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Oscar David Caicedo / Tesis Doctoral Oscar David Caicedo M. Tesis Doctoral ¿Cultura animal no humana? Hacia un nuevo concepto de cultura desde la biología evolutiva Directora Ana Cuevas Badallo Programa de Doctorado en Lógica y Filosofía de la Ciencia 2016 Diseño de la portada: Pablo Díez Calvo (www.trinomio.net). Idea original: Oscar David Caicedo. Imágenes de la portada: Oscar David Caicedo – Tetsuro Matsuzawa. A mi hijo, mi primate favorito. ¿Cultura animal no humana? Hacia un nuevo concepto de cultura... 7 Agradecimientos Expreso mi infinita deuda de gratitud a mis compañeros del Grupo de Investigación Holosapiens por su colaboración en la realización de esta investigación, principalmente a Eduardo Bermúdez Barrera, David Dahmen, René Campis, Jorge Senior y Osvaldo Orozco. Al Instituto Colombiano para el Desarrollo de la Ciencia y la Tecnología – Colciencias, pues sin la Beca concedida hubiese sido supremamente difícil llevar a feliz término mis estudios de Doctorado y la investigación aquí contenida. De igual manera a la Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y a la Vicerrectoría de Investigaciones de la Universidad del Atlántico. Estoy especialmente agradecido con mi Directora de Tesis Ana Cuevas Badallo, quien siempre estuvo atenta del progreso de la misma, ofreciéndome sugerencias, observaciones, ideas y críticas que llevaron por buen camino la investigación. Presento también mi gratitud al personal del Instituto de Estudios de la Ciencia y la Tecnología; especialmente a Esther Palacios Mateos por su colaboración durante todos estos años y a mis compañeros por sus voces de aliento. Doy gracias a los investigadores Andrew Whiten, Franz Wuketits, Hans-Johann Glock, Jesús Mosterín y Frans de Waal por las lecturas recomendadas. A los profesores Antonio Diéguez, Elisabetta Visalberghi y Tetsuro Matsuzawa por ceder un poco de su tiempo para 8 Oscar David Caicedo / Tesis Doctoral escuchar mis inquietudes y ofrecerme sus sugerencias en diversos congresos donde coincidimos. También agradezco al profesor Fernando Colmenares, director del Grupo de Estudio del Comportamiento Animal y Humano de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid, por leer este trabajo durante mi fase de investigación, brindándome valiosas críticas y observaciones. A Miquel Llorente, actual Presidente de la Asociación Primatológica Española, quien me recibió por una semana en el Centro de Investigación Primate de la Fundación Mona, en Girona, durante el verano de 2015, y a Josep Call, por recibirme en el Instituto Max Planck de Antropología Evolutiva, en Leipzig, Alemania, en la primavera de 2016, donde hablamos sobre muchos temas relacionados con la cultura animal y la existencia de la transmisión social entre animales no humanos, además de permitirme el acceso al Wolfgang Köhler Primate Research Center, el cual dirige. A mi familia, por su confianza y su apoyo constante. Oscar David Caicedo M. Salamanca, España. Otoño de 2016. ¿Cultura animal no humana? Hacia un nuevo concepto de cultura... 9 Índice Introducción…………………………….. 11 PRIMERA PARTE. EL PROGRAMA SOCIOBIOLÓGICO.…….… 25 Capítulo Primero. Los genes, el medio y las conductas sociales.. 27 1. Sobre la Sociobiología. Un preámbulo necesario…… 27 2. La doble evolución genes/cultura……………….... 37 3. Naturalezas humanas y culturas humanas………….. 44 4. Los genes culturales: Los memes………..…..….. 50 5. Conclusiones de este capítulo……………….. 62 SEGUNDA PARTE. BIOLOGÍA Y CULTURA……….…….. 65 Capítulo Segundo. La evolución biológica, la cultura y el continuum animal-humano………………………..…. 67 1 Antropomorfismo y antroponegación. …………….……74 1.1. El Canon de Morgan………………………..….. 78 1.2. Procesos mentales en animales no humanos…….….. 86 1.3. Intencionalidad animal y ‘teoría de la mente’………... 110 2. Evolución cultural acumulativa y ‘efecto trinquete’…...….. 126 2.1 ¿Evolución cultural acumulativa en animales no humanos?... 132 3. El concepto biológico de cultura………………….….. 142 4. El indispensable papel del aprendizaje social en la cultura.. 165 4.1. Imitación y emulación……………….…….. 166 5. Conclusiones de este capítulo……………………….. 185 10 Oscar David Caicedo / Tesis Doctoral Capítulo Tercero. Cultura y primatología……………189 1. El orden de los primates…………………..…….190 2. Tradiciones primates……………………...…197 3. Utilización de herramientas…………………..... 206 3.1. Variación tecnológica dependiendo del objetivo…..225 3.2. Herramientas de piedra………………….. 228 4. Otros rasgos culturales en animales no primates…….. 232 5. Conclusiones de este capítulo………………….. 241 4. Conclusiones…………………………….. 243 1. Cultura animal no humana……………………..…….. 243 2. ¿Cultura animal con dependencia del hábitat? .……..….. 247 Bibliografía ...…………………...…………………... 251 ¿Cultura animal no humana? Hacia un nuevo concepto de cultura... 11 Introducción El tema principal de este trabajo nació de discusiones con Eduardo Bermúdez Barrera y René Campis Carrillo, ambos miembros fundadores del Grupo de Investigación Holosapiens, grupo al cual pertenezco en Colombia desde hace poco más de diez años. Se hablaba sobre la posibilidad de hacer un trabajo que hiciera justicia al filósofo y sociólogo colombiano Wilderson Archbold, toda vez que aún cuando este realizó interesantes teorizaciones sobre biología, cultura, política, filosofía, sociología y antropología tomando como punto de partida algunas ideas de Charles Darwin, muchas de sus investigaciones se encuentran en un claroscuro, siendo conocidas solo por pequeños grupos intelectuales colombianos interesados en tales temas. Generalmente, en diferentes campos y áreas del conocimiento, destacan mentes brillantes que proponen hipótesis arriesgadas cuya comprobación o refutación les ofrece merecido reconocimiento dentro del campo al cual dedican sus horas de trabajo. Pero de igual manera, pasan desapercibidos algunos personajes que por alguna u otra razón no obtienen tal reconocimiento, aunque sus trabajos de investigación sean significativamente valiosos y la lectura de los mismos nos ofrezca una visión novedosa y clara sobre el tema que tratan. Wilderson Archbold hace parte del segundo grupo. 12 Oscar David Caicedo / Tesis Doctoral Pero consciente de que un trabajo verdaderamente propositivo debe versar sobre ideas y problemas más que sobre personas y autores, y luego de discutir al respecto con mi directora de tesis, se planteó la posibilidad de investigar sobre el origen biológico de la cultura, con lo que se cumpliría un doble propósito: primero, ofrecer los argumentos necesarios para sustentar que la cultura tiene un origen biológico- adaptativo, producto de miles de años de evolución, sugiriendo a su vez un concepto alternativo al ya existente y defendido por John Bonner, Frans de Waal, Andrew Whiten, entre otros; y segundo, resultado tal vez de ello, defender la posición de que no solo el animal humano tiene manifestaciones culturales, sino que es una condición que compartimos con muchos otros animales sociales, hecho evidente en los primates filogenéticamente más próximos a nosotros, los grandes simios. Si nos reconocemos como un producto (inacabado) de la evolución, como los demás animales, entonces no es procedente zanjar distancias insalvables entre estos y nosotros. Hablamos aquí de continuidad biológica. La conexión entre esto y el propósito inicial está en que Wilderson Archbold estaba convencido de que un estudio cuidadoso de la evolución biológica del animal humano ofrecería las herramientas necesarias para teorizar sobre la evolución cultural y su origen. En esta investigación no se intentará dar cuenta de todos los muchos giros que han llevado a las ideas darwinistas a la situación actual. El darwinismo, como cualquier otra teoría científica, está sujeta a cambios, modificaciones y revisiones y, aunque aquí no se muestre un panorama completo de las transformaciones del darwinismo a lo largo de su historia (ese no es el objetivo de esta investigación), sea ¿Cultura animal no humana? Hacia un nuevo concepto de cultura... 13 suficiente para mostrar que la teoría de Darwin no es algo inamovible. Nuevos hechos y nuevas investigaciones han moldeado la teoría de la evolución de Darwin en su forma actual y muy probablemente el darwinismo sufrirá nuevas transformaciones. Imaginar a los científicos como personas desapasionadas e imparciales en discusiones sobre sus teorías e ideas, es un error. La pasión y el fervor acompañan a todas las discusiones científicas que valgan la pena. Esto se hace particularmente evidente cuando la discusión trata sobre temas como la teoría de la evolución, que afecta directamente a la historia humana y nuestras relaciones con los demás y el mundo que nos rodea, además de chocar con juicios morales y cuestiones éticas (Jablonka & Lamb, 2005). Así, las ideas darwinistas han llegado a nuestros días con importantes cambios, producto de las constantes revisiones a las que han sido sometidos sus postulados básicos propuestos hace ya más de 150 años, por lo que cabe hablar actualmente de neodarwinismo como una manera más actualizada y evolucionada del darwinismo propuesto en El origen de las especies y obras sucesivas. La idea de la evolución tiene una larga historia que se remonta al menos hasta los atomistas de la Grecia presocrática. Pero luego de caer en un largo periodo de aletargamiento producto del auge de las ideas creacionistas impulsadas por la religión judeo-cristiana, a inicios del siglo XIX algunos –como Erasmus Darwin y Jean Baptiste Lamarck–, defendían la idea de la evolución orgánica (Ruse, 1994). Cuando aquí nos referimos a evolución, se hace alusión al concepto básico entendido como “desarrollo y cambio natural de los organismos
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