Animal welfare standards for the care and keeping of birds and reptiles are promulgated in Australian jurisdictions. They cover capturing, transporting, ;; sale and keeping.

State requirements

State animal welfare bureaus and wildlife authorities have established codes of practice for the housing of caged birds in the domestic trade. They stipulate standards for husbandry, feeding, water, accommodation, minimum cages sizes health and quarantine processes. In some States these codes are backed up with the power of legislation.

Housing conditions for pet birds — Victorian Animal Welfare Bureau

Cage sizes for cockatoos are 60 cm square and 60 cm high. Wings must be clipped by

33 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

vets or persons licensed by fisheries and wildlife departments. It needs to be

repeated every three to four months to prevent flying.

Welfare of birds currently exported from Australia

Many thousands of birds are currently exported including wild trapped exotic green finches, gold finches and canaries, and Australian species exported as bonafide pets. These birds are subject to IATA Live Animal Regulation and CITES regulations

because all except three parrots are in Appendix II or higher.

CITES animal welfare standards

Resolution 9.23 at the 9th CITES Conference dealt with mortality of live specimens during transport. In addition to details about the ownership, origins, destination of the consignment and compliance with CITES permits, quarantine and other legislation, it recommended that parties should maintain records of the number of live specimens per shipment, of mortalities in transport, particularly of birds, and of obvious cause, and that they should publish these data annually, providing a copy to the Chairman of the CITES Animals Committee. CITES asks importing countries to note and comment on the health of imported birds any suspicion of disease. If the type of box and its construction correspond to IATA prescriptions, are overcrowded or the boxes damaged; ventilation problems; or lack of water/food. Mechanisms are available for reporting back to the CITES Animals Committee.

Stress on wild-caught birds

During the period before birds become independent from parental care, they imprint onto their own and other species. To be friendly, well adjusted and successful pets, they need close and favourable contact with humans during this critical period. Adult, wild-caught birds can sometimes make reasonable pets if they are handled by experienced or dedicated bird trainers but it is much more difficult to train an adult bird that has no human contact, or worse, negative human contact, than it is to bond

with a baby that has only ever had positive contact with humans.

An inexperienced buyer is likely to lack knowledge and to purchase one even though

it is the less suitable pet, especially as wild-caught birds are cheaper.

34 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

The larger companies5 selling wild birds in the domestic market note that birds are trapped all the year round but make it a practice to sell only young birds suitable for taming and training. They note that although it is possible to make a pet out of older birds it is more time consuming. They guarantee wild-caught birds and offer that if for any reason within 12 months of the date of purchase, the owner feels the bird is not responding to a reasonable amount of effort and is not taming down or talking they

will exchange it for another bird of similar age, sex and appearance.

Once caught, birds are quarantined for a minimum of 14 days and treated in order to produce birds for sale which are healthy. They note that many young cockies die each year from poor handling and stress-related causes. Birds are wormed with oxytetra with piperazine and drenched with an antibiotic oxytetracycline. They recommend that all birds be wormed regularly twice a year.

The chain for overseas sale is longer and likely to result in less positive contact with young animals. The stages in the process are trapper – dealer – transport – quarantine – dealer – wholesaler – pet shop and owner.

Survival of wild-caught adult birds compared to birds reared in captivity

Wild-caught adult birds (and reptiles) do not adapt well to captivity and as a rule do not make such good pets. They are not recognised avicultural exhibits; they screech, are aggressive and consequently are sometimes released to the wild.

Capturing, caging and transporting wild adult birds for long distances can lead to high mortalities and suffering. Figure 1 shows the extent of losses in the United States of wild-caught birds imported to the United States from say South America.

5 For example the Australian Bird Company, 578 Springvale Road, Springvale South 3172

35 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

74 185 18 181 250 436 Survived

Dead on arrival

Carrying Newcastle diseases — destroyed or returned

Died or destroyed in 1 634 003 quarantine

Figure 1: Birds imported to USA 1986–88

In response to these concerns the states of New York and New Jersey have banned the sale of all wild-caught birds and several large chain stores, ‘Petland’ and ‘Docktor Pet Centers’ have adopted a policy of no longer selling wild-caught birds. Concerns about mortalities have also lead several airlines to cease transporting live birds.

Animal health issues

Wild-caught birds are stressed by trapping, collective housing and distribution and this leads to suppression of their immune systems. Clinical presentation of psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) and infections due to enterovirus, psittacosis virus, gram negative bacteria and occasionally megabacteria and polyomavirus are more

likely. Older birds may be carriers and transmit disease to other birds at the dealers, pet shops or eventually the destination aviaries.

Importing countries are likely to require rigorous pre-export testing and certification of health status in order to protect their own birds which mitigates against export of wild-caught birds. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) which has worked towards freer trade and a more global outlook notes that the animal health safety of the importing country must be ensured. It also notes that total bans on trade cannot be justified when scientifically-based control measures could reasonably be

36 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

expected to prevent entry of disease.

The Office International des Epizooties (OIE) helps offset the risk of freer trade. It establishes key principles based on sound science and risk assessment processes so that import measures applied in the name of protecting animal and human health are not disguised barriers to trade. All countries have the right to adopt measures which are necessary to protect human, animal and plant health but measures to maintain health status should only interfere with trade to the extent that is necessary to achieve disease control objectives. This is an accepted international principle that has been incorporated in virtually all multilateral, bilateral and regional treaties and agreements on trade and is supported by GATT and OIE.

An effective quarantine is necessary to ensure that overseas trade does not expose foreign birds to Australian diseases. PBFD is believed to have appeared in South American psittacines in North America after they were exposed to birds of Australasian origin. Further introductions of Australian psittacines could increase the risk to rare and valuable birds.

Animal health requirements to United States

Imports of some species of animals and from some countries are prohibited; others must be held in USDA animal import centres or quarantine stations for 30 days after entry and inspected by veterinarians of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection

Service (APHIS).

Controlling smuggling

Stopping smuggling and improving the welfare of animals in trade is very important. Public concern about smuggling has been a major motivation for many policy initiatives and reviews such as 1992 report by Ley.6 It is also the focus of much of the work in enforcing the Wildlife Protection Act, involving the: • Australian Customs Service • Australian Nature Conservation Agency • Australian Federal Police • Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence

6 Ley, JF. (1992). Australia’s protection and conservation of wildlife. Report on the review of the Wildlife Protection (Regulations of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 and Regulations. AGPS, Canberra

37 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

• Australian Quarantine Inspection Service • Australia Post • State and Territory Wildlife Services and police

TRAFFIC is a non government agency which also collaborates in these efforts. Its regular bulletins are available from the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Unit, Cambridge.

Most bird smuggling is undertaken by small highly organised groups of people with international connections and mostly eggs rather than young birds are taken.7

One step in reducing the cruelty of smuggling is to remove the incentive and bring trade under the control of existing codes of practice. Another step is to increase policing effort.

However increasing resources to conserve wild populations of birds and reptiles. Smuggling is cruel, but stopping it is unlikely to affect numbers in the bush of either the pest species, such as galahs and corellas or the less common ones. Focusing on smuggling while overlooking habitat change is a continuation of the over-

simplification of ‘give legal protection to the animal and all will be well’.

National parks or nature conservation reserves

The reserve network underpins survival of native plants and animals and provides places where the plants and animals can survive in their natural habitats, protected from many human interferences such as clearing, shooting, trapping or grazing.

About 5 per cent of Australia, has been set aside as national parks and other nature conservation areas, that range in size from one hectare to 2.5 million hectares, reserves are not confined to land.

Even though Australia has many nature conservation reserves, these are still inadequate to protect all native plants and animals. They are very biased towards less products to landscape and poorer quality soils. Of the 178 endangered species of plants in Australia only 52 species occur in nature conservation reserves.

7 Halstead, B. (1992). Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice No. 41: Traffic in flora and fauna. Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra.

38 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

Species preservation programs

Governments have taken a number of steps to attempt to address the factors threatening species both through the nature conservation reserve network and off-site programs.

Endangered species legislation

The Commonwealth Endangered Species Protection Act 1992 for example, has the objective to:

(a) promote the recovery of species and ecological communities that are endangered or vulnerable; and (b) prevent other species and ecological communities from becoming endangered; and (c) reduce conflict in land management through readily understood mechanisms relating to the conservation of species and ecological communities that are endangered or vulnerable; and (d) provide for public involvement in, and promote public understanding of, the conservation of such species and ecological communities; and (e) encourage co-operative management for the conservation of such species and ecological communities.

In order to achieve these objects, this Act:

(a) provides for listing of native species, ecological communities and threatening processes ; and (b) provides for certain protective measures to be adopted, in particular: (i) preparing and implementing recovery plans and threat abatement plans ; and (ii) entering into conservation agreements; and (iii) making interim conservation orders, permanent conservation orders and impact assessment conservation orders ; and (c) imposes obligations on persons (particularly Commonwealth agencies) arising from species, ecological communities or threatening processes being listed, or protective measures being adopted; and (d) confers powers for the administration and enforcement of this Act ; and

39 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

(e) establishes the Endangered Species Advisory Committee and the Endangered Species Scientific Subcommittee

Key threatening processes

Key threatening processes under the Endangered Species Act section 23:

• predation by the European red fox (Vulpes vulpes); • dieback caused by the root-rot fungus (Phytophthora cinnamoni); • predation by feral cats; • competition and land degradation by feral rabbits; and • competition and land degradation by feral goats.

The minister must not add a threatening process to Schedule 3 unless they are satisfied that it is eligible to be treated as a key threatening process. The minister must not delete a threatening process from Schedule 3 unless they are satisfied that it is no longer eligible to be treated as a key threatening process. For the purposes of this section, a threatening process is eligible to be treated as a key threatening process if:

(a) it adversely affects 2 or more listed native species; or 2 or more listed ecological communities; OR could cause native species or ecological communities that are not endangered to become endangered; and (b) the preparation and implementation of a nationally co-ordinated threat abatement plan is a feasible, effective and efficient way to abate the process.

Before deciding whether a threatening process is eligible to be treated as a key threatening process, the minister must take reasonable steps to consult, with Commonwealth agencies that would be affected by or interested in abatement of the process, on the feasibility, effectiveness or efficiency of preparing and implementing a nationally coordinated threat abatement plan to abate the process.

Endangered Species Advisory Committee (ESAC)

The Commonwealth Government has established an Endangered Species Advisory Committee (ESAC) which has representatives from non-government conservation organisations, the National Farmers Federation and State nature conservation agencies. It advises the Commonwealth Government on endangered species and has

40 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

prepared a Draft National Strategy for the Conservation of Endangered Species and their Habitats for public comment and is being considered in 1995 by the States for endorsement.

Endangered Species Program

The Commonwealth Government's Endangered Species Program is aimed at saving Australian animals and plants from extinction. Projects being funded in 1991–92 are directed at saving, among others, butterflies, orchids, fishes, and several species of mammals and birds. List of endangered birds are in the appendix.

Other environment protection programs and projects

• Before major construction or mining works are carried out environmental impact statements are prepared. These statements assess the impact that a development could have on the environment. The development may be stopped altogether or may proceed in a way that damage will be prevented or minimised. • The Save the Bush Program aims at saving areas of remnant native vegetation. These small areas such as those on roadsides and railway cuttings frequently form the last refuge of endangered plants and animals. • The Commonwealth Government's Decade of Landcare policy is aimed at protecting the soils of Australia. • The Greening Australia Program is aimed at planting a billion trees. Related programs include ‘Corridors of Green’. The Agroforestry Program and National Tree Program all aim at encouraging graziers to move to farm forestry. • The National Conservation Strategy for Australia (NCSA) aims to ensure that the use of living resources, on which development is based, can be sustained for future generations.

Species recovery programs

A key component of endangered species management and saving endangered species has been the formation of recovery teams. These are usually part of the State or Territory nature conservation agencies but may be supported by the Commonwealth Government.

41 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

One species that has been rescued in this way from probable immediate extinction is the Lord Howe Island woodhen. Other species that are benefiting from recovery programs are the helmeted honeyeater in Victoria, the orange-bellied parrot in south- eastern Australia and the western swamp tortoise in Western Australia.

The State and Territory nature conservation agencies are also responsible for managing most of the reserved lands, such as national parks, which are the main means of providing protection for endangered species from various threats.

Definitions of endangered species Wildlife authorities use the following terms to describe the population of a species. Extinct: Species not definitely located in the wild during the past 50 years. Endangered: Species in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if threats continue to operate. Vulnerable: Species believed likely to move into the 'endangered' category in the near future if the threats continue to operate. Rare: A species can be considered rare, but not necessarily endangered or vulnerable. Rare species may occur in large numbers in a restricted area, or in smaller numbers scattered over a wider area. They may be naturally rare and may not have been affected by human activities The Action Plan for Australian Birds (Garnett, 1992 RAOU) considers Australia-wide conservation status and includes species as ‘poorly known’ and ‘rare’. It also includes a State-by-State list of conservation status for rare or threatened birds.

Red-tailed black cockatoo

The Royal Australian Ornithologists Union (RAOU) notes the declining status of the red-tailed black cockatoo and nominated 1995 as the year of the red-tailed black cockatoo and the focus for a major project. RAOU is seeking public subscriptions to support the species (see box).

42 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

RAOU Appeal The red-tailed black cockatoo, Running out of habitat and running out of time .... The beautiful red-tailed black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus banksii , is endemic to Australia — occurring naturally nowhere else in the world. The distribution of this black cockatoo is divided into a number of separate populations from which several subspecies are recognised. red-tailed black cockatoos are still seen regularly across the tropical north of the continent, and these subspecies are not threatened on a national scale. However, they are considered rare in New South Wales and northern South Australia. In contrast, the south-eastern and south- western subspecies of this spectacular bird are facing extinction. Their precarious existence in these southern populations is mainly due to the loss and fragmentation of old-growth forest and woodlands. These areas boast many generations of trees including some aged giants, two or more centuries old, which contain large hollows — the preferred nest sites of red-tailed black cockatoos. The south-eastern subspecies, Calyptorhynchus banksii graptogyne, has suffered a substantial depletion since European settlement and is now restricted to south- eastern South Australia and south-western Victoria. It is listed as nationally endangered. The decline of this population has been attributed to the clearing of land for pine plantations and agriculture. The survivors are largely confined to brown stringybark (Eucalyptus baxteri) forest for feeding, and old river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) for breeding. All known nesting sites are on private land where river red gums are continuing to be felled for firewood. There is also little regeneration of these trees due to stock grazing. The south-western (forest) subspecies, Calyptorhynchus banksii naso, is restricted to the forests between Perth and Albany in Western Australia. Their most favoured food in this area are the nuts of the Marri (Eucalyptus calophylla ). Unfortunately, in this area Marri is also the tree most heavily harvested for woodchips. The national conservation status of this subspecies is poorly known, as the effects of forestry operations on its breeding success have not been adequately investigated. However, in at least a quarter of this subspecies' range, current forestry rotation cycles do not allow enough time for mature trees with hollows to develop. The continued availability of nest sites will depend on mature trees remaining outside the forest production areas.

The RAOU proposes that thorough studies to investigate the problems facing these two populations so that they can be properly managed. It notes that work is currently being done by landowners, with limited support from government conservation agencies, into the breeding and feeding ecology to strengthen their dwindling numbers but that more support is urgently needed. The RAOU seeks financial support for this work through public subscription.

The RAOU proposals do not refer to the high value of the species in aviculture or that

43 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

this value could act as an incentive to reverse the habitat destruction.

Wildlife and plant breeding programs

Organisations, such as botanic gardens grow and study Australian native plants. Many zoos carry out breeding programs for some of the world's most endangered animals. Depending on the success of these programs, and provided that suitable safe habitat is available, animals bred in captivity could be released back into the wild.

Australia’s genetic resources

The genetic resources of Australian wildlife represent both a cultural heritage and a national asset. They are so important that gene banks are being established, embryos frozen and semen preserved as a fail safe in case other conservation efforts are unsuccessful.

Artificial genetic technology

Sperm banks, artificial insemination, frozen embryos, embryo transfers have been used for many years by livestock industries and the human in vitro fertilisation (IVF) programs. The application of these same techniques and artificial breeding technology to preservation of the worlds endangered animals is cryopreservation. Cryopreservation means that animal reproductive material can in theory be preserved indefinitely — for hundreds even thousands of years. Arguments in favour of the process are that storing animals in a fridge is a very much lower cost than compared to maintaining captive animals.

The Gene Storage Resource Centre of the Monash University, Taronga Zoo and the Western Plains Zoo has established facilities for sperm eggs and embryos to be preserved cryogenically. The aim is to provide a permanent insurance against the loss

of species due to disease, natural disaster or social upheaval.

The procedures have to be developed however to breed from frozen material and IVF techniques for wild animals are expected to take considerable time and resources to perfect. It is probable that different species will have quite different requirements for storage and test tube breeding. The focus of the program is mammals, including

large exotic species such as tigers and rhinoceros.

It also covers smaller Australian mammals such as bilbies. They are easy to breed in captivity and could be more cheaply and safely conserved alive but which the law

prevents private individuals owning them.

44 Sustainable Economic Use of Native Birds & Reptiles

The cryopreservation program intends to store genetic material for some birds such as the mallee fowl. Few are held in captivity. If commercial breeding is allowed to expand for these species, their numbers would increase and the artificially preserved material would be supplemented by the living. It has already happened and private ownership of birds such as the hooded parrot has increased to such an extent that the price has fallen and their extinction is highly unlikely.

Breeding of colour mutants and phases by private owners and releasing or escape of specimens outside their ranges of origin has the capacity to interfer with the genetics of wild populations.

Research

Despite the uniqueness of Australian plants and animals, very little is known about most species. It was not until the 1950s that extensive research began into Australian native flora and fauna. Before this, many species had already become extinct. Management of species needs to be supplemented by research to gather information on population size, breeding, diet, predators and habitat.

45 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

KEY FACTORS AFFECTING CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE

The very complex and expensive legislation and programs outlined above are not adequately addressing the key factors affecting the conservation of wildlife. The following review emphasises the breadth and extent of factors which wildlife has to contend with.

Impact of modern development on wildlife

In Australia, conditions for native plants and animals changed drastically after European settlement in 1788. In less than two hundred years of settlement:

• about 100 species of plants and at least 30 species of birds and mammals are presumed to have become extinct; and • a further 178 species of plants, and about 57 species of birds, mammals. reptiles, frogs and fishes have been classified as endangered.8

This observation means that the rate of extinction in Australia over the last two hundred years is much higher than previously and is a sign that our present management of the environment is having an adverse impact on habitats.

Many scientists believe that despite the current protection and restrictions on use applying to wildlife, there is a continuing reduction in the range and numbers of many Australian plants and animals and that many more could become endangered in the future. Frith9 (p. 301-3) urged the following priorities to optimise the conservation of threatened wildlife:

• the acquisition of reserves and the institution in them of management practices that are appropriate to the animal concerned; • systematic and detailed surveys of the wildlife not only in remote areas but also in closely settled ones in order to locate surviving colonies of the animals; and • life history studies in the colonies discovered so that what they really need for survival will be known.

8 Australian Nature Conservation Agency (1995) Australia’s Endangered Species, brochure.

9 Frith, HJ., (1973)Wildlife conservation”. Angus and Robertson: Sydney. .

46 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

The mere acquisition of a reserve for a species will often not be enough to ensure its survival. The reasons for the animal’s scarcity must be determined and corrected.

Four key factors have contributed to abnormal rates of extinction and species decline; habitat change, the effects of introduced competitors and predators, direct human actions leading to deaths and impacts of chemicals and pollutants.10

Habitat change

Habitat change is the major reason for the reduction in numbers of species and for abundance falling. The importance of habitat is described in the box below. Humans have always had the capacity to alter parts of habitats. Use of fire by Aboriginal people had a major impact. Most Australian vegetation that survived to 1788 is well adapted to fire. Individual species use different strategies to take advantage of fire. Some species drop seed only after fires. Others have a rootstock protected by soil which sprouts after fires have passed.

Australian animals, in turn, are adapted to these plants. This balance between plants and animals has been forged over millennia by fires lit by Aboriginal people and by lightning. The early settlers used fire to clear the forests and provide fresh green grass for their stock. In doing so they began a burning pattern that differed from the Aborigines, who used fire for many purposes but only during certain times of the year.

Today the rate and extent of habitat destruction have increased dramatically. With the invention of powerful machinery and the large-scale burning of fossil fuels, combined with the large-scale production, use, and discarding of chemicals, humans have a greatly increased capacity to alter the rate and extent of habitat change. At the same time there are more people than ever before.

Habitat destruction can involve changed fire frequency, the removal of vegetation, rocks, logs or draining of waterbodies to make way for urban development, roads, tourist developments, forestry, agriculture and mining. When this occurs, very few of the original plants and animals can adapt and survive in the new environment. The adverse effects of clearing and agriculture and the limited availability of nesting of

10 Wilson, GR., 1983. Endangered animals — an overview. Aust. Ranger Bulletin. 2(3): 76-8.

47 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

nest hollows for birds has been described by in the south-west of Western Australia.11

Habitats are also destroyed or damaged when used as sinks for our rubbish, sewage, exhaust gases, unwanted chemicals, used tyres, throwaway packaging materials and plastics, and when insecticides, herbicides, arboricides and fungicides are dispersed widely. Wood, coal and oil are burned as if the atmosphere has a limitless capacity to absorb carbon dioxide.

Characteristics of habitat A habitat is the place where animals and plants live. It also contains other plants and animals which are essential for the survival of a species. It is characterised by space, access to water, nutrients, shelter and the right conditions for reproduction. The suitability of a habitat is maintained by processes between the different plants and animals. Other natural influences that affect the state of the habitat include the amount and timing of rain and sunshine and the nutrient status of the soil. Habitats change with seasons, shifts in climate, with the raising and eroding of mountains, with continental drift and with other factors. Throughout time species have become extinct when they have not adapted to changes in their habitats. These extinctions and the evolution of new species lead to the animals and plants of today. Many species of animals and plants have no longer been able to cope with habitat change and have become extinct. Many more are in danger of extinction.

Fire

Compared with Aboriginal burning patterns, the early settlers' fires were usually hotter, burnt larger areas, were more frequent and occurred during different seasons. This change in fire pattern often altered the vegetation, which in turn affected the animals that depended on the vegetation for food and shelter.

Clearing and landcover disturbance

Using satellite image data, Graetz and colleagues12 have observed that 52% of the

11 Saunders, DA., Rowley, I. and Smith, GT. (1985). The effects of clearing for agriculture on the distribution of cockatoos in the south-west of Western Australia’ pp. 309-21. In: Birds of Eucalypt Forests and Woodlands: Ecology, Conservation, Management Ed by: Keast, Recher, Ford and Saunders. Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd, Chipping Norton, New South Wales.

12 Graetz, RD Wilson M A and Campbell (1995) Land cover disturbance over the Australian continent - a contemporary assessment CSIRO and Biodiversity Unit , Dept of Environment Sport and Territories, Canberra

48 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

forests and woodlands have been cleared or thinned over the last 200 years. This area amounts to more than one million square kilometres, or 20% of Australia, While the removal of vegetation had a drastic effect on the immediate environment, the impact was often more widespread, especially on animals dependent on the trees and shrubs, and on the rivers and creeks. The original vegetation held the soil together and acted like a huge sponge by absorbing water. Once the vegetation was removed, most of the water that fell as rain ran across the ground instead of being absorbed. The water carried away small particles of soil resulting in soil erosion. Rivers and creeks became muddy and filled up with the soil carried off from the surrounding land.

Agriculture

The most intense change has been clearing of vegetation for agriculture, particularly in the southeast and southwestern corners of Australia. The early European farmers cleared the forest by cutting down the trees. The area was then burnt and sown with pasture grasses or grain crops. The land was subjected to further degradation through overgrazing by cattle and sheep, especially during drought.

Some habitats have been damaged by pesticides. Poisons used to kill pests often kill other plants and animals.

Mining

Habitat destruction has also occurred as a result of mining. Although most mining activities cover only a relatively small area of land, their impact can be far reaching. For example, tailings from a mine often contain toxic chemicals. If these chemicals enter a waterway, the water becomes polluted.

Miners are now required to revegetate mined areas and to prevent toxic wastes from entering streams. The debate now is often about how effective these tailings dams are and whether they kill birds and other native animals which try to drink from them.

Forestry

Forestry practices are destructive of wildlife habitat, particularly in the past. Today they are less severe and there are limits to the amount, area and type of forests which can be cut down. Areas near streams, old habitat trees and areas with rare animals are usually protected by forestry codes.

49 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Introduced competitors — feral animals and weeds

Introduced plants and animals have destroyed habitat by competition. They were introduced with the good intentions but many turned instead to disaster. Most would not have been allowed to enter Australia had people known of the impending massive destruction and the costs of control. They cost Australia hundreds of millions of dollars in lost production and in control costs. Their presence threatens Australian native plants and animals.

Weeds invade and dominate.13 Prickly pear was originally planted in the 1840s to form 'living fences' in the Scone district northwest of Sydney. By 1925 it had spread into Queensland and covered about 25 million hectares. It was eventually controlled by the introduction of the prickly pear moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) in 1926. Blackberry causes a lot of problems, especially in the wetter forests of southeast Australia. It competes with native plants. Bitou bush is invading coastal vegetation along the eastern and southern seaboards. Mimosa pigra which was introduced as a botanical curiosity, is invading and covering tens of thousands of hectares of tropical wetlands.

Arid area weeds which are causing serious concern are athel pines and parkinsonia. Both of these thrive along inland watercourses, competing successfully against native vegetation and depriving native animals of their habitats. Scotch broom is invading bushland in New South Wales. Athel pines, the bitou bush and scotch broom, along with dozens of other invasive introduced weeds, were introduced as garden plants.

Exotic mynahs, sparrows, starlings and other introduced birds have displaced many native birds from their habitats, particularly in towns and cities. Starlings and mynahs eject nesting couples from hollows, an effect which does not kill the adults but has the potential for profound effects over the years.

Rabbits and goats remove vegetation that is shelter and food for native animals and prevent regeneration. Rabbits have caused more damage than any other animal introduced to Australia. Their impact is reveiwed by Williams et al 1995.14 They were released in 1859 at Geelong in Victoria and by the 1900s had swarmed in their

13 Humphries, S., Groves, R. and Mitchell, D (1991) Plant Invasions - the incidence of environmental weeds in Australia Kowari 2, Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra.

14 Williams, K. Parer, I. Coman, B., Burley, J., and Braysher, M. (1995) Managing Vertebrate Pests - Rabbits, Bureau of Resource Sciences and Australian Nature Conservation Agency, AGPS, Canberra.

50 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

millions across most of Australia, south of the Tropic of Capricorn. They eat crops and destroy native vegetation, which in turn affects many native animals. The decrease in population of animals such as the bilby (Macrotis lagotis) is attributed partly to competition with rabbits, which eat their food and invade their burrows.

Predators

Foxes

Foxes are found throughout most of Australia except in Tasmania and northern Australia.15 They eat a wide variety of foods including berries, rabbits and native animals. Foxes have contributed to the decrease in population of many small mammals, such as the brushtailed bettong (Bettongia penicillata). Areas where foxes were not introduced, such as Tasmania, still have mammals like the eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii), which has become endangered on the mainland of Australia. Their management has been reviewed by Saunders et al 1995.16

Cats

Cats cause problems for many native animals. They are very efficient hunters which can climb trees as well as search the ground to obtain food. Cats eat small mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs and even insects.

Exotic micro organisms

Imported birds and reptiles appear to have introduced exotic micro organisms and to have caused diseases in some native animals, causing extinction. Even introductions that have come in legally through quarantine stations have carried exotic organisms. Illegal importations pose a greater threat through the introduction of exotic diseases.

The total effect of the introductions on Australia has been extensive. They pose a profound threat to birds and reptiles, far greater than commercial exploitation.

Mechanisms for dealing with introductions

Many of the introductions are also creating enormous economic losses for farming as

15 Wilson, GR, Dexter, N O’Brien, P and Bomford, M (1992) Pest Animals in Australia - a survey of introduced wild animals , Bureau of Resource Sciences, and Kangaroo Press, Sydney

16 Saunders, G, Coman B, Kinnear, J and Braysher M. (1995) Managing Vertebrate Pests - Foxes Bureau of Resource Sciences and AGPS, Canberra.

51 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

well as for public land managers. The failure to predict the impact of the introduction of animals and plants by the early settlers could, perhaps, be expected. To continue to take risks poses an extremely serious threat to the habitats of many native Australian species. An economic value to the wildlife would give landholders the incentive to work and invest to control them.

Direct human impact

Hunting

There are few examples of direct exploitation by hunters threatening Australian fauna and flora. Indeed worldwide there are only a few examples of animals that were owned by humans becoming threatened. Those that have occurred are in the marine environment where species congregate to breed (eg whales and seals) and access to the resource was open so that if one group of whalers or sealers did not take the animals, they knew others would.

Conversely, there are many deer, grouse and wild boar for which habitat and species have thrived with managed hunting.

In Australia there is no single example of hunting or shooting alone causing endangerment. The thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) was hunted extensively because it attacked sheep and raided chicken yards in the agricultural belt. But it also lived (and possibly lives?) in remote lands. Similar intensive hunting and trapping of Tasmanian devils and of dingoes on the mainland has not caused their decline. In such a wild environment, the hunters could not have been as efficient as they are often given credit for. Other factors such as disease are more likely to have been critical in the decline of their thylacine.

Similarly, in earlier years thousands of koalas were killed for the fur trade and this observation is incorrectly linked to the current status of koala. In fact most koalas were killed in areas in Queensland where koalas are to day most common. Again other factors have caused the current patchy and in my view perilous distribution of koalas.

The golden shouldered parrot is often presented as a case in which illegal trapping and human exploitation has lead to a decline. In fact it was the destruction of nest sites to take nestlings that should not be condoned. Interestingly the species is now safe because it is wide spread in aviculture. Incentives are needed to encourage the owners of the nest sites in natural habitat to preserve them and propagate the species

52 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

in the wild.

Road kills

Road kills account for many thousands of birds and reptiles per year. A 1985 estimate was 4 million frogs and 1 million reptiles on sealed roads per year (no estimate was made for unsealed roads). The same paper estimated natural mortality, or annual turnover of 3 billion animals.17 The need for complex licensing schemes and controls on the taking of individual wildlife should be seen in the context of natural mortality and other sources of losses at the ecosystem level (see box).

Ecosystems and productivity In natural situations each species produces more individuals than survive to reproductive status. Species do not exist in vacuums, but live in interdependent biological communities or ecosystems where the abundance or productivity of each species is generally limited to what is termed the environmental carrying capacity. The overall productivity of such systems depends on the chemophysical environment and on the relationships among species in the system, and in particular reflects the balances within and between species in their birth, life, and death parameters. In turn, these systems and their dynamics are linked as the biosphere, where we can consider at the global level energy inputs and energy and chemical transfers that drive all systems.

Conservation off reserves

Increasing the numbers and distribution of species requires active intervention and management not just reliance on reserves or protection legislation.18 The best way of attaining it is for the owner of habitat to also value and own the wildlife. This means allowing the owner access to a regulated market.

Sustainable harvesting of wildlife

Scientists and wildlife managers recognise that it is technically possible to commercially utilise Australian birds and reptiles without adverse impact on wild populations. The annual harvest plus natural mortality must be less than or equal to the natural increase. Recruitment is sustained by provision of food, shelter and

17 Ehmann H and Cogger H (1985) Australia’s Endangered Herpetofauna: A Review of Criteria and Policies pages 435-47 in Biology of Australasian Frogs and Reptiles, Ed by Gordon Grigg, Richard Shine and Harry Ehmann, Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales,

18 Ride, W.D.L. and Wilson, GR., 1982. Towards informed management. Pp181-9 in “Species at risk: research in Australia” ed by RH. Groves and WDL. Ride. Australian Academy of Science: Canberra.

53 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

predator control. Farmers use the same principle when determining the number of livestock to sell each year to maintain their herds and flocks at rates that sustain productivity. Habitat protection is the key to substantial harvesting of wildlife.

Tree conservation and habitat protection can also benefit the landholder

Soil degradation and salinity in waterways are major environmental problems in Australia for both nature conservation and primary production. They occur on such a scale that government programs can not sponsor the needed ameliorative work. Private landholders have to help themselves and one another and have clear

incentives for doing so.

Tree conservation and the retention of native bush are key actions in establishing conditions for a sustainable harvest. They also help reverse soil degradation and salinity. In the short term, however, clearing trees is often to the advantage of the

farmer because it encourages the growth of pasture and allows the growing of crops.

The loss of conventional agricultural production from clearing foregone could offset the landholder by harvesting wild birds from nest hollows in the trees and rearing them intensively. The landholders would thus have an incentive to enhance their wildlife resource to look after the habitat and propagate it. They also have an

incentive to control predators, and manage pasture and crops to ensure a feed supply.

Commercial incentives such as these are needed to deal with the scale of Australia’s land degradation problems. Although the data are imperfect it is probable that two- thirds of Australia’s agricultural land and 50 per cent of the pastoral areas are effected by some degree of land degradation as a consequence of human actions. Some land requires urgent remedial attention and more extensive areas need significant modifications to land management practices in order to prevent the current extended severity of degradation from intensifying. These observations were first made after examination of data collected in 1975.19

Agriculture has a profound impact on natural ecosystems particularly in the more fertile or accessible areas. Changes occur through clearing, introduction of new species of pastures, crops and animals, fertilisers and chemicals and threats from introduced pests. The new ecosystems benefit some species of animals and destroy others. Losses include removal of species and reduced of genetic diversity.

19 Woods, L.E. (1983) Land degradation in Australia AGPS, Canberra.

54 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

When the first European settlers arrived in Australia, forests covered nearly 10 per cent of the country and woodland covered about 23 per cent20 ie were forested and were also more attractive to agriculture. Consequently there has been a greater loss of forests and woodlands since that time. About 50 percent of tall and medium height forests and about 30 per cent of woodlands have been cleared or severely modified.

Although tree planting has accelerated in recent years particularly in response to Greening Australia and a Billion Trees Program, major net losses of native forests and woodlands is still occurring.21 Proposals for bans on clearing need to be supplemented with incentive for people to both keep existing forests and woodlands and to plant more. This is essential if high quality trees and shrubs are to be encouraged back on the better soils and more productive land. They grow higher quality vegetation.

Loss of genetic resources is perhaps the most significant impact of clearing of native vegetation. Loss of native plants is of concern because they may be more resilient, productive and nutritious than the bred varieties that replace them.

Maintaining diversity in flora and fauna is important for minimising the impact of ecological disturbance. There are many examples throughout Australia where changes such as rural tree decline can be attributed to loss of predatory birds and increases in defoliating insects. Unprotected stands of remnant vegetation are often inadequate to support threatened species or maintain populations that can control unwanted pests.

The proposals outlined in this paper demonstrate ways in which landholders can reap supplementary rewards from sustainable management of native vegetation, ie birds and reptiles. The proposals could be linked to agroforestry, farm tree programs and Landcare.

Government programs to conserve habitat — covenant schemes

In order to encourage landholders to preserve habitat, retain natural bush and maintain biodiversity, a number of Commonwealth and State programs are in place to

20 Department of Arts Heritage and the Environment (1986) State of the environment in Australia . AGPS. Canberra

21 Conacher, A. and Conacher, J. (!995) Rural Land Degradation in Australia. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.

55 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

protect landscapes on private property and to dispense government support. They include covenant schemes, which currently exist in all six States.

Covenant schemes are voluntary agreements between private landowners or public land administrators and State Governments. They aim to conserve native vegetation and wildlife on private and public unreserved land. These agreements can be placed on all or part of a property and all property remains in the freehold title of the existing landowner. Management requirements of the covenanted area are determined only by the terms of each agreement and there is no right of public access

conferred by the covenant.

Other elements of the schemes vary between States. Many agreements provide permanent protection by being included in the land title, thus binding present and future owners, while some schemes offer an alternative fixed period of protection, as determined by the agreement. Agreements entered into by several landowners are also possible in some schemes to conserve habitat that extends beyond property borders.

Covenant schemes in Australia

Victoria — Conservation Covenant Scheme administered by the Victorian Conservation Trust; commenced in 1986 Queensland — Nature Refuges administered by Qld Department of Environment and Heritage South Australia — Heritage Agreement Scheme administered by Department of Environment and Natural Resources Tasmania — Conservation Covenants administered by Department of Environment and Land Management New South Wales — Conservation Agreements administered by National Parks and Wildlife Service Western Australia — Remnant Vegetation Conservation Scheme administered by Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the Department of Conservation and Land Management

The programs are expensive to operate. In South Australia, the Heritage Agreement

56 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Scheme for the conservation of bushland has spent about $70 million (almost $70 for every person in SA) from public funds in financial assistance to landholders.

In 15 years 850 heritage agreements, protecting 550 000 ha, have been signed. The heritage agreement areas average about 400 ha, but vary in size from 5 or 10 ha to 5000 ha or more. Although expensive it is assumed that it is cheaper to retain remnant

bush than to rehabilitate degraded land in later years.

The steps in the process are, landholders apply to the Native Vegetation Council and scientists from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources assess the site and prepare a report containing recommendations is given to the Council. If the proposal precedes a heritage agreement which is a legal contract between the landholder and the government, in perpetuity is prepared. The land remains the freehold property of the person who holds title to it and can be bought and sold. Despite the fears of some landholders that a property with a heritage agreement might lose value and be more difficult to sell, farms with bushland are now

commanding a premium over properties which have been fully cleared.

Similar processes operate in other States. The Native Vegetation Section of the Victorian Department of Environment and Natural Resources provides assistance and advice with weed and pest control, revegetation and natural regeneration. In some situations, financial assistance for management may also be available. In NSW, Conservation Agreements can protect lands containing significant plants and animals; rare or endangered species or communities; important habitat or vegetation types not represented in reserves; Aboriginal or historic places; remnant vegetation; corridors linking native vegetation; or geological areas. After an agreement is signed, a Plan of

Management may be drawn up by the NPWS in consultation with the landholder.

Using incentives to conserve habitat outside reserves

Adoption of the incentive-based wildlife conservation proposals in this paper could complement the habitat conservation programs such as covenant schemes and increase their effectiveness at minimal cost to the taxpaying community. The land degradation problems are so huge that government programs with their expensive administrative infrastructure, can not possibly operate on the scale that is necessary. 22 Freedom and self help are fundamental.

22 A major study by the CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology and the Australian Centre for

57 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Pest management

The problem created by pest birds is conceptually simple to define but immensely difficult to solve.

Victorian inquiry into management options for pest birds

In Victoria an inquiry is being conducted by the Environmental and Natural Resources Committee of the Victorian Parliament into the problems caused by long- billed corellas, sulphur-crested galahs.23 The inquiry is considering if the problems

attributed to bird pests be practically, economically and responsibly solved.

The major issue which triggered the inquiry is the damage which has been done by birds to landcare work undertaken in western Victoria. Corellas in particular are causing problems to new tree plantations. This inquiry has reviewed the problems associated with pest birds, which include the following forms of damage.

Crop damage:

• wheat, oats and barley • oilseed crops, sunflower, safflower • peas and beans • lupins • berry fruits • vegetables • nut crops

Other farm damage:

• hay destruction due to baling twine being cut • trees and plantations being stripped of leaves and branches • seedling trees being destroyed

Environmental Law (ANU) for the Department of Environment Sport and Territories is examining Incentive Instruments and Mechanisms designed to Promote the Conservation of Biodiversity and Encourage its Sustainable Use

23 Dr Ray Wright, Executive Officer, Environment and Natural Resources Committee of the Victorian Parliament, 80 Collins St Melbourne, ‘Problems in Victoria caused by Long-billed Correllas, Sulphur Crested Cockatoos and Galahs, November 1995.

58 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

• cereal grains spread for livestock eaten • damage to fruit trees • vegetable crops destroyed

Damage to public facilities

• overhead radio, television and electricity power cables being severed • bird strikes at airfields • destruction of bowling greens, tennis courts, cricket pitches, softball and hockey ovals, bicycle tracks, and golf greens and fairways • telephone wires, powerline telephone perching and breaks • loose nails pulled from roofs, verandahs and other structures

Controlling access to feed and water

Control measures involve managing feed sources and water points. The aim is to break flocks into smaller groups so that their damage is more diverse and they do not

congregate and concentrate their activities.

Management techniques

The key issue is deterring birds from habituating themselves to a potential food source and various procedures have been suggested including: decoy crops;

perimeter planting; creating environmental conditions that deter birds (remove roosting trees, perches, onion grass, etc).

Scare techniques include scare guns, various sonic devices, scarecrows, kites, aircraft; chemical deterrents; shooting; poisoning; habitat modification; protecting raptors. It may be easier and more cost-effective simply to subsidise those farmers who individually suffer from bird pest damage.

The above methods of population reduction have minimal impacts on total bird numbers and might make it easier for the birds to breed by temporarily reducing the level of competition for breeding hollows. Indeed, approved trapping and culling programs have been dismissed as a political rather than a scientific solution to the

pest problem.

59 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Exporting pests as means of control

The question of whether or not to allow the exporting of wild-bred birds flows from the necessity to deplete the bird population. Significant research has been done over the years on bird test problems particularly by State government departments for agriculture and nature conservation. A workshop in 1990 brought the key personnel 24 together.

Any changes to legislation which permitted export of pest birds would have to be linked at both the State level and the Commonwealth level because Commonwealth legislation controls export and State legislation controls land-use and wildlife

management.

Suggestions that to control damage flocks of pest birds could be exported take little account that the overseas market demands pet birds in good condition. Wild-caught cockatoos that are currently sold for the domestic market are young animals; older birds have no market value. Purchasers show less demand for birds of dubious age

that squawk and might bite. Concern about the welfare of wild birds following trapping and transport, the stress of confinement, disease management and quarantine issues also mitigate against this form of pest control.

The scale and timing of Australian pest problems is such that a trapping program is unlikely to bring relief. Other countries would be unwise to allow the import of wild pest birds in case the escape or were released as unsatisfactory pets.

24 National Bird Pest Workshop Proceedings, (1990) edited by P Fleming, I Temby, J Thompson, Dept Conservation, Forests and Lands Victoria and NSW Agriculture and Fisheries.

60 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

CURRENT TRADE SITUATION

Australian parrots and reptiles are sold all around the world. Many are bred by aviculturalists and herpetologists as a hobby; others to satisfy the very large pet trade. The budgerigar and cockatiel are two most popular caged birds in the world. They breed readily.

Commercial-scale breeding overseas is also growing. Tanzania and New Zealand have established captive-bred facilities for galahs to supply the demand.

Some Australian species are trapped overseas. They have a common distribution to Australia’s north. Indonesia, for example has a CITES quota to export 189 000 rainbow lorikeets; and the Solomon Islands to export 800 Eclectus roratus.

Australian comparative advantage in the bird and reptile trade

Many bird and reptile species have the potential to form the basis of profitable export ventures. The commercial advantage to Australia from sales come from the difficulties overseas breeders have in emulating Australian conditions and other costs of producing the birds in demand. For example, the UK has difficulties due to the cost and availability of suitable land, cold winters and cool to mild summers. Imported bird seed prices do not compare favourably with Australia. Australian producers have an edge over competitors in regard to price differentials of the initial breeding stock and its availability and fitness.

Exporters can concentrate on either single species and develop specialised breeding procedures, (as is being done by the breeders of galahs in Tanzania), or as is usual in Australia, by breeding a variety of orders and species. Birds may be either bred intensively, or in more spacious enclosures.

Third party competitors such as Birds International in the Philippines may provide considerable competition when they target potential markets with low animal health standards. However, the relatively high avian health standards and certification procedures in Australia may facilitate the export of birds to countries with correspondingly high standards of avian health, such as Scandinavia.

Methods used to estimate overseas markets

Price differentials between overseas and domestic prices provide pointers to profitable and unprofitable species for the Australian producers. A review of markets

61 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

overseas was conducted by both correspondence and a review of the literature. Overseas contacts, both individuals and trade groups, provided first-hand knowledge of the avicultural trade in their respective nations. Data on prices overseas indicate niches for Australian individuals, or the industry as a whole, to target.

The support of AUSTRADE was obtained early in the project and contact made with their offices in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, Singapore, United Kingdom and the United States. These countries were deemed worthy of further study based on prima facie evidence of a possibly strong demand for various birds from Australian producers, and their status as economically developed nations. Changes in priorities for policies and activities by AUSTRADE meant that more a disseminated review was used to obtain the trade data.

Individuals and groups from particular countries were asked to provide data on:

• the size of, and prices of species in, the private market; • the size of, and prices of species in, the wholesale market; • the size of, and prices of species in, the retail market;

The United Kingdom and the United States bird trades operate in a very similar way to Australia. The private, wholesale and retail trade is supplied by producers ranging from large commercial interests down to small-scale hobbyists.

The commercial trade in both the United Kingdom and the United States is represented by trade associations. In the United States a lobbyist is based in Washington. The industry bodies have furnished useful data for these two countries and supplementary data for Canada (second-hand via US sources).

Knowledge on the markets in France, Holland, Belgium and Denmark has been gleaned from breeders in France and Denmark and a commercial party in Holland.

Contact with Germany has been through the eminent scientific/trade journal, Die Gefiederte Welt.

Spain Contacts was established with a world-renowned establishment, and a bird breeder in the Canary Islands. Their knowledge and experience in the bird trade has provided corroborative and supplementary data.

Other international trade information — TRAFFIC

A lot of information on volumes and prices is held by TRAFFIC — an International

62 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and World Wild Fund for Nature (WWF) agency. Much of it however is anecdotal.

Notwithstanding uncertainty about figures, the trade is significant. The scale of the international movement of Australian species is such that it includes the movement back to Australia of big budgies, yellow princess parrots, lutino elegant parrots and pied red-rump parrots. The imports are permitted under the Wildlife Protection Act.

Birds

Current export trade

A total value for native bird exports is not known. However, some estimates are that up to $50 million worth of birds are smuggled out of Australia annually.

Opportunities

United Kingdom

Australian parrots are among the most popular cage birds in the United Kingdom. An estimated 4000 parrot breeders produce tens of thousands of Australian parakeets each year. The most commonly traded birds are the genera Neophema, Platycercus and Psephotus. Of the larger Australian parrots, the most common species, Cacatua galerita and Eclectus roratus, are mainly imported from Indonesia according to TRAFFIC (1991).25

Prices for the United Kingdom were drawn from the trade press. The industry consists of large bird specialist outlets and smaller, though greater in number, general pet stores. The large specialist outlets may also take on the role of wholesaler to the smaller stores.

The following prices relate to sale at the end of 1994, mainly from the United Kingdom publication Cage and Aviary Birds. Prices are Australian dollars per pair • Cockatiel $35 • Adelaide Rosella $370 • Roseate Cockatoo ( Galah ) $2,000 • Naretha Blue Bonnet $450

25 Antrim F and Salisbury R, (1991), International Trade in Australian Parrots, TRAFFIC and Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra

63 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

• Australian King Parrot $500 • Port Lincoln Parrot $530 • Diamond Dove $55 • Bourkes Parrot $55 • Hooded Parrot $600 • Twenty-eight Parrot $650 • Black-throated Finch $90 • Cloncurry Parrot $900 • Touquoise Parrot $100 • Red-rumped Parrot $100 • Chestnut-breasted Finch $100 • Long-tailed Finch $100 • Masked Finch $100 • Banded ( Bichenos ) Finch $100 • Splendid Parrot $110 • Yellow-rumped Finch $120 • Elegant Parrot $130

Holland

Dutch aviculturists are interested in species not available in their market. There is also a demand for birds available to the Dutch market in order to introduce new genetic material. Some aviculturists oppose the import of Australian birds because lower prices would result.

The market in Holland prefers young, aviary-bred, parent-reared birds. Wild-caught birds are acceptable but they should be young.

Holland has a long history of trading in birds and is the centre of these activities in Europe. Prices in Holland are generally somewhat lower than in Germany and England. Mr Kremer advised that there would be little demand for Australian species already well supplied in the market. These include budgerigars, cockatiels and hooded, Cloncurry and Adelaide Parakeets.

According to TRAFFIC (1991),26 over one million parrots are kept in Holland. Estimated prices of selected Australian parrots in 1991 were as follows.

26 Antrim F and Salisbury R, (1991), International Trade in Australian Parrots, TRAFFIC and Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra

64 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Pair

Cacatua galerita $3500 Cacatua leadbeateri $13 500–20 000 Cacatua roseicapilla $3400 Cacatua sanguinea $670–1350 Cacatua tenuirostris $6700–10 800 Callocephalon fimbriatum $10 800–13 500 Probosciger aterrimus $13 500 Psephotus dissimilis $680–1350 France

French buyers responded favourably to suggestions of controlled, limited exports of Australian birds. Prices were lower for galahs, corellas and sulphur-crested cockatoos than reported for the United States.

For parakeets, cockatiels, budgerigars and smaller parrots, there is a low demand due to large numbers of captivity bred birds already in Europe and adapted to conditions (French respondent, Oct 1994).

65 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Spain - Canary Islands

Average Avge retail Avge Wholesale price retail Price price

Scientific name Accepted Common Name Pesetas Pesetas Aust dollars

Barnadius z. barnardi Malle Ringneck Parrot 20 000 25 000 275 Barnadius z. macgillivray Cloncurry Parrot 20 000 25 000 275 Barnadius z. semitorquatus Twenty-eight Parrot 16 000 20 000 220 Barnadius z. zonarius Port Lincoln Parrot 16 000 20 000 220 Neophema bourkii Bourkes Parrot 2 000 4 000 44 Neophema chrysogaster Orange-bellied Parrot - - Neophema chrysotoma Blue-winged Parrot - - Neophema elegans Elegant Parrot 2 000 4 000 44 Neophema petrophila Rock Parrot - - Neophema pulchella Touquoise Parrot 3 000 5 000 55 Neophema splendida Splendid Parrot 3 000 5 000 55 Northiella h. haematogaster Yellow-vented Blue Bonnet 16 000 20 000 220 Northiella h. haematorrhous Red-vented Blue Bonnet 16 000 20 000 220 Northiella h. narethae Naretha Blue Bonnet - - Platycerus caledonicus Green Rosella 32 000 40 000 440 Platycerus elegans adelaide Adelaide Rosella 24 000 30 000 330 Platycerus elegans elegans Crimson Rosella 16 000 20 000 220 Platycerus elegans flaveolus Yellow Rosella 24 000 30 000 330 Platycerus eximus adscitus Blue-cheek Rosella 80 000 100 000 1 099 Platycerus eximus cecilae Golden-mantled Rosella 10 000 15 000 165 Platycerus eximus eximus Eastern Rosella 10 000 15 000 165 Platycerus eximus paliceps Pale-head Rosella 16 000 20 000 220 Platycerus icterotis Stanley Rosella 16 000 20 000 220 Polytelis alexandrae Princess Alexandras Parrot 24 000 30 000 330 Polytelis anthopeplus Superb Parrot 16 000 20 000 220 Polytelis swainsonii Regent Parrot 16 000 20 000 220 Psephotus chrysopterygius Golden-shouldered Parrot 80 000 100 000 1 100 Psephotus dissimilis Hooded Parrot 40 000 50 000 550 Psephotus haematonotus Red-rumped Parrot 3 000 5 000 55 Psephotus varius Mulga Parrot 16 000 20 000 220

66 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Purpureicephalus spurius Pileated Parrot 32 000 40 000 440

Alisterus scapularis Australian King Parrot 48 000 60 000 660 Apromictus erythropterus Crimson-winged Parrot 25 000 30 000 330 Cyclopsitta diopthalma Double-eyed Fig Parrot 32 000 40 000 440 Eclectus roratus macgillivray Australian Eclectus Parrot 150 000 180 000 2 000 Geoffroyus geoffroyi Red-cheeked Parrot 100 000 140 000 1 500

Lathamus discolor Swift Parrot 12 000 15 000 160

Glossopsitta concinna Musk Lorikeet 32 000 40 000 440 Glossopsitta porphyrocephala Purple-crowned Lorikeet 56 000 70 000 770 Glossopsitta pusilla Little Lorikeet 56 000 70 000 770 Psittueteles versicolor Varied Lorikeet 60 000 80 000 880 Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus Scaley-breasted Lorikeet 40 000 50 000 550 Trichoglossus haematodus Rainbow Lorikeet 24 000 30 000 330 moluccanus Trichoglossus haematodus rubritorquis Red-collared Lorikeet 40 000 60 000 650

Cacatua galerita galerita Sulphur-crested Cockatoo 160 000 200 000 2 000 Cacatua leadbeateri Pink Cockatoo ( Leadbeaters) 400 000 600 000 6 500 Cacatua roseicapilla Roseate Cockatoo ( Galah ) 120 000 160 000 1 800 Cacatua sanguina Short-billed Cockatoo 80 000 100 000 1 000 Cacatua tenuirostris Long-billed Corella 300 000 400 000 4 300 Callocephalon fimbriatum Gang Gang Cockatoo 500 000 700 000 7 600 Calyptorhynchus banksii Red-tailed Black Cockatoo 500 000 700 000 7 700 Calyptorhynchus baudinii Long-billed Black Cockatoo 600 000 800 000 9 000 Calyptorhynchus funereus Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo 800 000 1000 000 11 000 Calyptorhynchus lathami Glossy Black Cockatoo 800 000 1000 000 11 000 Calyptorhynchus latirostris White-tailed Black Cockatoo 800 000 1000 000 11 000 Leptolophus hollandicus Cockatiel 3 000 5 000 55

67 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Indonesia

In Indonesia 15 were companies registered for the export of birds in 1991. A total of 57 taxa of psittacine species and subspecies are exported from Indonesia. The total number of five species exported in 1990 was about 64 000, mostly to the United States and the European Union.

Trade with Japan, Hong Kong and Taiwan was reported to be increasing, particularly in lorikeets with red plumage.

Singapore

A breeder/trader and the president of the Singapore Aviculture Society provided information. Singapore, because of its proximity, offers some advantages over more distant markets. Its avicultural industry is encouraged by the state, and considerable transhipment of wild-caught Asiatic and African species occurs. However, a demand also exists for the common cage birds such as budgies and canaries. Although competition may exist from breeders in Hong Kong and elsewhere, there is a seasonal aspect which may be to Australia's advantage ie. ‘off-season’ cage birds.

Values of parrots on Australian domestic market

Data from the Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council (PIJAC)

Scientific Name PIJAC(AUS) PIJAC(AUS) Common Name Average Average Whsle Price Retail Price AUD AUD Barnadius z. barnardi Malle Ringneck Parrot $ 45 $ 90 Barnadius z. macgillivray Cloncurry Parrot $ 300 $ 420 Barnadius z. semitorquatus Twenty-eight Parrot - - Barnadius z. zonarius Port Lincoln Parrot - - Neophema bourkii Bourkes Parrot $ 20 $ 49 Neophema chrysogaster Orange-bellied Parrot - - Neophema chrysotoma Blue-winged Parrot $ 30 $ 65 Neophema elegans Elegant Parrot $ 25 $ 49 Neophema petrophila Rock Parrot - - Neophema pulchella Touquoise Parrot $ 25 $ 49 Neophema splendida Splendid Parrot $ 30 $ 60 Northiella h. haematogaster Yellow-vented Blue Bonnet $ 25 $ 49

68 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Northiella h. haematorrhous Red-vented Blue Bonnet $ 60 $ 120 Northiella h. narethae Naretha Blue Bonnet $ 450 $ 700 Platycerus caledonicus Green Rosella $ 200 $ 350 Platycerus elegans adelaide Adelaide Rosella $ 60 $ 120 Platycerus elegans elegans Crimson Rosella $ 55 $ 110 Platycerus elegans flaveolus Yellow Rosella $ 80 $ 160 Platycerus eximus adscitus Blue-cheek Rosella $ 60 $ 120 Platycerus eximus cecilae Golden-mantled Rosella $ 50 $ 110 Platycerus eximus eximus Eastern Rosella $ 45 $ 95 Platycerus eximus paliceps Pale-head Rosella $ 45 $ 95 Platycerus icterotis Stanley Rosella $ 70 $ 140 Polytelis alexandrae Princess Alexandras Parrot $ 60 $ 120 Polytelis anthopeplus Superb Parrot $ 70 $ 140 Polytelis swainsonii Regent Parrot $ 80 $ 160 Psephotus chrysopterygius Golden-shouldered Parrot $ 200 $ 350 Psephotus dissimilis Hooded Parrot $ 90 $ 180 Psephotus haematonotus Red-rumped Parrot $ 15 $ 30 Psephotus varius Mulga Parrot $ 15 $ 30 Purpureicephalus spurius Pileated Parrot $ 40 $ 80

Alisterus scapularis Australian King Parrot $ 120 $ 220 Apromictus erythropterus Crimson-winged Parrot $ 120 $ 220 Cyclopsitta diopthalma Double-eyed Fig Parrot $ 160 $ 320 Eclectus roratus macgillivray Australian Eclectus Parrot $4 000 $4 500 Geoffroyus geoffroyi Red-cheeked Parrot - -

Lathamus discolor Swift Parrot $2 000 $2 500

Glossopsitta concinna Musk Lorikeet $ 60 $ 120 Glossopsitta porphyrocephala Purple-crowned Lorikeet $ 140 $ 240 Glossopsitta pusilla Little Lorikeet $ 130 $ 220 Psittueteles versicolor Varied Lorikeet $ 350 $ 450 Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus Scaley-breasted Lorikeet $ 45 $ 95 Trichoglossus haematodus Rainbow Lorikeet $ 45 $ 95 moluccanus Trichoglossus haematodus Red-collared Lorikeet $ 100 $ 220 rubritorquis

69 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Cacatua galerita galerita Sulphur-crested Cockatoo $ 60 $ 120 Cacatua leadbeateri Pink Cockatoo ( Leadbeaters) $ 550 $ 890 Cacatua roseicapilla Roseate Cockatoo ( Galah ) $ 8 $ 30 Cacatua sanguina Short-billed Cockatoo $ 20 $ 40 Cacatua tenuirostris Long-billed Corella $ 15 $ 30 Callocephalon fimbriatum Gang Gang Cockatoo $1 000 $1 400 Calyptorhynchus banksii Red-tailed Black Cockatoo - - Calyptorhynchus baudinii Long-billed Black Cockatoo - - Calyptorhynchus funereus Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo - - Calyptorhynchus lathami Glossy Black Cockatoo $15 000 $20 000 Calyptorhynchus latirostris White-tailed Black Cockatoo $3 000 $4 000 Leptolophus hollandicus Cockatiel $ 20 $ 40

Figures from South Australia.

Australian parrots Per pair Australian parrots Per pair

Budgerigar – Wild-type $20 Neophema parrot Cockatiel – Blue-winged $40 – Normal $20 – Bourke's parrot – Fallow $300 – Normal $15 – Letino (white) $35 – Cream $300 – Cinnamon $120 – Pink $600 – Pearl $30 – Rosa $120 – Pied $35 Elegant parrot – Pearl pied $40 – Normal $30 – Platinum $120 – Cinnamon $50 – Silver $160 – Rock $100 – White-faced $1800 – Scarlet-chested parrot Cockatoo – Aviary bred birds – Normal $30 Corella – Red-bellied $40 – Little $85 – Par blue $60 – Long-billed $60 – Dilute blue $30 Galah $45 – White-fronted $200 Gang-gang $1100 Turquoise Major Mitchell's $700 – Normal $30 – Red-tailed black $3500 – Yellow $50 – White-tailed black $3500 – Red-fronted $40 – Yellow-tailed black $3500 – Red-front yellow $70 – Sulphur-crested $60 Psephorus Crimson-winged parrot – Blue bonnet

70 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

– Adult $250 – Naretha $1500 – Young per bird $70 – Red-vented $100 Eclectus $2500 – Yellow-vented $80 King – Golden-shouldered $600 – Adult $250 Hooded – Young per bird $70 – Adult $90 Lorikeet – Young per bird $30 – Little $130 – Mulga $50 – Musk $60 – Red-rumped – Purple-crowned $140 – Normal $12 – Rainbow $60 – Blue $1400 – Red-collared $100 – Cinnamon $40 – Scaly-breasted $70 – Lutino $55 – Varied $250 – Pied $2000 Polytelis Red-capped rosella $75 – Princess — Normal – Adelaide $100 – Normal $60 – Blue-cheeked $160 – Young per bird $20 – Crimson – Blue Adult $300 – Normal $100 – Regens – Northern $400 – Adult $60 – Eastern – Young per bird $20 – Normal $60 – Superb – Golden-mantled $80 – Adult $110 – Green $500 – Young per bird $35 – Northern $400 Australian ringneck – Pale-headed $80 – Cloncurry $350 – Western – Mallee $100 – Normal $80 – Port Lincoln $160 – Red-backed $650 – Twenty-eight $100 – Yellow $80

71 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Differences between the value of birds in Australia and overseas

Figure 3 shows Red-tailed black $8900 cockatoo $1750 substantial

$8800 Gang gang cockatoo prices $500 differences for Major Mitchell $3900 cockatoo $350 the species that

$467 are not common Cloncurry parrot $175 overseas, Suphur crested $1200 cockatoo $60 particularly the

$300 larger species. Hooded parrot $50 The axis is log

$190 Adelaide parrot $50 scale for ease of comparisons. $340 Princess parrot $30 Species that are

$1800 Galah easy to breed $30 are cheap both $72 Eastern rosella $30 in Australia and

$55 overseas. Masked finch $25

$45 Black-throated finch $20 The most International market expensive ones $50 Australian market Turquoise parrot $15 are those which

$66 Elegant parrot are difficult to $15 breed or which $28 Bourkes parrot $15 have particular

Red-rumped parrot $50 diets. The palm $12 cockatoo for $18 Cockatiel $10 example has

$1 $10 $100 $1000 $10 000 been valued at Values of individual birds $38 000 in Europe. The Figure 3: Comparative values of a birds in Australia and price overseas differences are due to bottled up demand, an incentive for smuggling. Media reports estimate the value of smuggled birds in 1992 at about $50 million.

72 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Impact upon the Australian industry of access to overseas markets

The export of captive-bred birds would generate export revenue and local employment. It would benefit aviculturists, farmers and entrepreneurs who may wish to enter the trade.

Allowing Australian psittacines onto the international pet market would lower world

prices and discourage captive breeding overseas.

Some Australian buyers are opposed to a change. They are concerned that Australian prices would rise to the international. Major Mitchells for example would rise in value to $1200

Nevertheless the Australian market has been suffering from over-production and prices have been falling. For example, hooded parrots were thousands of dollars 20 years ago, now $80 per pair. Captive-bred birds overseas are closer to their destination, have less time in quarantine and in the wholesale/retail channels, and so

receive positive human contact sooner after they fledge.

Reptiles

Europe

There is hardly any pure commercial activity on reptiles in Europe. The following is based on views of Dutch Society for Herpetology — Lacerta — (about 2000 members), so there is nothing known about wholesale prices. All Lacerta members are hoping the rules will be changed, but they differ in their ideas about the effects.

Values of a sample of reptiles in Australia and overseas. All prices mentioned are in Australian dollars.

Green tree python Morelia (Chondropython) $480 to $800 viridis Recently imported ones from Irian Jaya were offered for $175 each. The price of endemic Australian pythons could be (much) higher; these are not present in Europa at the moment.

73 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Carpet python Morelia spilotes variegata $160–$200 adults are double this price. Rumours that a breeding group of six Morelia spilotes spilotes was sold for $48 000

Australian spiny-tail monitor Varanus acanthinurus between $360 for babies and $800 for adults each

Argus monitor Varanus gouldi $2800 for a breeding couple

Blue-tongue skink Tiliqua scincoides $480 and $720 each

Cunningham skink hardly known here and hardly any interest

Australian snakeneck turtle Chelodina longicollis hardly any interest

Bearded dragon Pogona vitticeps $60 and $160, depending on the length

Chlamydosaurus kingii $240–$320 a baby

Aspidites melanocephalus $2,400

The Blijdorp Zoo in Rotterdam has stopped breeding long necked tortoises, because it was not possible to sell the young.

The genetic base for Pogona vitticeps is rather (very) small in Holland/Europe, so there will be interest in unrelated wild-caught or Australian-bred reptiles.

74 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

United States

The following trade values were obtained for Australian reptiles at a large herpetological retailer in Florida, USA (expressed here in Australian dollars). Size and other attributes are important to the value of a specimen. Snakes are also valued for producing venom. 27

Reptile values

Spotted python Antaresia maculosa $320

Australian snakeneck turtle Chelodina longicollis $180

Cunningham's skink Egernia cunninghami $210

Brown water python Liaisis fuscus $670

Burton's legless lizard Lialis burtonis $130

Spotted python Liasis maculosa $280

Yellow scrub python Morelia amethistinus $270

Jungle carpet python Morelia spilota cheynei $560

Carpet python (New Guinea) Morelia spilota spp $560

Carpet python Morelia spilota variegata $180

Jungle carpet pythons Morelia variegata $490

Coastal carpet pythons Morelia variegata mcdowelli $170

Green tree python Morelia viridis $1760

Northern velvet gecko Oedura castelinaui $180

Ocellated velvet gecko Oedura monolis $210

Bearded dragon Pogona vitticepa — (hatchlings) $120

Collett's black snake Pseudechis colletti $700

Reticulated python Python reticulatus $180

Pink-tongue skink Tiliqua gerrardi $180

Australian blue-tongue skink Tiliqua s. scincoides $350

New Guinea blue-tongue skink Tiliqua scincoides $210

27 Mirtschin, P (1994) The conservation and human benefits of keeping snakes in captivity Herpetofauna 24 33

75 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Northern blue-tongue skink Tiliqua scincoides intermedia $270

Eastern blue-tongue skink Tiliqua scinoides scinoides $250

Frilled leaftail gecko Uroplatus henkeli $180

Australian spiny-tail monitor Varanus acanthurus $1400

Pigmy monitor Varanus gilleni $2110

Argus monitor Varanus gouldi hornii $490

Merten's monitor Varanus mertensi $1060

White's treefrogs Litoria caerplea $40

Following for interest:

Marine toad Bufo marinus, (2–4 inches) $5

New Caledonian lichen gecko Rhacodactylus auriculatus $320

New Caldeonian striped gecko Rhacodactylus serasinorom $420

Galapagos tortoise Chelonoidis elephantopus, (5 year old hand- $5630 raised pet, comes when called, 22 inches; approx 60 lbs)

Galapagos tortoise Chelonoidis elephantopus $2820

76 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Figure 4 shows prices in Australia. Note that large Australian reptiles such as the pythons are actually cheaper in the United States. US herpetoculturalists have been breeding pythons for many years. Their greater success means prices are lower than in Australia.

$1,760 Green tree python $2,300

$1,400 Spiny-tailed monitor $550

$490 Goulds Monitor $450

$350 Blue tongue lizard $40 US market

Australian market

$210 Cunninghams skink $80

$180 Long necked tortoise $40

$180 Carpet python $200

$120 Bearded Dragon $35

$1 $10 $100 $1,000 $10,000

Figure 4: Difference in the value of Australian reptiles in the United States and Australia

77 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Size of Australian domestic trade and markets

The number and type of pets in households

More than 1 million Australian households have birds as pets (Figure 6). Some of these will be exotics such as canaries or peach-face lovebirds.

Australian households having pets

2.5

1.5

0.5 Millions of house holds 0 Dogs Cats Birds Fish Rabbit Other No pets pets Type of pets

Source: BIS Shrapnell28

In WA there are at least 4300 aviculturists, 100 bird dealers and three licensed trappers. Individual bird collections can be very valuable; some are worth over $1 million each.

28 BIS Schrapnell (1993) Contribution of the Pet Care Industry to the Australian Economy Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council. Sydney

78 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Significance of keeping birds to the economy

Expenditure on Birds and other pets, $m

$90 $80 $70 $60 $50 $40 $30 $20 $10 $0 Food, seed Veterinary Pet care Other Services accessories expenses & products

Expenditure type

Figure 7: Expenditure of birds and other pets Reptiles were included with birds and other pets in Figures 6 and 7 by BIS Schrapnell.

Future of herpetoculture

Herpetoculture is expected by the industry itself to increase in popularity with ever more naturalistic and larger displays to satisfy more sophisticated and ecologically- oriented clientele. The aim of the industry is to have a herpetological display in every living room, or at least every living room that would consider having a tank of fish. Specialty shops in the United States and Europe sell vivaria complete with luxuriant vivaria plants and set up for small colourful frogs (dendrobatids or mantellas). Farms breed reptiles, amphibians, scorpions and spiders. Species are also caught in the wild

and imported to the United States.

The herpetological industry sees the transition as similar to that which affected the aquarium industry when it changed from a specialty hobby to mainstream pastime. Industry leaders say that improvements in maintenance success for herpetological species and greater affordability are the two main hurdles that have had to be overcome.

Although captive-bred stock are usually not suitable for immediate re-introduction to

79 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

depleted natural areas, the developing herpetological industry provides a means of

ensuring the safety of genetic material.

Herpetoculture and the law in Australia

Australian trade in reptiles and amphibians is still negligible compared to the levels of commerce in Europe and the United States. This is in stark contrast to Australian

trade in mostly all other commodities which parallels economic activity worldwide.

The commercial herpetological industry believes that current policies are stifling Australian freedom to supply global wants and needs. Reptile breeders in the rest of the world are profiting from Australia’s policies of preventing propagation. Not that the policies have prevented Australian species finding their way out. The forbidden fruit syndrome applies creating a high value for these animals, which has only added to the enthusiasm to propagate them.

80 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR DELIVERING COMMERCIAL OPPORTUNITIES AND ENHANCING CONSERVATION

Valuing the wildlife resource

The underlying premise in this report is that unless values can be attached to living things, including economic value, people will not modify their behaviour or adopt strategies to live sustainably with the natural world. The other values that people attach to wild resources are ecological, ethical/cultural values.

The key to preventing over-exploitation is ownership of resource and through it

realisation of these values. If the potential value of wildlife species was realised outside reserves it could be used to protect habitat and thereby safeguard wildlife populations in the long term and even assist increase numbers. This report proposes economic incentives to supplement biodiversity strategies that aim to maintain the ecological, cultural and ethical values of wildlife. A regulated trade in birds and reptiles utilising the natural increase in the population could bring economic benefits

to the community as a whole, help to control smuggling and alleviate suffering.

In the Northern Territory crocodile ranching, which is the collection of eggs from the wild for rearing in farms, has created incentives to protect the river banks and remove buffalo. In Africa the value of wild animals to local communities who are given ownership of them both for food and tourism is the best method of ensuring their survival. In Europe and America, the value of animals for hunting has protected many thousands of hectares and forest from development.

The role of governments to intervene to ensure community needs and standards such as animal welfare are maintained. The important factors in a market-based approach to trade in birds and reptiles is shown in Figure 8.

81 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

RANCHING CAPTIVE BREEDING pastoralists and other landowners outside Breeders conservation reserves aviculturalists, Aboriginal herpetoculturalists communities, breeding specimens in captivity.

Market Government agencies intervening to balance the aims of entrepreneurs and the goals of wider community

Conservation Externalities Animal of species welfare Consumers

Pet owners and professional collectors Domestic Overseas

Figure 8: Component of proposed wildlife market To assist conservation through a market-based approach, deliver products and use resources for the benefit of humans, requires definition of goals, management of populations, and protection of habitat and supporting resources.

82 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Proposed goal

Conservation of bird and reptile species and an increase in the wealth and well-being of society as a whole through a process that enables efficient allocation of resources and an equitable trade-off between productive use, preservation of species and maintenance of biodiversity.

The need for wildlife management

Humans operate at the highest trophic level in terms of conversion of energy and consumption of other living things, out competing all other species at this level and changing the environment. Factors affecting wildlife were outlined in earlier chapters. To maintain the benefits to people deriving from the diversity and productivity of other species, we must manage our relationships with other species and the environment for long term sustainability.

Altering the environment to favour wildlife

Domesticated species are most productive when the natural environment has been altered to suit their needs. But a total alteration of the environment that overlooks the productive potential of indigenous species cannot be justified. When all the factors such as growth rates, ability to handle heat stress, water turnover, nutrient requirements and disease tolerance are taken into consideration, the comparative advantage of using wild animals for production can be appealing. The task is to determine what is optimal intervention in management of the wild animal habitat to favour preferred species and maximise other values such as ecotourism, while holding short of converting it to a conventional agricultural system.

This continuum between natural habitat and that used for production of domesticated species is shown in the table below.

Native species in natural habitat Domestic species in altered environment diverse species range minimum diversity non-segregated, continuous habitat habitat segregated by management into compartments for utilisation minimal management continuous intervention with high technology

83 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

species locally adapted local, regional and global full use of habitat use of habitat within management and economic constraints

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and other bodies such as the World Bank are presently re-evaluating the use of wildlife and its contribution to conservation.29 They are examining the pattern that starts with the harvesting of wild species from their natural habitat, then moves to enhancing the habitat to favour the species of special economic value, to semi- domestication through the maintenance of species in selective breeding facilities, and ultimately to the translocation of selected species of higher economic value to other countries exclusively for commercial exploitation.

IUCN has drawn up the following basic guidelines:

1. The status of wild populations must be adequate to support the proposed utilisation program. Following baseline surveys, periodic monitoring to assess the status of the species is essential so as to ensure that harvest rates are not exceeding the reproductive capacity.

2. Local people should be involved in defining the goals, implementing the activities and overall administration of sustainable use activities. Existing cultural traditions should be built into the procedures to the extent practicable.

3. Governments must have the necessary interest, laws and enforcement capability to ensure that harvests are within sustainable limits and commercial activities are controllable.

4. Trade patterns need to be identified and their impact on sustainable-use activity assessed. The demand for products must relate to local, national, regional and international levels.

5. The economic feasibility of projects should be assessed before they are implemented. Care should be taken to prevent the bulk of the profit of an enterprise going to entrepreneurs outside the local community and often

29 Holdgate M. (1993) Can wildlife pay for itself IUCN Focus Series Switzerland

84 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

outside the country.

6. Basic research requirements must be directed towards practical requirements and managing the wildlife resource in a sustainable manner.

CITES ranching guidelines

The concepts outlined in this report are also consistent with the CITES guidelines for ranching. The overriding principle in a ranching proposal is that it should aim to enhance the conservation of the population. Young to be ranched are normally restricted to eggs and/or hatchlings. Full details should be documented in a management plan which deals with both the local activities of the proponent and the State authority oversighting it.

Proponents must ensure that the trade in products from approved ranches does not stimulate an increase in trade from other sources in a manner detrimental to the survival of the population. They must also agree that exports derived from the population covered by its proposal will be restricted to those from the ranching operation, in specified amounts (ie. a quota may be set) that can be met by proposed ranch production.

Proponents of ranching systems have to summarise the benefits resulting or expected to result from the management actions implemented for the population to be harvested. The proposal should identify the owners of the operation and develop a business and financial plan. It should also indicate how local people will benefit from the operation; this is particularly relevant in proposals which will be developed

by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

All parrots, except three species, and many reptiles including the varanids are on Appendix 11 or higher, so proposals to ranch and export them would be covered by CITES requirements. Similar documentation and preparation of a management plan would also be required to meet Australia’s Wildlife Protection (Export — Import) Act

1981.

The following outline for a management plan is based on the CITES guidelines for an Appendix 1 reptile — the green turtle.

85 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Management plan as outlined by CITES

Biological information

The plan should include biological information such as: population distribution, population status and trends, an estimate or calculation of the annual reproductive rate or size of the annual production (eg numbers of eggs and chicks or hatchlings), and population mortality including an estimate of hatching success and estimates of human-induced mortalities of the population.

Management information

The plan should include a strategy for habitat protection, including details of protection from damage and disruption for nesting, feeding grounds and other significant habitats.

Protection of the adult population and methods for controlling predation by feral cats and foxes should be identified and mechanisms should be in place for dealing with

human-induced mortality.

Monitoring procedures including a description of the annual program to monitor population trends and mortality rates.

Harvest setting

The annual numbers (and percentage) of eggs and/or hatchlings proposed for removal to the ranch must be specified. The proposed harvest rate should also be presented as a proportion of the natural production of the population being harvested

for ranches.

Predetermined threshold values of population trends and changes in status, mortality or habitat should be proposed, the passing of which would automatically trigger the

suspension of harvests, and the initiation of additional conservation measures.

Animal welfare and husbandry

The plan must include details of the facilities for handling, ranching, rearing and transporting specimens as well as a description of the physical plant; including geographical location, layout, size, technical specifications and facilities for maintaining stock, food storage and quarantine.

Other information must include:

86 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

• operating procedures — stock collection, location of source sites, methods used in collection and removal of specimens, age and size- classes of specimens (eg eggs, hatchlings), collecting seasons and stocking rates; and number of specimens to be collected each year; • methods of handling and transport to the ranching operation, and injury levels and mortality during collection and transport; feeding sources of feed, general nutritional composition, evaluation of additives and contaminants, and feeding regimen (amount, frequency and method of distribution); • health care — monitoring methods, veterinary care and treatment procedures; • production schedules — production profiles by age- and size-class, growth rates, methods used to identify ranch stocks, culling procedures exclusive of harvesting, reports of non-harvest mortality, methods of disposal of carcasses from non-harvest mortality and number of

specimens by age- and size-class that will be harvested each year; and • record keeping — indicating procedures followed in inspecting and monitoring records maintained by the ranching operation.

Regional management

Cooperative regional management among the groups sharing the majority of the population should be described. In Australia this could be based on a group

approach similar to that of Landcare.

A regional management protocol should be developed entailing cooperative mechanisms for assessment of the conservation status of the population throughout its range and identification of key recruitment areas. Regular monitoring of population trends, involving an assessment of sources of annual mortality including:

• an assessment of the impact of the ranching operation; • effective protection of essential habitats (eg feeding areas); • protection and exemption of refuge areas from harvesting; and • effective policing controls sufficient to prevent the stimulation of illegal trade in products from wild populations.

The regional management protocol should provide a forum through which more

87 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

effective or complementary trade controls, enforcement activities and other

conservation measures may be developed.

Trade controls for ranching

Proponents must document domestic laws and enforcement mechanisms that regulate the taking from the wild and the possession, sale, purchase, and transport of

proposed specimens to be ranched.

The proposals must describe the marking and tracking procedures that will be used from approved ranches so that there will be unambiguous identification of ranched products, including methods for marking products and packages, packaging types, transport methods, shipping routes, product documentation, secure storage of products, inventory control up to the point of export and specification of the

maximum quantities of products (quotas) to be exported annually.

Elements of a proposed management regime for ranching birds and reptiles

• Monitoring surveys must indicate that wild populations are secure and increasing. • Quotas and rights of access must have been either attributed to the landholder, or more generally landholders in a region • Landholders must improve basic resources by providing shelter such as nest boxes, and propagating food species and controlling feral predators. • Legal ownership, Aboriginal issues and the requirements and objectives of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

must be incorporated. • The welfare and humane treatment of individual animals must be ensured. • Young or eggs removed from the wild must be reared in captivity. • A proportion of replacement sub-adults must be released into the wild. • Young reared birds and reptiles could be available for the commercial market and export would be permitted. • Where necessary domestically-bred birds and reptiles and wild-caught juvenile stock must be able to be differentiated.

88 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

• The regime must be acceptable to State and Commonwealth wildlife agencies.

Policing and enforcement

The level of policing and regulating should be rigorously assessed. Effective conservation of populations in the wild and the maintenance of the welfare of individual specimens is the goal.

Currently customs controls, national parks and wildlife, quarantine and other regulatory procedures are costs to the public purse. These costs would be internalised in a proposed export market. In assessing appropriate level of policing note that the industry will want less to reduce costs and the broader community will want more.

New DNA technology will enable policing and monitoring costs to be reduced.

Figure 9 shows elements of proposed ranching regime.

89 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Birds and reptiles off Property rights reserves allocated to land owner Surplus nestlings, Government eggs and juveniles oversight and taken from wild population monitoring and ranched and DNA testing

Wild Some young populations released to wild Farms propagated & to supplement rear populations habitat young protected (depending on their pest status)

Tree conservation and planting, food and Consumers water conservation, Pet owners and feral predator $ control and fanciers

Figure 9: Elements of the proposed management regime for ranching birds and reptiles

The management regime outlined in Figure 8 allows eggs and young hatchlings to be taken from the wild at a rate that does not impede recruitment, and they are artificially reared — ranched. Thus is already done for crocodiles and their numbers are increasing. The commercial value attained by specimens in the market place would enable populations of wild birds and reptiles to more effectively compete with non-native species for habitat and so achieve the goal of conservation of species off reserves. the proposals would begin with more common species and eventually move to the less common species such as Major Mitchell cockatoos.

90 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

A key component of the proposal is that the habitat owner also “owns” the bird and reptile resource which is dependent on it. Further research is needed to define the processes and methods and to clarify and who should pay for government regulation and who are the beneficiaries of regulation.

Crocodiles — an example of ranching for conservation.

Saltwater crocodiles Crocodilus porosus are common in much of tropical Australia’s coastal waters where they occupy most coastal rivers, creeks and swamps. Young have a low survival rate with only 25 per cent hatching due to flooding of nests. Infertility and development failure of the embryo also contribute to mortality. The

survival rate in the first year of life is 50 per cent in tidal areas.

In the Northern Territory, where saltwater crocodiles are most numerous, ranching programs enable the harvesting of wild eggs. Aboriginal communities, who own many of the tidal rivers that have patches of nesting habitat, are involved in crocodile

ranching, which brings commercial benefit to them from their land.

Ranching of wild crocodile populations is the sort of management and the type of operation that is proposed in this report. A wildlife industry based on crocodile egg or hatchling harvesting is creating an incentive for landowners to preserve particular habitats, for example billabongs and floodplain and breeding areas. The produce from the land is either grown out by the Aboriginal landowners themselves or sold

immediately to established crocodile farms.

The crocodile farms themselves are an example of the sustainable use of Australian

wildlife. Export of these reptiles in the form of product from the farms is permitted. Internationally there is a significant demand for crocodile leather, particularly in the

high fashion industry.

Crocodilus johnstonii, the freshwater crocodile, is a smaller species that inhabits freshwater rivers, streams and ponds. It also has a very high mortality including predation by goannas. These high mortality rates provide the justification for ranching operations because taking nestlings from the wild and rearing them under intensive conditions enables animals to survive that would otherwise have died of

natural causes.

Crocodile management plans

Both species are listed on the Appendices to CITES and management plans are

91 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

needed to meet international obligations. The plan takes into consideration the long- term conservation of crocodiles and their habitat in the areas that are subject to harvest. The aim is to maintain viable wild populations of crocodiles and conserve wetland habitats upon which they depend. The programs provide for populations of crocodiles to be monitored, eggs to be harvested and hatched, product to be sold under regulation and permit, particular harvest strategies, problem crocodile removal and monitoring and assessment of populations. The thrust of the plan of management is a promotion of conservation of the species and habitat through the establishment of

a market for product based on sustainable utilisation.

Trade in captive-bred animals

The export of a limited range of species already common in domestic aviary and herpetocultural pet trade should be permitted on a trial basis. The trade should be initiated in small species; budgerigars and cockatiels are rarely involved in animal welfare cases. The proposal, which is discussed in more detail below, is illustrated in Figure 10.

Property rights Birds and allocated to breeders reptiles in captivity Government oversight, DNA testing Genetic and licensing resource Intensive conserved rearing Consumers offspring Increased number of pet owners and fanciers

CITES makes Figure 10: Management of captive bred birds and reptiles provision for commercial trading in both ranched and captive-bred species. It sets down procedures which apply to

92 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

species listed in Appendix I and II and could be applied to all Australian species exported as pets. All the parrots and many reptiles such as all the varanids (goannas), terrapins and tortoises, pythons, and crocodiles are already listed.

The price differential in many species between Australia and Europe will not be sufficient to initiate the trade. Many specimens imported to Europe would not be sufficiently valuable to warrant the expenditure. The comparison between the United States and Australia appears to be different and potential profit margins appear to be

larger and to include:

••• hooded parrots, Cloncurry parrots, and Adelaide parrots

• long-necked tortoises and blue-tongued lizards.

Budgerigars and cockatiels should also be allowed to be exported. The market would

determine if doing so is worthwhile at current prices.

Identification of species in trade

Identification of specimens for trade is a crucial part of both management schemes. It will assist in avoiding fraudulent substitution in export consignments.

It is very difficult to confirm visually and identify many of the sought after species as fledglings without trained and knowledgeable staff. Expenditure on identification should however not be a bottomless pit. The overall goals have to be kept in mind and expenditure related to more efficacious options in other areas.

Complex aviary registration and retail monitoring systems described (in the preceding section) are in place in most states for the domestic bird trade. The scheme will be extended to exotic birds with the introduction in 1996 of a Commonwealth Regulation of Exotic Birds Registration Scheme. The proposed liberalisation of trade

would be encompassed within these schemes.

DNA fingerprinting

To differentiate between captive-bred animals and those of wild origin, microchips and DNA ‘figure printing’ techniques are being developed. They enable captive 30 animals of nominated origin to be differentiated from wild animals. A small sample

30 Thommasen, H.V., Thomson, M.J., Shutler, G.G. and Kirby, LT. (1989). Development of DNA fingerprints for use in wildlife forensic science. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17: 321-6.

93 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

of blood is collected and photographic record of the characteristics of the DNA made. It can compared with other birds and the family pedigree and relationship confirmed.

In the Northern Territory, microchipping of wild-caught black-tailed cockatoos is proposed as part of a scheme under consideration by NT wildlife authorities. Birds that have been DNA tested and sexed would have a microchip implanted capable of being read by a scanner and would be available for export. The DNA test currently

costs $100.

CITES and captive breeding

Trade in captive-bred species is permitted by CITES. The following is a summary of a resolution of the CITES Conference of the Parties on Specimens Bred in Captivity (or Artificially Propagated).

Considering that the CITES provides for special treatment of wildlife that are bred in captivity; recognising the need for the Parties to agree on a standard interpretation of those provisions; recognising also the need to apply these provisions in a way that will not be detrimental to the survival of wild populations; the conference of the

parties to the convention recommended that

Specimens of animal species in Appendix I bred in captivity for commercial purposes shall be treated as if they were in Appendix II; Bred in captivity shall be interpreted to refer only to offspring, including eggs, born or otherwise produced in a controlled environment, either of parents that mated or otherwise transferred gametes in a

controlled environment.

A controlled environment for animals is an environment that is intensively manipulated by man for the purpose of producing the species in question. It has boundaries designed to prevent animals, eggs or gametes of the selected species from entering or leaving the controlled environment. General characteristics of a controlled environment may include but are not limited to artificial housing, waste removal,

health care, protection from predators, and artificially supplied food.

The parental breeding stock must, to the satisfaction of the competent government authorities of the relevant country:

• have been established in a manner not detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild; • be maintained without augmentation from the wild, except for the

94 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

occasional addition of animals, eggs or gametes from wild populations to prevent deleterious inbreeding, with the magnitude of such addition determined by the need for new genetic material and not by other factors; and • be managed in a manner designed to maintain the breeding stock indefinitely; • and that has have been demonstrated to be capable of reliably producing second-generation offspring in a controlled environment;

Countries exporting live animals, parts and derivatives of specimens bred in captivity of species listed in Appendix I endeavour, where possible, to ensure that these be

made identifiable by means other than documentation alone.

CITES security stamps

Security stamps are one of the measures used by CITES to keep track of international trade. Australia is not on the list of countries that use them because we have so little wildlife trade. If the proposals suggested here are taken up CITES stamps would be part of the process. Security stamps are fixed to export permits or re-export certificates and validated with the signature of the issuing officer and the seal (preferably embossed) of the competent authority, placed across both the face of the

stamp and the document itself.

Each security stamp produced by the CITES Secretariat bears a serial number, preceded by the two-letter ISO code of the country issuing the permit to which the stamp must be affixed. For each party this code appears at the bottom of its CITES

directory sheet.

95 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

CONSIDERATION OF ISSUES

Making best use of Australia’s resources

Finding solutions to the complex array of environmental issues facing Australia requires consideration of as many ideas as possible. Debate should not be restricted by pressure that seeks to limit the freedom of others and constrain innovation and

choice.

Current wildlife protection policies and procedures rarely confront the major factors threatening wildlife outside parks and reserves which have been outlined above. They give legal protection to individual animals and an illusion that species are safe. Laws that protect individual animals came from an era when the focus of wildlife management was controls on hunting. They are impotent to protect habitat, food sources and shelter and have no effect on exotic predators, foxes and cats and death by misadventure such as roadkills. In fact, the complex and expensive licensing and permit procedures have done little more, in many cases, than track the decline of

endangered species.

National parks and reserves provide reservoirs of wildlife and biodiversity but they are often islands in a sea of altered landscapes. They also do not protect all environments and are unable to deal with the scale of change and the problem of habitat loss and environmental degradation. Conservation outside reserves is very reliant on the personal commitment of landholders and other imperfect mechanisms such as controls on land clearing and ‘Save the Bush’ campaigns to maintain shelter,

food support regeneration and control predators.

Government funding

Solutions being offered for endangered species involve government funding. Resources available are unlikely to match the size of the problem and are often not spent efficiently.

Overview of legislation

Anomalies in legal status — impact of differences in legislation between jurisdictions

The complexities and difference in laws in between States are profound. There are a number of legislative loopholes which present substantial opportunities for

96 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

laundering of illegally acquired animals.31 Yet to advocate the expenditure of high levels of funds to close such loopholes is unwise without first assessing the link between this legislation and protection of wild populations. Could the same resources be more effectively used to conserve species in the wild. Mirtschin32 advocates an assessment of the blanket protective legislation that has been applied restricting ownership of reptiles. A thorough analysis is needed to clarify if legislation is achieving its objectives.

Overlying State legislation is the total ban on exports of Australian native species by the Commonwealth. It prevents the export of the ubiquitous budgerigar, cockatiel and zebra finch even though there are no conservation issues at stake and no licence is required to hold them in the States. At the same time legislation permits the export of exotic parrots and other birds, even birds caught in the wild.

There are strong arguments for complementary, if not uniform, licensing system throughout Australia. Achieving it requires Commonwealth coordination. It would make the regulatory task much less frustrating and use resources more efficiently and effectively.

Current State legislation makes pet ownership difficult, and in many cases impossible. Flannery33 describes Australian wildlife laws as a great legal fence which divides ordinary Australians from their fauna. He says the laws have been a backward march from the goal of developing an environmentally attuned Australian culture.

Commercial use of wildlife is an emotive subject

Public debate about whether the domestic trade, such as it is in Australia, should be extended to allow the commercial export of live native birds and reptiles. Proponents

of removing the barriers draw attention to:

• the significance of overseas markets for Australian birds and reptiles;

• the opportunity for commercial gain for the nation from one of its natural resources; and

31 Halstead, B. (1992). Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice No. 41: Traffic in flora and fauna. Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra

32 Mirtschin P (1993) A case for deregulation of the keeping and taking of reptiles, Herpetofauna 23 1

33 Flannery, T (1994) The Future Eaters Reed Sydney

97 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

• the damage which pest birds do to Australian agriculture.

Those who wish to maintain the trade barriers have:

• moral concerns about interfering with native animals and their rights to roam or fly free;

• animal welfare concerns about the suffering which commercial use inflicts on animals; and • conservation fears that trade will aggravate the threat to endangered species. Importance of open debate

These views are held so strongly that some of the opponents of trade in wild animals have attempt to stop debate. They seem unwilling to examine options and to participate in a balanced discussion to see if there are other management options which would simultaneously deliver a better result for conservation and the welfare of the animals.

Providing animal welfare concerns are fully met, the issue of which species are used commercially and which are kept as pets should be open to rational analysis. Opponents abhor the utilisation of and commercialisation of native fauna saying that it is not acceptable to the Australian people.34 They say that any sale of fauna is unethical and that international trade should not be allowed. The Australian and New Zealand Federation of Animal Welfare Societies also opposes commercialism on animal rights grounds.

Freedom to develop new ideas for innovation

In a review of intellectual freedom and the importance to our society of open discussion, Schermur35 argued that we need to find ways of separating the critical assessment of various claims from the personalities of cultures of the people who are making them otherwise criticism may be perceived as an assault. He reviewed Karl Poppers contribution to these concepts (see also box). Popper said that if one makes ones case in impressive and emotional terms and if one presents ones approach as

34 Native Birds Liberation Alliance, Sydney, personal communication, 25 January 1995

35 Schermur J (1995) Karl Poppers Politics: Liberalism, versus Democratic Socialism Centre for Independent Studies, Sydney.

98 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

representing a ‘clarion call of morality and decency against the forces of evil, it will not make for fruitful critical discussion. A free and open society should resist the temptation of moralised approach to politics.’

Importance of Freedom of ideas

A key component of liberalism and democracy against authoritarianism from the left or the right is freedom to develop new ideas and innovate. In The Open Society and Its Enemy, 1945, Karl Popper said that a free and open society confronts the individuals with choices and responsibilities that he or she may not have to face in a society of a more traditional sort. Thus the society in which there is individual freedom may be rather unsettling. Authoritarianism is seductive in suggesting that the individual does not have to face these problems. Authoritarianism of the right would claim to have a way to restore society to a stable state that supposedly existed before all these upsetting changes took place.

People are responsible for their own actions and act on their own judgements.

Should wild species be used by humans ?

Perspectives from the ninth CITES meeting

CITES held its Ninth Conference of Parties at Fort Lauderdale in Florida in November 1994. In recent years the states that belong to the convention have been involved in major confrontations and differences of opinion over the aims of the convention and

whether it should prevent or regulate commercial trade in wildlife species.

The latest conference pushed for strict conservation and trade bans where they were evidently needed but allowed options for use where this would benefit conservation. Countries of the south which are major exporters as well as custodians of wild animal species argued that scientifically-based conservation and wildlife trade will strengthen the position of developing countries in the international community. They

also pointed out the benefits to the economies in the north of a managed trade.

The World Wide Fund for Nature Australia has recommended caution, while noting that wildlife utilisation may prove to be an important mechanism in achieving the conservation of the natural environment.36 They advocate an ecologically sustainable framework for commercial wildlife use and that support should only be given where

36 Nias R C (1995) Using it or Losing it: the commercial exploitation of wildlife in Australia. World Wide Fund for Nature Sydney

99 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

their is a net conservation advantage. The proposals in this report are entirely consistent with that approach.

Valuing the wildlife resource

Role of values in attaining sustainability

The underlying premise in this paper is that unless values can be attached to living things, and in particular economic value, people will not modify their behaviour in appropriate ways to live sustainably with the natural world. Unless people ascribe a value to wildlife, both the habitat and the population will not be sustainable.

As a species humans have particular requirements of the environment for our self- maintenance and for reproduction of our kind. Over much of the earth our relationships with other species and nature in general extends far beyond our requirements at this basic existence level. We value wildlife in a number of different ways and manage it in accordance with the priority or weighting given to each. By management we may be able to slow the rate of loss of diversity and productivity of natural systems. If the values adduced are high enough, we may even be able to restore systems to a more natural situation. Determining the most appropriate management strategy for attaining sustainability involves balancing the economic, ecological, cultural and ethical values of species.37

Economic value of species

Developing better ways putting economic value on natural resources and ecological processes, is urgent because the political influence that is generated by the other values below is having only a little impact on the speed of conversion of habitats to closely-managed agricultural systems. These issues and options for building a 38 sustainable economy are also discussed by Young.

Ecological value

Ecological values depend on understanding how natural processes affect the productivity of natural systems. To be sustainable, a consumptive use must provide

37 Rabb G B (1994) Conservation Strategies for Sustainability Species Survival Commission Newsletter Number 21 -22 IUCN

38 Young M D (1992) Sustainable investment and resource use - equity environmental integrity and economic efficiency Man and the Biosphere Series, 9

100 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

for regeneration of the resources as well as the consumptive needs of users. In non- consumptive sustainable use, usually the natural resources are impacted by the presence of people or their products in the ecosystem or in the environment of a species. Whatever benefits accrue to people in the relationship, to be sustainable, use

should provide for maintaining the integrity of the ecosystem or viability of species.

Ethical value

Ethical values are based on identifying human responsibilities to share resources in an undiminished form across generations and cultures; some extend the obligation to

recognising and enforcing existence rights of all life.

Basic ethical behaviour is usually formally spelled out in laws. Among nearly universal ethical precepts is that there is an obligation to the welfare of one’s offspring, expressed finally as inheritance of property, status or rights. To a lesser degree this obligation is recognised as applying to parents, other family members, then members of a local community, and to larger groupings including fellow members of a religion and citizens of a common political unit. At the most general

level this obligation is extended to our species—present and future generations.

All human societies operate with rules for conduct, spoken, written or not, which govern relationships of people to one another. These ethical principles may be grounded in a moral philosophy or be codified in religious dogma. For geopolitical groupings of people, living natural resources provide for our current and, prospectively, future welfare. The ethical value of a resource means that the current generation should act with a strategy so as not to impair the future use potential of

any living natural resource.

Cultural value

Cultural values recognise our common heritage with other species; it promotes

biophilia and spiritual relationships of respect for ourselves and all of nature.

Many indigenous cultures depend directly and sometimes exclusively on living natural resources for their livelihood. Often their perspective and including that of the Australian Aborigines is that they are inextricably part of nature. This is also a biological fact, one reflected in our emotional identification with other kinds of life. In following a strategy that acknowledges cultural values we must act respectfully with regard to the integrity of nature and the pressures we put on natural systems and other species.

101 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

This moral imperative informs harvesting practices and birth control perspectives of some indigenous peoples, but generally has not informed the same activities of

people in so-called developed countries.

Role of market place and governments — underlying principles in commercial use

Utilisation of Australia’s natural resources provides the foundation for the nation’s prosperity. Market driven economic growth and the accumulation of capital have enabled Australia to afford improving levels of environmental management and resolution of environmental problems. Entrepreneurial incentives based on individual ownership are essential to finding solutions and enable environmental

goals to be achieved at least cost.

Efficient market mechanism depend on clear designation of property rights the enforcement of common law rights allowing trade in environmental services

Role of market place in determining economic value

The market place is the most widely used and generally thought to be the best way of determining economic value and in most cases regulating the use of resources. Markets provide information to actual or potential participants about activities and utilise vast amount of information dispersed over many sites more effectively than governments are able to do. Markets enable the pursuit of private interests while also conferring public benefit.

Market failure

The market place treats living natural resources as commodities subject to forces of supply and demand, but they can be managed by government intervention to satisfy

other values and human wants without destroying the natural resource asset base.

The power of government is sometimes needed to protect, support, modify and even create some markets but, for many people, politicians and bureaucrats have defects which have made government an unreliable and imperfect instrument for achieving

social ends.

Ecological and ethical values also need to be taken in to account in this process. They depend on understanding how to act in accord with natural processes so as to take advantage of the natural increases. Ethical values depend on identifying responsibilities to share resources in undiminished form across generations and

102 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

cultures; some extend the obligation to recognising and enforcing existence rights of

all life.

Market mechanisms can help manage the environment, They provide opportunities for efficient resource use and higher standard of living and enable choices towards conservation to be made.39,40

Government intervention and corrective action are needed when markets overlook the value of environmental services, ie when private interest rates are higher than social discount rates. Over exploitation can occur when there is common access to resources and there is undervaluing of production cost. In the case of wildlife resources, it can occur when wildlife can move from one property to another or whose value cannot be ascribed to the landholder and then the importance of habitat maintenance to attract species becomes most important.

Options for ownership of wildlife

Ownership of the resource is a key issue

Property rights and ownership of resources are central tenets of our society. They apply to land, to livestock and to many other resources including the habitat of wildlife, but not the animals themselves, unless they are pets in captivity.

The licensing proposals and permits advocated above, when coupled with DNA fingerprinting establish mechanisms for transferable property rights for birds and

reptiles and overcome problems associated with the movement of animals.

Wild animal ownership

If wild animals off reserves were owned by the landholder or acquired under licence as is done for minerals and other resources, and they were valuable, the incentive to protect them and nurture their habitat would be stronger.

Other goods or assets are regarded as owned and private property when there are minimal regulations restraining market activity and the following rights apply. The

right to use or decide how to use; to exclude others from using; to earn income from

39 Chisholm A and Moran J (1993) The price of preservation Tasman Institute Melbourne

40 Moran, A Chisholm A and Porter M (1991) Markets, Resources and the Environment Tasman Institute Melbourne.

103 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

use; to transfer ownership, and to enter into contracts.

Redefining property rights has the advantage of harnessing the incentive of individuals and the relative cheapness of price systems as a means of generating and utilising information in the interests of conservation. The entrepreneur seeks situations where marginal benefits exceed marginal costs and so creates wealth for society.

Value of pets

Keeping of pets and breeding as a hobby

Both internationally and within Australia there is a growing need and desire to keep pets and breed them as a hobby. Aviculture, or the keeping and breeding of birds as a hobby, is well established and popular in Australia. Nearly all species of Australian parrots and finches can be found in aviaries. Many introduced or exotic birds are also

kept by aviculturists.

Birds can be kept as pets by urban dwellers, even in the biggest cities

Pet ownership

This report assumes that pet ownership is legitimate and that contact with and knowledge about native animals plays a significant role in education and motivation of people towards conservation objectives. Many young people have had their

awareness and concern for wildlife stimulated by ownership of tortoises or parrots.

Pets as therapy

Keeping pets and nurturing them can have a beneficial effect on the keeper, both in physical and psychological health.

Research into companion animals and the bond to humans is relatively recent. It supports anecdotal evidence that ‘pets are good for you’ and shows measurable health benefits directly attributable to animal companionship. While focusing on dogs and cats it has also extended to birds and aquarium fish. Researchers have found that pet ownership improves an ordinary person’s general health, raises confidence, self esteem and capacity to cope with the stresses of life and, ultimately,

104 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

physical health.41 The sense of responsibility involved in caring for an animal is especially significant. Such nurture gives meaning and a sense of being needed that can deeply sustain an ability to set personal goals. Far from being perverted, extravagant or the victims of misplaced parental instincts, the emphasise that most owners are normal rational people who make use of animals to augment their existing social relationships.

Changing the current position is politically difficult

Although it is not proven that trade in parrots or reptiles would have any effect on population distribution and abundance in the wild, changing the policies to trial new management options will be very difficult. The trade is perceived to be unattractive and the association with smuggling does a lot of damage to its image.

Smuggling

Proponents of a relaxation of trade, however argue that it will reduce smuggling. On the other hand, opponents say that legal exporting will provide a conduit for species to be substituted.

Kingwell1 recommends that the proceeds from a licensing and regulatory regime should fund increased enforcement, in particular tracking based on DNA fingerprinting technology. He notes that DNA testing has already facilitated the prosecution of several aviculturalists in Western Australia who were attempting to pass off birds taken from the wild as being captive bred. The threat of being caught appears to have caused a decline in the ‘success rate of breeding’ of birds that are known to be difficult to breed in captivity.

Different attitudes to plants and animals

When the Wollemi pine was discovered in 1994, the first act by the discoverers was to seek to artificially propagate it with a view to making it commercially available. They recognised that this was the best way of ensuring its survival.

Specimens were found in a 600 m deep gorge in a secluded rain forest in Wollemi National Park west of Sydney. The tree is about 40 metres tall with a girth of 3 metres and is covered in a dense waxy foliage and has a distinct knobbly bark. It is a genus

41 Serpell, J (1986) Company of Animals, Blackwell, Basil

105 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

whose nearest relative died out between the Jurassic and Cretaceous eras, 150 million years ago. It is find is of such significance that it is compared with the discovery of Coelocanths of the coast of Madagascar in 1948 and has been compared with finding a small dinosaur still alive on earth.

If the find had been a bird or indeed a small dinosaur, the policy response would not have been to secure it by making it available for commercial sale. Attitudes and hence management options towards commercial use of wild animals, particularly rare ones, are quite different to commercial use of wild plants. Private ownership of animals is usually prohibited and intensive propagation is given a lower priority.

Wild birds as pests

Pest damage

Overall the damage done by birds to agricultural production is minimal but it can be severe locally. Some of the low levels of damage at the moment is due to

inadequacies of existing controls. The real problem is the threat of damage.

Severity of the bird pest problem

Bird pest problems are fundamentally an issue of perception: the problem looks worse than it is. It is widely acknowledged that individual farmers can sometimes be hit severely by bird pest damage.

Measuring the severity of the bird pest problems is a major challenge. Experienced observers emphasise the lack of credible research findings based on long-term investigation. As a result, the severity of the problem for individuals, local communities, regions and particular industries remains to some extent speculative. Individual crop losses can be severe, the impact on an overall industry is minor and

there is a lack of economic data on the impact of bird pest damage.

Potential pest status in foreign environments

Some Australian species could become pests overseas to compete in human habitation, and to damage agriculture and natural environment. For example, a brown tree snake which was imported into Guam has become a major pest.

The process of introduced species becoming pests has many precedents. Even movement of birds within Australia has led to them becoming pests. Efforts to control new introductions are the subject of a complex classification procedure by the

106 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

Vertebrate Pest Committee of the SCARM and ANCA. The Australian Nature Conservation Agency has recently undertaken a review of the status of certain species of exotic birds held in captivity in Australia. It examined the environmental and agricultural pest potential of approximately 270 exotic birds as part of the development of the National Exotic Bird Registration Scheme. The objective was to prepare a report that made recommendations on birds which are considered to have major pest potential; birds which are considered to have high pest potential, significant conservation value or to be highly dangerous to humans; birds which are recognised as having minimal or no pest potential and birds which are recognised or

pest animals with wild populations already established in a state or territory.

Evaluating policy options

Improving efficiency of government regulation

Given the inherent defects, complexity, costs and bias of an intervention solution, the thesis operating here is to let the price system deal with externalities and to redefine property rights and removing barriers to trade due to externalities.

When the markets fail governments can intervene to pass regulations but they must provide the resources to enforce regulations, especially for their own land. As new technologies emerge different margins will apply and hence new contracts and change value of resources,

Opportunities for Aboriginal people

Prohibitions on the use of native animals also deny Aboriginal people commercial access to species that may be more culturally appropriate to them than domesticated livestock from Europe. Aboriginal Australians used wildlife for eons before British law and European cultural perspectives arrived. Traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities can use the native flora and fauna on their land for their own purposes but not commercially.

Changing international policy positions

Resolutions recognising the conservation benefits from sustainable use of wildlife have been passed by the World Conservation Union, and State and Commonwealth ministers for conservation and resource management. The issue has also been source of major debate at CITES conferences of parties.

From many perspectives, Australia has many of the features of the south with a large

107 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

marketable wildlife resource which could be utilised on a sustainable basis for the benefit of the national economy. This especially true for Aboriginal Australians who seek to be able to use their traditional resources and not be disadvantaged by ill- informed and economically-damaging campaigns in industrial (northern) nations. Where science points in the direction of protection it should be given. But where science says a species can be exploited humanely, there should be no need for international campaign boycotts and so that the campaigners can turn their energies to

other issues.

Commercial use can be approved under CITES to enable conservation

As a result of the adoption of new listing criteria, the CITES treaty now has a scientific set of standards for deciding whether to include species on Appendix 1 banning all commercial trade or put them on Appendix 2 which regulates their international trade. The changes were welcomed and indicated a new realism and move towards transparent decision making that will work for the twin goals of conservation and

sustainable development.

Examples of strict protection being imposed by CITES include the red panda, the giant muntjac, the Egyptian tortoise. Examples of species being added where trade needed to be controlled included the North American box turtle, the common

hippopotamus, saiga antelope, red sandalwood and agar wood.

Decisions which were controversial with animal rights groups but which indicated greater rationality in CITES were the moving of species from Appendix 1 to Appendix 2 for sustainable use programs that will benefit conservation. Examples included the black caiman in Equador which is now available for a ranching program, the white rhinoceros in South Africa for hunting and live animals only, and vicuna in Chile and

Peru for wool from live sheared animals.

Examples of commercial use of wildlife supporting conservation

Vicuna

The key issue in the case of vicunas is that in Chile and Peru the government is departing from traditional but unsuccessful law enforcement and are instead involving local communities to enhance the benefits to both the vicuna and the

communities.

After the populations were surveyed and it was found there were 60,000 vicunas

108 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

spread across 60 000 square kilometres of Peruvian highlands, new laws were passed that gave the peasants responsibility for protection and sustainable use of the resource. A government agency was created to promote camelid use and protection

in Peru and to provide technical assistance.

The proposal by the Peruvian Government aimed to give the Campasino communities an economic incentive to protect animals from escalating poaching pressure by outsiders. In the majority of the countries, vicunas occur in communal lands rather than in protected areas and their conservation depends very much on the

commitment of these communities.

One problem however, remains that the decision to allow the commercial exploitation of these animals could put pressure on other states which lack a management program. Poaching may shift towards Bolivia which has few enforcement facilities

and an extensive frontier and campasino community with few income sources.

Marine turtles

A debate over acceptable standards for sea turtle ranching has been going on for 15 years. (Ranching is the rearing in captivity of eggs taken from the wild). CITES guidelines developed for crocodilian proposals were inappropriate because marine turtles are migratory and commercial sea turtle ranches have the potential to place

entire populations of wild turtles at risk by opening trade.

The guidelines for ranching marine turtles require that any ranching program should be firmly embedded in a regional management plan. This means that a regional protocol must be developed and implemented before any ranching proposal can be approved. Importing countries are required to provide documentation of their domestic laws to control sea turtle trade. The ranching country must agree to document its laws and means of enforcement, to control the capture and use of wild

turtles and their products. Exports from ranches must be restricted.

Crocodiles

The parties considered proposals to transfer the black caiman crocodile in Equador to Appendix 2 to enable development of ranching. The parties set a zero export quota for the first two years for Equador to ensure that an adequate management plan for

ranching program was developed prior to skins entering trade.

Indonesia had applied to transfer its salt water crocodiles to Appendix 2 and also

109 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

agreed to a zero export quota until ranching was established.

Other examples of commercial use of wildlife supporting conservation include the allocation of local ownership of elephants in Zimbabwe under the campfire program and the traditional management of game animals such as deer and grouse in Scotland and elsewhere in Europe.

Conservation benefits from regulated commercial industry, including export

Precedents

The commercial development of the crocodile industry and the relationship between

wild crocodiles and farmed crocodiles is a useful model and prudent in Australia. The value ascribed to farmed crocodiles has underpinned the conservation of wild crocodiles and in no way has threatened them. The crocodile farms meet international, national and NT Conservation requirements and is commercial in skin,

meat and crocodile products and tourism

Birds

Captive bred

A legal export industry based on captively-bred birds could reduce the prices paid

for Australian birds on overseas markets to an economic supply price.

These lower prices are likely to reduce, and possibly eliminate, the financial incentive

to illegally capture and smuggle native birds. A legal market and a stable price will ensure proper welfare of the birds.

Wild birds

Less smuggling means an end to inhumane treatment, greater protection given to endangered species.

A sustainable harvest of more common wild birds and reptiles benefits rarer species through habitat maintenance and protection of habitats on private property.

Revenue from export permits or licences could be used to protect the habitats of endangered species, to fund greater policing, or to fund the captive breeding and later release into the wild of certain endangered species.

110 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

DNA testing — controlling the illegal taking of wild young birds

Breeding of birds which are hard to rear, such as gang gangs, is often supplemented by illegal taking from the wild. One supposed breeding pair is used as a front for taking nestlings from wild populations if the pairs own breeding performance is

poor.

DNA testing of parents allows such scams to be uncovered. It is the basis of program in WA and NT Birds taken illegally from the wild could be substituted for legal exports

Impact on pest control

A commercial industry which captured pest birds would lower costs of controlling pest birds. Because the birds are protected growers have little recourse to control measures. A limited harvest is seen as a means of enabling farmers to remove birds destroying their crops in a cost effective manner. However a fundamental tenet of the management regime proposed in these papers is not to create animal welfare problems, to preserve the habitat of birds and increase the number of birds in the wild not decrease them.

Capturing and exporting birds from the wild will not solve pest problems in the longer term nor bring many benefits to rural communities.

111 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

CONCLUSIONS

The potential value of wildlife species outside reserves should be allowed to be realised to help protect habitat and thereby safeguard wildlife populations in the long term and even assist increase numbers. Australia should realise its comparative advantage in that overseas breeders have difficulty of meeting basic breeding requirements.

The current management regime for Australian birds and reptiles by States and the Commonwealth should be altered to allow the export of specimens of a limited range of species on a trial basis.

1. Initially, captive breeding, focusing on smaller species to which animal welfare concerns are less likely to apply. For example:

• budgerigars and cockatiels, if market demand indicates it is worth while at current prices, • long-necked tortoises, blue-tongued lizards • Adelaide, Cloncurry and hooded parrots

2. Then harvesting from the wild of surplus young before hand rearing in captivity (‘ranching’) for common species. Species of potential for the trial include:

• galahs, sulphur-crested cockatoos • goannas and carpet pythons, particularly for ranching by Aboriginal people.

3. Next ranching operations should be extended to less common species but only as part of a management plan that includes prior habitat improvement, mortality control and agreement to release back to the wild. The scheme could include less common species such as:

• gang gang, Major Mitchell and red-tailed black-cockatoos • birds of prey such as peregrine falcons • cassowaries, bustards • other tortoises, pythons, geckos and frogs

Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation 112 Sustainable Economic Use of native Birds & Reptiles

(Specimens under such a trial would be DNA typed.)

The provisions and requirements of CITES in regard to ranching, breeding species in captivity and transport should be used as the minimum criteria set for the proposal above. Birds trapped for pest control suffer stress and present animal welfare concerns. They are unlikely to make good pets and the activity is not recommended.

FURTHER RESEARCH

The next stage of the project should develop the details of the proposed management regimes. It would also recommend methods for determining the numbers of surplus animals available for harvest on a sustainable basis in a population and relating it to habitat improvement procedures that deliver enhanced conservation status. It should consider the 10 principles for a market based approach to conservation elaborated by Chisholm and Moran.42 with the aim of enabling commercial use of native birds and reptiles on a sustainable basis while also improving conservation status.

The continuing project should describe and cost the use of DNA fingerprinting, microchipping and other identification procedures that enable confirmation of the parenthood and origin of specimens in trade. It would estimate costs for a monitoring program, inspection procedures and a regulatory process.

42 Chisholm AG and Moran AJ (1993) The price of preservation Tasman Institute, Melbourne

Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation 113 Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ACIL (Dr George Wilson) and Agriculture Western Australia (Mr Peter Smetana) thank all the persons and organisations who expressed an interest in this project and who made the effort to reply to our requests for information and comment. In depth discussion and advice was provided by Robert Jenkins, ANCA and Dr Grahame Webb, Wildlife Management International Darwin.

The project outline was sent to wide range of people including all the nature conservation authorities in Australia, departments of agriculture, the Bureau of Resource Sciences, avicultural societies, zoos, animal welfare organisations, conservation societies and rural industry representatives. Comments, advice, submissions and criticisms were received from many of them during the course of the study. Detailed comments and advice came from:

Bill Love, Glades Herb Inc, Florida; Brian Bales, Cage and Aviary Birds, London; Brian Healey, Associated Birdkeepers and Traders Incorporated, NSW; Cameron McTavish, Aristo Pet, California; Christopher Claydon, NSW; David Judd, Mildura Park Aviaries, Mildura, Victoria; Deborah Callister, Traffic Oceania, Sydney. Dick Lawrence, Forest Fresh Tasmania Pty Ltd, Tasmania; Doug Brown, Aviculturalist and biologist, Canberra Dr Chris Schouten, Euro/Avi 95, Holland; Dr Colin Davis, VetaFarm, Wagga; Dr David Blyde, Western Plain Zoo, Dubbo; Dr Denis Saunders, CSIRO, Division of Wildlife and Ecology, WA; Dr Grahame Webb, Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd; Darwin Dr Hugh Wirth, Royal Society for the Protection of Cruelty to Animals, Canberra; Dr Ian Rowley, CSIRO, Division of Wildlife and Ecology, WA; Dr Kevin Doyle, Australian Quarantine Inspection Service, Canberra; Dr Mary Bomford, Bureau of Resource Sciences, Canberra;

114 Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Dr Melvin Bolton, Yepoon, Dr Patricia McWhirter, Highbury-Veterinary Clinic, Victoria; Dr Paul Hopwood, The University of Sydney, Faculty of Veterinary Science; Dr Peter McInnes, Rural Industry Research and Development Corporation, Canberra Dr Ray Wright, Environment and Natural Resources Committee, Parliament of Victoria; Dr Richard Rowe, Australian Quarantine Inspection Service, Canberra; Dr Stephen Edwards, IUCN, Washington; Ebba and Peter Them, Parrot Data, Denmark; Frank Dalpiva, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, SA; G J Rutte, Stirling Parrot Farm, Stirling, SA; Glenys Oogyes, Australian and New Zealand Federation of Animial Societies; Graham Taylor, Aviculture Breeding and Research Centre, Bonville, NSW; Herman Kremer, Holland, Ian Woolcock, Australian Federation of Agriculturalists; John Allen, Agriculture WA; John Shute, AUSTRADE, Perth; Lindsay Best, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, SA; Malcolm Cowan, Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Tasmania; Marshall Myers, Pet Industry Joint Advisory Committee, Washington; Michael Vardon, Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd, Darwin; Michel Sauqet, La Ferme Aux Oiseaux, France; Paul Jewell, Wildlife Protection Authority, Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra ; Peter Batey, Central Queensland Bird Breeders Society;Qld Peter Gowlan, Avicultural Society of Canberra, Canberra; Peter Mirtschin, Venom Supplies, Tanunda, SA; Reid McLaughlin, Field and Game Federation of Australia Inc, ACT; Richard Chilton, The United Bird Societies of SA Inc, Adelaide; Rob McKinley, Currumbin Sanctuary, Queensland;

115 Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Robert Hadler, National Farmers Federation of Australia, Canberra; Robert Jenkins, Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra; Roger O’Dwyer, Agriculture Protection Board of WA, Perth. Roger Sweeney, Loro Parque; Canary Islands Steve Yeo, Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council of Australia; Sydney Stuart Chamberlain, Bird and Fish Place, Perth; The Australian Wildlife Protection Council, Melbourne The Native Bird Liberation Alliance, Sydney Theo Pegel, Zoological Garden, Cologne;

John Allen from the Agriculture Western Australia helped collate the information on the values of birds. Dr Janet Salisbury and Dr Peter McInnes made detailed comments on the manuscript. Dale Higgins retyped a difficult manuscript.

REFERENCES

ANPWS (1989). Illegal trafficking of wildlife through the postal system. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra.

Antrim F and Salisbury R, (1991), International Trade in Australian Parrots, TRAFFIC and Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra

AQIS (1992). ‘Birds of a Feather’. In a summary of news and information from the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service. AQIS Bulletin 5(9):2.

Australian Nature Conservation Agency (1995) Australia’s Endangered Species, brochure.

BIS Schrapnell (1993) Contribution of the Pet Care Industry to the Australian Economy Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council. Sydney

Bishop, R.C. (1978). ‘Endangered species and uncertainty: the economics of a safe minimum standard’. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 60: 10-18.

Bishop, R.C. (1980). ‘Endangered species: an economic perspective’. Transactions of the 45th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference, 22-26 March, Deauville Hotel Florida, 208-18.

116 Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Centre for Conservation Biology (1994) Conference on Conservation of Wildlife through Sustainable Utilisation, University of Queensland

Chisholm A and Moran A (1993) The price of preservation Tasman Institute Melbourne

Chisholm AG and Moran AJ (1993) The price of preservation Tasman Institute, Melbourne

Ciriacy-Wantrup, S.V. and Bishop, R.C. (1975). ‘“Common property” as a concept in natural resources policy’. Natural Resources Journal 15(4): 713-27.

Cocciolone, R.A. ad Timms, P. (1992). ‘DNA profiling of Queensland koalas reveals sufficient variability for individual identification and parentage determination’. Wildlife Research 19: 729-87.

Conacher, A. and Conacher, J. (1995) Rural Land Degradation in Australia. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.

Dasgupta, P. (1990). ‘The environment as a commodity’. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 6(1): 51-67.

Department of Arts Heritage and the Environment (1986) State of the environment in Australia . AGPS. Canberra

Department of Home Affairs and Environment, 1982. “Towards a national conservation strategy: a discussion paper”. Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra. 71pp.

Descriptions of legislation based on material compiled by Environment and Natural Resources Committee of the Victorian Parliament, 1995

Dr Ray Wright, Executive Officer, Environment and Natural Resources Committee of the Victorian Parliament, 80 Collins St Melbourne

Draft Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Rural Industry Strategy (1994) ATSIC Canberra.

Driver, C.S. (1980). A theory of regulatory enforcement’, Public Policy 28(3): 257-99.

Economic Planning Advisory Council (EPAC) (1992). Managing Australia’s natural resources. EPAC Council Paper No. 49, AGPS, Canberra.

117 Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Ehmann H and Cogger H (1985) Australia’s Endangered Herpetofauna: A Review of Criteria and Policies pages 435-47 in Biology of Australasian Frogs and Reptiles, Ed by Gordon Grigg, Richard Shine and Harry Ehmann, Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales,

Flannery, T (1994) The Future Eaters Reed Sydney

Fleming P, Temby I, Thompson J (1990) National Bird Pest Workshop, GRDC Armidale, NSW Agriculture and Fisheries

Frankel, O.H. and Soulé, M.E., (1981) “Conservation and Evolution”. Cambridge University Press: Melbourne. 311pp.

Frith, HJ., (1973)Wildlife conservation”. Angus and Robertson: Sydney. .

Garnett, S. (1992). The Action Plan for Australian Birds. Endangered Species Program Project No. 121. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra.

Garnett, S. (Ed.) (1992). 'Threatened and Extinct Birds of Australia'. RAOU, Report 82. RAOU, Melbourne; and the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra.

Gavitt, J.D. (1989). ‘Unlawful commercialisation of wildlife parts’. Transactions of the 54th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference, 17-22 March, Omni Shoreham Hotel, Washington, D.C., 314-23.

Graetz, RD Wilson M A and Campbell (1995) Land cover disturbance over the Australian continent - a contemporary assessment CSIRO and Biodiversity Unit , Dept of Environment Sport and Territories, Canberra

Halstead, B. (1992). Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice No. 41: Traffic in flora and fauna. Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra

Harry Ehmann and Harold Cogger 1985 Australia’s Endangered Herpetofauna: A Review of Criteria and Policies in Biology of Australasian Frogs and Reptiles, ed by Gordon Grigg, Richard Shine and Harry Ehmann, Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, pages 435-47

Holdgate M. (1993) Can wildlife pay for itself IUCN Focus Series Switzerland

Humphries, S., Groves, R. and Mitchell, D (1991) Plant Invasions - the incidence of environmental weeds in Australia Kowari 2, Australian National Parks and Wildlife

118 Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Service, Canberra.

IUCN, 1980. “World conservation strategy: living resource conservation for sustainable development”. IUCN/WWF: Gland, Switzerland. 50pp.

Jakobsson, K.M. and Dragun, A.K. (1989). ‘The economics of species preservation: theory and methodology’. Paper presented to the 33rd AAES Annual Conference, Lincoln College, New Zealand, 6-9 February, 1989.

James Serpell, 1986 Company of Animals, BasleJenkings, C.F.H. (1992). ‘Call to end ban on the export of native birds’. Article in The West Australian newspaper, Monday 13 July 1992.

Jenkins, R.W.G., 1979. The status of endangered Australian reptiles. Pp. 169-176 in “The status of endangered Australasian Wildlife” ed. by M.J. Tyler, Royal Zoological Society of South Australia: Adelaide.

Kingwell, R.S. (1993). ‘Australian native birds: Is export prohibition the best policy?’ Paper presented to the 37th AAES Annual Conference, University of Sydney, 9-11 February 1993.

Kingwell, R.S. (1993). Should we export our native birds? Western Australian Journal of Agriculture 34: 77-82.

Kingwell, R.S. (1994) Should Australia export its Native Birds Review of Marketing and Agricultural Economics 62, 261 - 271

Ley, JF. (1992). Australia’s protection and conservation of wildlife. Report on the review of the Wildlife Protection (Regulations of Exports and Imports) Act 1982 and Regulations. AGPS, Canberra

Long, J.L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World. A.H. & A.W. Reed Pty Ltd, Sydney, 528 pp.

Long, J.L. (1985). ‘Damage to cultivated fruit by parrots in the south of Western Australia’. Australian Wildlife Research 12: 75-80.

Manly, C. (1992). ‘DNA test may shoot down smugglers’. Article in the Sunday Times newspaper, Sunday 29 November 1992.

Mell, D. and Wetherall, J. (1992). ‘To catch a thief’. Landscope 7: 28-32.

119 Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Mirtschin P (1993) A case for deregulation of the keeping and taking of reptiles, Herpetofauna 23 1

Mirtschin, P (1994) The conservation and human benefits of keeping snakes in captivity Herpetofauna 24 33

Moran, A Chisholm A and Porter M (1991) Markets, Resources and the Environment Tasman Institute Melbourne.

National Academy of Sciences (1987). Balancing the national interest: US national security export controls and global economic competition, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 321 pp.

National Bird Pest Workshop Proceedings, (1990) edited by P Fleming, I Temby, J Thompson, Dept Conservation, Forests and Lands Victoria and NSW Agriculture and Fisheries.

Native Birds Liberation Alliance, Sydney, personal communication, 25 January 1995

Nias R C (1995) Using it or Losing it: the commercial exploitation of wildlife in Australia. World Wide Fund for Nature Sydney

Rabb G B (1994) Conservation Strategies for Sustainability Species Survival Commission Newsletter Number 21 -22 IUCN

Rice, M., and Williams, C ( 1995)The Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo -Running out of habitat and running out of time ...Royal Australian Ornithologists Union, Melbourne.

Ride, W.D.L. and Wilson, G.R., 1982a. The conservation status of Australian animals. Pp27-44 in “Species at risk: research in Australia” ed by R.H. Groves and W.D.L. Ride. Australian Academy of Science: Canberra.

Ride, W.D.L. and Wilson, G.R., 1982c. Appendix 1. Australian animals at risk. Pp 191-203 in “Species at risk: research in Australia” ed. by R.H. Groves and W.D.L. Ride. Australian Academy of Science: Canberra.

Ride, W.D.L. and Wilson, GR., 1982. Towards informed management. Pp181-9 in “Species at risk: research in Australia” ed by RH. Groves and WDL. Ride. Australian Academy of Science: Canberra.

Saddler, J., Bennett, J., Reynolds, I. and Smith, B. (1980). Public choice in Tasmania,

120 Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles aspects of the lower Gordon river hydro proposal. CRES Monograph, Australian National University, Canberra.

Saunders, DA., Rowley, I. and Smith, GT. (1985). The effects of clearing for agriculture on the distribution of cockatoos in the south-west of Western Australia’ pp. 309-21. In: Birds of Eucalypt Forests and Woodlands: Ecology, Conservation, Management Ed by: Keast, Recher, Ford and Saunders. Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd, Chipping Norton, New South Wales.

Saunders, G, Coman B, Kinnear, J and Braysher M. (1995) Managing Vertebrate Pests - Foxes Bureau of Resource Sciences and AGPS, Canberra.

Schermur J (1995) Karl Poppers Politics: Liberalism, versus Democratic Socialism Centre for Independent Studies, Sydney.

Serpell, J (1986) Company of Animals, Blackwell, Basil

Thommasen, H.V., Thomson, M.J., Shutler, G.G. and Kirby, L.T. (1989). ‘Development of DNA fingerprints for use in wildlife forensic science. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17: 321-6.

Tisdell, C. (1979). ‘On the economics of saving wildlife from extinction’. Paper for section 24, Economics, ANZAAS conference, University of Auckland, New Zealand, 22-26 January 1979.

TRAFFIC (1987). ‘Australian bird eggs smuggled to the US’. Traffic Bulletin 8(1): 12. Published by the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Unit, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.

Trexler, M.C. and Kosloff, L.H. (1989). ‘Regulatory enforcement and implementation theory as predictors of the performance of wildlife trade controls: A case study’. Transactions of the 54th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference (ed. R.E. McCabe). 17022 March 1989, Washington, D.C., 324-32.

WAAM (1992). ‘The future of bird breeding and exporting birds from Australia’. Notes on a talk by Toby Martin to the Avicultural Society of Western Australia. Western Australian Avicultural Magazine 34(9): 13-17.

Warren, L.S. (1992). ‘Poachers, conservationists, and ecosystems: local struggles over American wildlife’. Transactions of the 57th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference (Ed. R.E. McCabe), 27 March - 1 April 1992, Radisson Plaza

121 Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Hotel, North Carolina, 711-16.

Wetton, H., Carter, R.E., Parkin, D.T. and Walters, D. (1987). ‘Demographic study of a wild house sparrow population by DNA fingerprinting’. Nature 327: 147-9

Williams, K. Parer, I. Coman, B., Burley, J., and Braysher, M. (1995) Managing Vertebrate Pests - Rabbits, Bureau of Resource Sciences and Australian Nature Conservation Agency, AGPS, Canberra.

Wilson, G, McNee, A. and Platts, P, (1992) Wild Animal Resources, The Use by Aboriginal Communities, Bureau of Resource Sciences, AGPS, Canberra.

Wilson, GR, Dexter, N O’Brien, P and Bomford, M (1992) Pest Animals in Australia - a survey of introduced wild animals , Bureau of Resource Sciences, and Kangaroo Press, Sydney

Wilson, GR., 1983. Endangered animals — an overview. Aust. Ranger Bulletin. 2(3): 76-8.

Woods, L.E. (1983) Land degradation in Australia AGPS, Canberra.

Yancey, R.K. (1980). ‘Implications of international conventions on management of living resources’. Transactions of the 45th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference, 22-26 March, Deauville Hotel, Florida, 38-44. Blackwell.

Young M D (1992) Sustainable investment and resource use - equity environmental integrity and economic efficiency Man and the Biosphere Series, 9

122 APPENDIX

Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Regulations 1992

Birds

• stubble quail Coturnix novaezelandiae • brown quail Coturnix australias • little button-quail Turnix velox • red-backed button-quail Turnix maculosa • painted button-quail Turnix varia • black-breasted button-quail Turnix melanogaster • red-chester button-quail Turnix pyrrhothorax • bar-shouldered dove Geopelia humeralis • crested pigeon Ocyphaps lophotes • emerald dove Chalcophaps indica • common bronzewing Phaps chalcoptera • white-headed pigeon Columba leucomela • brush bronzewing Phaps elegans • spinifex pigeon Petrophassa plumifera • squatter pigeon Petrophassa scripta • partridge pigeon Petrophassa smithii

• Pacific black duck Anas superciliosa • grey teal anas gibberifrons • chestnut teal Anas castanea • maned duck Chenonetta jubata • Cape Barren goose Cereopsis novaehollandiae • Australian shelduck Tadorna tadornoides

• red-rumped parrot Psephotus haematonotus • mulga parrot Psephotus varius • hooded parrot Psephotus dissimilis • Bourke's parros Neophema bourkii • scarlet-chested parrot Neophema splendida • long-billed corella Cacatua tenuirostris • alexandra's (princess) parrot Polytelis alexandrae • superb parrot Polytelis swainsonii • regent parrot Polytelis anthopeplus • red-capped parrot Purpureicephalus spurius • rosellas - all kinds, except Platycercus species except • green rosella Platycercus caledonicus

• Mallee ringneck Barnardius barnardi • Cloncurry parrot Barnardius barnardi macgillivrayi • Port Lincoln ringneck Barnardius zonarius • twenty-eight parrot Barnardius zonarius semitorquatus

Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

• red-vented blue bonnet parrot Northiella haematogaster haemotorrhous • yellow-vented Blue bonnet parrot Northiella haematogaster haemotogaster • blue-winged parrot Neophema chrysostoma • elegant parrot Neophema elegans

• rock parrot Neophema petrophila • turquoise parrot Neophema pulchella • Australian king parrot Alisterus scapularis • red-winged parrot Aprosmictus erythropterus • scaly-breasted lorikeet Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus • rainbow lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus • red-collared lorikeet Trichoglossus rubritorquis • varied lorikeet Psitteuteles versicolor • little lorikeet Glossopsitta pusilla • musk lorikeet Glossopsitta concinna • purple-crowned lorikeet Glossopsitta porphyrocephala • • long-tailed finch Poephila acuticauda • double-barred finch Poephila bichenovii • masked finch Poephila personata • black-throated finch Poephila cincta • diamond firetail Emblema guttata • painted firetail Emblema picta • red-browed firetail Emblema temporalis • crimson finch Neochmia phaeton • star finch Neochmia ruficauda • plum-headed finch Aidemosyne modesta • chestnut-breasted mannikin Lonchura castaneothorax • yellow-rumped mannikin Lonchura flaviprymna • pictorella mannikin Lonchura pectoralis • gouldian finch Erythrura gouldiae • blue-faced finch Erythrura trichroa

• Red wattlebird Anthochaera carunculata • Silvereye Zosterops lateralis

Reptiles • broad-shelled tortoise Chelodina expansa • Oblong River turtle Chelodina oblonga • northern snapping turtle Elseya dentata • saw-shelled turtle Elseya latisternum • unnamed species Elseya "petshoppi"

• spiny-tailed gecko Diplodactylus ciliaris • western stone gecko Diplodactylus granariensis

cxxiv Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

• southern spiny-tailed gecko Diplodactylus intermedius • wood gecko Diplodactylus vittatus • Bynoe's gecko Heteronotia binoei • desert cave gecko Heteronotia spelea • beaded gecko Lucasium dameum • northern dtella Gehyra australis • tree dtella Gehyra variegata • smooth-flanked gecko Nephrurus laevissimus • knob-tailed gecko Nephrurus levis • marbled velvet gecko Oedura marmorata • southern spotted velvet gecko Oedura tryoni • thick-tailed gecko Underwoodisaurus milii

• eastern bearded dragon Pogona barbatus • tree dragon Amphibolurus muricatus • central bearded dragon Pogona vitticeps • eastern water dragon Physignathus lesueuri lesueuri • Gippsland water dragon Physignathus lesueuri howitti

• delicate skink Lampropholis delicata • garden skink Lampropholis guichenoti • grass skink Leiolopisma entrecastaeauxii • eastern water skink Sphenomorphus quoyii • southern water skink Sphenomorphus tympanum • black rock skink Egernia saxatilis • Gidgee skink Egernia stokesii • red-throated skink Leiolopisma platynotum • eastern three-lined skink Leiolopisma duperreyi • Bougainville's skink Lerista bougainvillii • Burrowing skink Lerista picturata • Boulenger's skink Morethia boulengeri • Spencer's skink Pseudemoia spenceri • ocellated skink Ctenotus pantherinus • regal striped skink Ctenotus regius • major skink Egernia frerei • Hosmer's skink Egernia hosmeri • King's skink Egernia kingii • land mullet Egernia major • no common name Egernia margaretae • tree skink Egernia striolata

• ridge-tailed monitor Varanus acanthurus • sand goanna Varanus gouldii

• children's python Bothrochilus childreni

cxxv Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

• water python Bothrochilus fuscus • olive python Bothrochilus olivaceus

• freshwater snake Styporhynchus mairii • common or green tree snake Dendrelaphis punctulatus • slatey-grey snake Stegonotus cucullatus

Amphibians • water-holding frog Cyclorana platycephala • dwarf tree frog Litoria fallax • dainty tree frog Litoria gracilenta • giant tree frog Litoria infrafrenata • green tree frog Litoria caerulea • whistling tree frog Litoria verreauxi • Peron's tree frog Litoria peroni • striped marsh frog Limnodynastes peroni

Mammals • common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula • common ringtail possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus

Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Regulations 1992

Birds • Australian shoveler Anas rhynchotis • magpie goose Anseranas semipalmata • hardhead Aythya australis • wandering whistling-duck Dendrocygna arcuata • plumed whistling-duck Dendrocygna eytoni • Radjah shelduck Tadorna radjah • pink-eared duck Malacorhynchus membranaceus • black swan Cygnus atratus • black-tailed native-hen Gallinula ventralis

• golden-shouldered parrot Psephotus chrysopterygius • eclectus parrot Eclectus roratus

• chesnut-backed button-quail Turnix castanota

• rose-crowned fruit-dove Ptilinopus regina • flock bronzewing Phaps histrionica • brown cuckoo-dove Macropygia amboinensis • torresian imperial-pigeon Ducula spilorrhoa • topknot pigeon Lopholaimus antarcticus

cxxvi Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

• Wonga Pigeon Leucosarcia melanoleuca

• banded lapwing Vanellus tricolor • masked lapwing Vanellus miles

• Australian magpie Gymnorhina tibicen

• laughing kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae

Amphibians • great barred frog Mixophyes fasciolatus • giant barred frog Mixophyes iteratus • Rocky River frog [also known as Lesuer's frog] Litoria lesueri • variegated river tree frog Litoria citropa [also known as Blue Mountains tree frog] • leaf green tree frog Litoria phyllochroa • red groined froglet Crinia haswelli • southern smooth froglet Geocrinia laevis • common spadefoot toad Neobatrachus sudelli

Reptiles • Krefft's river turtle Emydura kreffti

• southern legless lizard Delma australis • olive legless lizard Delma inornata

• crested dragon Amphibolurus cristatus • tawny dragon Amphibolurus decresii • Peninsula dragon Amphibolurus fionii • Mallee dragon Ctenophorus fordi • military dragon Amphibolurus isolepis • central netted dragon Amphibolurus nuchalis • painted dragon Ctenophorus pictus • western netted dragon Amphibolurus reticulatus • red-barred dragon Amphibolurus vadnappa • Gilbert's dragon Lophognathus gilberti • long-nosed water dragon Lophognathus longirostris • pored earless dragon Tympanocryptis tetraporophora • narrow-banded sandswimmer Eremiascincus fasciolatus

• pigmy mulga monitor Varanus gilleni • mangrove monitor Varanus indicus • Merten's water monitor Varanus mertensi • Storr's monitor Varanus storri • black-headed monitor Varanus tristis

cxxvii Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

• tree goanna Varanus varius

• Burton's snake-lizard Lialis burtonis • common scaly-foot Pygopus lepidopodus • hooded scaly-foot Pygopus nigriceps

• pink-tongued skink Tiliqua gerrardii • Centralian blue-tongued lizard Tiliqua multifasciata • western blue-tongued lizard Tiliqua occipitalis

• tessellated gecko Diplodactylus tessellatus

• black-headed python Aspidites melanocephalus • amethystine python Morelia amethistina • carpet python Morelia spilota variegata • diamond python Morelia spilota spilota

• yellow-faced whip snake Demansia psammophis • northern tree snake Dendrelaphis calligasteri • eastern small-eyed snake Cryptophis nigrescens • curl Snake Suta suta

• white-lipped snake Drysdalia coronoides • little whip snake Unechis flagellum • Mitchel's short-tailed snake Unechris nigriceps • brown tree snake Boiga irregularis

A Category 3 private wildlife licence allows the holder to possess, keep and breed, buy sell and dispose of wildlife in all three schedules including the following less common species. Transactions involving species of Category 3 must be must be notified to the Game and Wildlife Licensing Unit within 14 days of the date of the event.

Schedule 3 of the Wildlife Regulations 1992

PART A Birds • white-tailed black-cockatoo Calyptorhynchus baudinii • yellow-tailed black-cockatoo Calyptorhynchus funereus • red-tailed black-cockatoo Calyptorhynchus magnificus magnificus • gang-gang cockatoo Callocephalon fimbriatum • pink (Major Mitchell) cockatoo Cacatua leadbeateri • swift parrot Lathamus discolor • Naretha blue-bonnet parrot Northiella haematogaster narethae

cxxviii Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

PART B Birds • green rosella Platycercus caledonicus • double-eyed fig-parrot Psittaculirostris diophthalma

• freckled duck Stictonetta naevosa • cotton pygmy-goose Nettapus coromandelianus • green pygmy-goose Nettapus pulchellus • blue-billed duck Oxyura australias • musk duck Biziura lobata

• superb fruit-dove Ptilinopus superbus • wompoo fruit-dove Ptilinopus magnificus • superb fairy-wren Malurus cyaneus • splendid fairy-wren Malurus splendens • variegated fairy-wren Malurus lamberti • white-winged fairy-wren Malurus leucopterus

• spotted pardalote Pardalotus punctatus • beautiful firetail Emblema bella • red-eared firetail Emblema oculata • scarlet honeyeater Myzomela sanguinolenta • crimson chat Ephthianura tricolor • white-fronted chat Ephthianura albifrons

Reptiles • saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus • freshwater crocodile Crocodylus johnstoni

• Brook's striped skink Ctenotus brooksi • Schomburgh's skink Ctenotus schomburghii

• fat-tailed gecko Diplodactylus conspicillatus • jewelled gecko Diplodactylus elderi • giant cave gecko Pseudothecadactylus lindneri • bearded gecko Rhynchoedura ornata

• frilled lizard Chlamydosaurus Kingii

• Woma python Aspidites ramsayi • green tree python Chondropython viridis • Centralian carpet python Morelia bredli

• common death adder Acanthophis antarcticus

cxxix Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

• northern death adder Acanthophis praelongus • central death adder Acanthophis pyrrhus

• copperhead Australaps superbus • Stephen's banded snake Hoplocephalus stephensii • black tiger snake Notechis ater • tiger snake Notechis scutatus • taipan Oxyuranus scutellatus • small-scaled snake Parademansia microlepidota • King brown snake Pseudechis australis • Collett's snake Pseudechis coletti • spotted black snake Pseudechis guttatus • red-bellied black snake Pseudechis porphyriacus • dugite Pseudonaja affinis • speckled brown snake Pseudonaja guttata • western brown snake Pseudonaja nuchalis • eastern brown snake Pseudonaja textilis

Amphibians • green and golden grass frog Litoria aurea • giant burrowing frog Helioporus australiacus • growling gross frog Litoria raniformis • southern toadlet Pseudophryne semimarmorata

cxxx Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Threatened Australian Bird Taxa

cxxxi Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Presumed to be extinct * emu (Tasmanian subspecies) Dromaius novaehollandiae diemenensis * King Island emu Dromaius ater * Kangaroo Island emu dromaius baudinianus * Lewin's rail (Western Australian subspecies) Rallus pectoralis clelandi * buff-banded rail (Macquarie Island subspecies) Gallirallus philippensis maquariensis * white gallinule Porphyrio albus * white-throated Pigeon (Lord Howe Island subspecies) Columba vitiensis godmanae * Norfolk Island ground dove Gallicolumba norfolciensis * New Zealand pigeon (Norfolk Island subspecies) Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae spadicea * paradise parrot Psephotus pulcherrimus * red-capped parakeet (Macquarie Island subspecies) Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae erythrotis * red-capped parakeet (Lord Howe Island subspecies) Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae subflavescens * Norfolk Island kaka Nestor productus * southern boobook (Lord Howe Island subspecies) Ninox novaeseelandiae albaria * Rufous bristlebird (western subspecies) Dasyornis broadbenti littoralis * Lord Howe Gerygone Gerygone insularis * northern scrub-robin (Roper River subspecies) Drymodes superciliaris colcloughi * grey fantail (Lord Howe Island subspecies) Rhipidura fuliginosa cervina * long-tailed triller (Norfolk Island subspecies) Lalage leucopyga leucopyga * robust white-eye Zosterops strenuus * Island thrush (Lord Howe Island subspecies) Turdus poliocephalus vinitinctus * Tasman starling (Norfolk Island subspecies) Aplonis fusca fusca * Tasman starling (Lord Howe Island subspecies) Aplonis fusca hulliana Endangered * Cape Barren goose (western sub-species) Cereopsis novaehollandiae grisea * Gould's petrel (Australian subspecies) Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera * wandering albatross (southern subspecies)Diomedea exulans chionoptera * Abbott's booby Papasula abbotti * wedge-tailed eagle (Tasmanian sub-species) Aquila audax fleayi * buff-banded rail (Cocos (Keeling) Island subspecies) Gallirallus philippensis andrewsi * Antarctic tern (New Zealand subspecies) Sterna vittata bethunei * red-tailed black cockatoo (south-eastern subspecies) Calyptorhynchus banksii graptogyne * glossy black Cockatoo (Kangaroo Island subspecies) Calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus * double-eyed fig-parrot (southern subspecies) Cyclopsitta diophthalma coxeni * golden-shouldered parrot Psephotus chrysopterygius * red-capped parakeet (Norfolk Island subspecies) Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cookii * orange-bellied parrot Neophema chrysogaster * ground parrot (western subspecies) Pezoporus wallicus flaviventris * southern boobook (Norfolk Island subspecies) Ninox novaeseelandiae undulata * noisy scrub-bird Atrichornis clamosus * southern emu-wren (Mount Lofty Ranges subspecies) Stipiturus malachurus intermedius * forty-spotted pardalote Pardalotus quadragintus * western bristlebird Dasyornis longirostris * regent honeyeater Xanthomyza phrygia * black-eared miner Manorina melanotis * yellow-tufted (helmeted) honeyeater Lichenostomus melanops cassidix * western whipbird (western heath subspecies) Psophodes nigrogularis nigrogularis * star finch (eastern subspecies) Neochmia ruficaudata ruficaudata * gouldian finch Erythrura gouldiae * white-chested white-eye Zosterops albogularis * Island thrush (Norfolk Island subspecies) Turdus poliocephalus poliocephalus

cxxxii Executive Summary Sustainable Economic Use of Birds & Reptiles

Vulnerable * southern cassowary (Australian subspecies) Casuarius casuarius johnsonii * Malleefowl Leipoa ocellata * Kermadec petrel (western subspecies) Pterodroma neglecta neglecta * soft-plumaged petrel (northern subspecies) Pterodroma mollis deceptionis * Gould's petrel (Australian subspecies) Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera * fairy prion (southern subspecies) Pachyptila turtur subantarctica * grey-headed albatross Diomedea chrysostoma * white-bellied storm-petrel (Australian subspecies) Fregetta grallaria grallaria * imperial shag (Heard Island subspecies) Leucocarbo atriceps nivalis * imperial shag (Maquarie Island subspecies) Leucocarbo atriceps purpurascens * Christmas frigatebird Fregata andrewsi * brown goshawk Accipiter fasciatus * red goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus * Lord Howe woodhen Gallirallus sylvestris * painted button-quail (WA sub-species) Turnix varia scintillans * black-breasted button-quail Turnix melanogaster * plains-wanderer Pedionomus torquatus * beach stone-curlew Esacus neglectus * Antarctic tern (Indian & Atlantic Ocean subspecies) Sterna vittata vittata * little tern Sterna albifrons * lesser noddy Anous tenuirostris * partridge pigeon (eastern subspecies) Geophaps smithii smithii * squatter pigeon (southern subspecies) Geophaps scripta scripta * western corella (southern subspecies) Cacatua pastinator pastinator * short-billed black cockatoo Calyptorhynchus latirostris * superb parrot Polytelis swainsonii * regent parrot (eastern subspecies) Polytelis anthopeplus anthopeplus * swift parrot Lathamus discolor * Christmas Island hawk-owl Ninox squamipila natalis * purple-crowned fairy-wren (western subspecies) Malurus coronatus coronatus * southern emu-wren (Eyre Peninsula subspecies) Stipiturus malachurus parimeda * Mallee emu-wren Stipiturus mallee * thick-billed grasswren (western subspecies) Amytornis textilis textilis * thick-billed grasswren (eastern subspecies) Amytornis textilis modestus * eastern bristlebird Dasyornis brachypterus * scarlet robin (Norfolk Island subspecies)Petroica multicolor multicolor * western whipbird (eastern subspecies) Psophodes nigrogularis leucogaster * red-lored whistler Pachycephala rufogularis * golden whistler (Norfolk Island subspecies) Pachycephala pectoralis xanthoprocta * pied currawong (Lord Howe Island subspecies) Strepera graculina crissalis * black-throated finch (southern subspecies)Poephila cincta cincta

cxxxiii