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Using Meaningful Interpretation and Chunking to Improve Memory: the Case of Chinese Character Learning a Dissertation Submitted USING MEANINGFUL INTERPRETATION AND CHUNKING TO IMPROVE MEMORY: THE CASE OF CHINESE CHARACTER LEARNING A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND THE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDIES OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Xiaoqiu Xu August 2011 © 2011 by Xiaoqiu Xu. All Rights Reserved. Re-distributed by Stanford University under license with the author. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- 3.0 United States License. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/ This dissertation is online at: http://purl.stanford.edu/dg626vz3140 ii I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Amado Padilla, Primary Adviser I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Kenji Hakuta I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Daniel Schwartz Approved for the Stanford University Committee on Graduate Studies. Patricia J. Gumport, Vice Provost Graduate Education This signature page was generated electronically upon submission of this dissertation in electronic format. An original signed hard copy of the signature page is on file in University Archives. iii ABSTRACT Learning and retaining Chinese characters are often considered to be the most challenging elements in learning Chinese as a foreign language. Applying the theory of meaningful interpretation, the chunking mnemonic technique, and the linguistic features of Chinese characters, this study examines whether the method of meaningful interpretation and chunking (MIC) can promote learners’ immediate learning and retention of Chinese characters. Mandarin Chinese learners at two high schools were randomized into a treatment and a control group. Students varied by language level of study (second, third, and fourth year of Mandarin) and whether they were heritage learners of Mandarin or not. Students in the treatment group learned Chinese characters with the MIC method, whereas their peers in the control group learned characters by the traditional method of rote repetition according to the stroke order. Four balanced character sets were introduced each day for 4 continuous days with 3 different interventions: teacher-instructed method on Day 1, teacher-cued method on Day 2, and students’ independent work on Day 3 and Day 4. Students’ learning outcomes of the characters were measured with (a) immediate quizzes given each day after instruction, (b) a retention test (after 1 week) that integrated all immediate quizzes, and (c) an application test administered 2 months after the experiment to determine whether the students could apply the MIC method to their own learning of Chinese characters. The findings suggest that meaningful interpretation and chunking enhances learners’ immediate learning and retention of Chinese characters. Additionally, the teacher-cued iv method and familiar independent work were more effective for learning and retaining Chinese characters than the teacher-instructed method and unfamiliar independent work. However, the treatment effect of the MIC method disappeared in the application test when students were tested 2 months following the study. Furthermore, the treatment effect also varied across the measurement components (meaning versus perception), levels of instruction, and heritage versus non-heritage groups. Based on these findings, implications for future research and teaching practices are suggested. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT These five years of doctoral studies have been amazingly transformative. I owe my gratitude to a great many people who have influenced my life and contributed to my intellectual, social, and emotional growth. My deepest gratitude is to my advisor, Dr. Amado Padilla. I have been incredibly fortunate to have an advisor who not only enlightened me with his profound knowledge and research experience in the academic field, but also acted as a mentor for my professional and personal life. His patience, support, and encouragement empowered me to overcome obstacles and difficulties, and advance my pursuit of academic achievements as well as personal and professional goals. I also want to express my deep gratitude to my research assistantship supervisor, Dr. Duarte Silva, who has always been there to listen, support, and give me advice. He taught me how to face every challenge with diligence, enthusiasm, and positive expectation. Furthermore, I am grateful to Professors Dan Schwartz and Kenji Hakuta, my dissertation committee members, who provided insightful comments and constructive feedback on my dissertation as well as other research ideas and topics that interested me. I would like to acknowledge Professor Chaofun Sun for acting as University chair of my dissertation oral defense and having many valuable discussions with me regarding Chinese language teaching, and to Ms. Janet Shyr, Ms. Yanan Vrudny, and Ms. Linda Chen, who allowed me to conduct my experiments in their classrooms and gave me tremendous help in organizing and revising the teaching procedure of my experiments. vi Finally, to my husband and my parents, you are truly the wind beneath my wings. Your love, patience, and faithful support are the greatest gift and are deeply appreciated during the final stages of this Ph.D. Thank you! vii Table of Contents ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. vi Table of Contents .............................................................................................................viii List of Tables....................................................................................................................... x List of Figures.................................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1 The Importance and Expansion of Chinese Language Instruction.................................. 1 Current Status of CFL Teaching and Research................................................................ 4 Learning Chinese Characters: the Most Debated Area in CFL....................................... 6 Purpose of the Study........................................................................................................ 7 CHAPTER 2 ARE CHINESE CHARACTERS RANDOM SYMBOLS?....................... 9 Chinese Being a Difficult Language ............................................................................... 9 Chinese Character Being the Most Difficult Element in Chinese Language ................ 10 Unraveling the Hidden Story: Chinese Characters Are Not Random Symbols ............ 14 CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................ 19 Meaningful Interpretation and Chunking...................................................................... 19 Meaningful Interpretation and Chunking in Cognitive Psychology ............................. 19 Teaching Approaches of Chinese Characters ................................................................ 28 Relationship between Radical Knowledge and Chinese Character Acquisition ........... 29 Making Meaningful Interpretation of Chinese Characters: The Role of Instruction .... 31 Prior Knowledge of Chinese and Heritage Learners..................................................... 33 Proposed MIC Method .................................................................................................. 35 CHAPTER 4 PILOT STUDY....................................................................................... 37 Methods......................................................................................................................... 38 Results ........................................................................................................................... 41 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 43 Changes Needed to Be Made for the Proposed Study................................................... 45 CHAPTER 5 INSTRUMENTATION AND METHODOLOGY.................................... 48 Participants .................................................................................................................... 48 Materials........................................................................................................................ 50 Design............................................................................................................................ 51 Procedure....................................................................................................................... 56 Measurement ................................................................................................................. 61 CHAPTER 6 RESULTS................................................................................................ 62 DATA ANALYSIS........................................................................................................
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