Brother Joseph Mcnally P

Design Education in Asia 2000- 2010 Exploring the impact of institutional ‘twinning’ on graphic design education in Singapore

Simon Richards Z3437992

Although Singapore recently celebrated 50 years of graphic design, relatively little documentation exists about the history of graphic design in the island state. This research explores Singaporean design education institutes that adopted ‘twinning’ strategies with international design schools over the last 20 years and compares them with institutions that have retained a more individual and local profile. Seeking to explore this little-studied field, the research contributes to an emergent conversation about Singapore’s design history and how it has influenced the current state of the design industry in Singapore. The research documents and describes the growth resulting from a decade of investment in the creative fields in Singapore. It also establishes a pattern articulated via interviews and applied research involving local designers and design educators who were invited to take part in the research. The content of the interviews demonstrates strong views that reflect the growing importance of creativity and design in the local society. In considering the deliberate practice of Singaporean graphic design schools adopting twinning strategies with western universities, the research posits questions about whether Singapore is now able to confirm that such relationships have been beneficial as viable long-term strategies for the future of the local design industry. If so, the ramifications may have a significant impact not only in Singapore but also in major new education markets throughout Asia, such as the well-supported creative sectors within China and India.

4 Acknowledgements

I would firstly like to thank my supervisors, for the past 2 and a half years, Professor Rick Bennett and Ian McArthur continuous support and guidance, which has been inspiring.

Thanks to Jackson Tan and Justin Zhang whom helped get the ball rolling in the initial research and to whom offered interview gallery space and further contacts when I began my local research in Singapore.

Thanks to Professor Ron Newman and June Gwee both whom contributed local Singapore resources and contacts in Singapore with regards to education, June most importantly gave me access to articles that were extremely hard to come by.

Thanks to Harry Williamson whom initially was an important contact when the topic was focused around Australian design.

Thanks to the students and practitioners who gave up their time and energy for the interviews and organising to talk and share their experiences.

Thanks to Susan Lang-Lemckert for the final few months of editing and having another person seeing over my words.

And finally thanks to family and friends in Singapore and Australia whom have followed me with all your support, whether it is a sofa to crash on, a job, and for your morale support it was all greatly appreciated.

Thank you all very much.

5 Contents Introduction

The founding fathers

2.1 | Brother Joseph McNally P. 39 2.2 | Lim, Hak Tai P. 41 2.3 | Loh, Khee Yew P. 44 2.4 | Dr Earl lu Ming P. 46

The schools, the impact

Twinnings

internationalise higher education P. 85

The industry, designers and government

5.1 | The local push P. 96

5.2 | The twinning influence P. 102

The gap, almost disappearing

6.1 | A change of thinking P. 111 6.2 | Defining points P. 114 6.4 | The foundations changed P. 119

6.5 | Designer growth P. 121

Conclusion: Back to the future

References P. 155

Research statement

The following research is asking questions about the influence of the international design educational providers in the Asian region by focusing on the island city of Singapore, a melting pot of cultures and religions. The journey starts in noting a popular Singaporean adjective - ‘Kiasu’. The 1997 edition of the Australian Macquarie Dictionary defines kiasuism (a concocted noun of the adjective “kiasu”) as, “an obsessive desire for value for money – hailed as a national fixation in Singapore.” Kagda (1993) stated that kiasuism has been dubbed the “negative complement of competitiveness”. Competition breeds a sense of drive and commitment, while kiasuism stems from greed and promotes envy and selfishness. Where competition encourages calculated risk-taking, kiasuism calls for conformity. Translated from Chinese, it means, “scared to lose”, very anxious not to miss an opportunity, or an almost grasping, selfish attitude. (Janice T.S. Ho C.E. Ang Joanne Loh Irene Ng,1998, pp. 359 – 370)

“A city-state, Singapore has a total population of 5.18 million (as at the end of June 2011) Comprising 3.79 million Singapore residents, of which 3.26 million were Singapore citizens, 0.53 million permanents resident and 1.39 million non-residents. In 2011, the resident population comprised 74% Chinese, Malays at 13% and Indians at 9.2%. Since gaining independence in 1965, her per capita gross domestic product has risen 85 times from US$516 per annum to US$43,867 in 2010 (Department of Statistics 2011a, 2011b). To remain relevant in the global marketplace she is constantly learning and adapting to the changing environmental landscape. As Kumar (2008) notes, Singapore is a ‘brand’ that is associated with performance. It is a place where things work and a nation that is constantly reviewing, remaking and refreshing itself. It is viewed as a technocratic state where the political and expert systems of governance appear to have merged (The

Economist 2011a).” (Prem Kumar, 2013)

When we look at education, Singapore is by no means running second in its venture to be ‘The Boston of Asia’. This was highlighted in an Asia Pacific Journal article:

“By 2003, Singapore’s public universities and polytechnics could only enroll around 40,000 and 56,000 students respectively; on the other hand, 119,000 students were enrolled by around 170 private tertiary providers, of which 140 offered programs in collaboration with foreign institutions and enrolled 75% of the total student population in this section. The importance of transnational education provision in Singapore has

therefore become obvious.” (Asian Pacific Journal, Vol. 31,No. 3, pg.8)

By focusing on the ‘twinning’ institutions and their students, I aim to define the impact of ‘twinning’ partnerships and to evidence that these arrangements are here to stay and in a state of constant growth.

“Education is seen as a means of attracting and retaining talent, contributing to the revenue potential of the economy, earning income from the export of education and in projecting soft power. The 2010 Global Cities Index (a collaboration between Foreign Policy, A.T. Kearney and the Chicago Council on Global Affairs) revealed that four of the world’s 10 most global cities were in Asia. They were: Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore and Seoul. Singapore ranked 8th, Tokyo came in 3rd, Hong Kong in 5th and Seoul 10th. One of the criteria used was the size of the city’s immigrant population, the quality of the universities, the number of international schools and the percentage of residents with university degrees. Understanding Singapore’s vulnerabilities and limitations would help to explain the thinking behind the policies.” (Prem Kumar 2013, pg.76)

Rationale for study

Professor Wang Min is the Dean of School of Design at China Central Academy of Fine Arts (CAFA) and is a member of AGI, (Alliance Graphique Internationale) he also served as

9 Vice President of Icograda (2007-2009). Here he writes from experience and reflects on what is clearly upon the design education community. This passage was taken from the (lcograda Manifesto, pg.142,)

‘Icograda is a world body for professional design. It is a non-profit, non-partisan, member-based network of independent organisations and stakeholders working within the multidisciplinary scope of design. Founded in 1963, Icograda actively promotes the value of design practice, thinking, education, research and policy, representing more than 200 organisations in 67 countries and regions globally. ’

He addresses the changing world of design and how we should be sensitive to local culture. An important point he highlights is the mutual respect between cultures, stating that for the role of cultural communication to be a success, we must put certain steps in place. He made this point at the congress held in Taipei, the first meeting of the 2009-2011 term in Beijing, China. The newly-elected Icograda Executive Board unanimously agreed to revisit the ‘Icograda Design Education Manifesto’ to mark the document's 10-year anniversary. While crafting the Icograda Design Education Manifesto update, it became very clear that both the design and education professions have changed dramatically since 2000. The new Icograda Design Education Manifesto and the corresponding essays highlighted the changing landscape and cultural sensibilities of design education. It looked at the new trends and identified new goals that can be used to shape a brighter future for design education with a stronger commitment across the design world.

“Large companies promote globalisation in an attempt to spread their monopoly over the global market. Our world though, is rife with diversity, and many nations are striving to retain their own native cultures. Designers, therefore, have an important role to play in balancing globalization and regional identity, unification and diversification. The potential for understanding the interactions between native culture and the trend of globalization justifies the role of cultural communications. Before cultural communications can be successful we must achieve mutual respect between cultures aggressively forcing a culture on people can only put them off. “ (Professor Wang Min, 2011, pg.142)

Within the broader Asian design context, the significance of which the governing body, ICOGRADA finds relevant, this research addresses ‘twinning’ in design education in Singapore during the years from 2000-2010. Historically, Western education is constantly changing by investigating, reassessing content and the delivery of its design programs, and how they are delivered. It therefore makes sense to look at the creative education systems put in place in South East Asia, a region that has adopted Western design teaching styles and curriculum. Such educational partnerships are perhaps not commonly known as ‘Twinning’ as much any more as the process of twinning’s has such a business focus. Advertising dollars, students signing up, and international recognition is seen as far more important components of these relationships than a ‘Twinning’ definition. However, most interviews recognized the factor and lure of the international ‘Twinning’ arrangement - in other words it signified that they need not apply overseas for their design ventures. It was at this early time in 2000-2010 where students were becoming more aware, and savvy with terminology of international education ‘locally’.

“Implications of globalisation theory for education is underlined by the crises affecting more traditional ways of theorising education and “development”, including

modernisation, human capital and dependency theories” (Prem Kumar, 2013, pg.75)

Given the many ‘twinning’ strategies involving overseas institutions during the past 20 years, it is very useful and relevant in the contemporary design landscape to examine the effects and outcomes of western design and education practice in eastern institutions. Although it was never intended as an integrated master plan to which national plans were expected to conform, ‘The Colombo Plan’ has been a consistent theme throughout South East Asia. It was aimed at providing a framework for bilateral arrangements involving foreign aid and technical assistance for the economic and social development of the region (Auriol Weigold, 2013, pg.13).

“In attempting to transform their university sectors to become globally competitive, many South East Asian governments made serious efforts to benchmark against leading universities in Europe, North America and Australia, to enhance their global competitiveness. Realising the importance of higher education, and the potential of

11 the education market not only for generating additional national income but also for asserting ‘soft power’ in a highly competitive world, governments of Malaysia, Hong Kong and Singapore have put considerable effort toward their quest for regional

education hub status,” (Prem Kumar, 2013, pg.76)

My research has been focused on the local design community and having interviewed selected designers, the qualitative data gathered suggests the ‘twinning’ education platforms have worked to great effect. However, it also seems that graphic design education is going through an evolution, and some countries are examining its values and practices. This is clearly the case in the UK, where The Design Commission of Britain’s recent report “Restarting Britain: design education and growth” poses many questions, including (1) “What are our competitor nations doing?”; and (2) “Where are we now with UK design education?” (Design Commission, Restarting Britain, pg.1). The West appears to be reflecting on the Asian ‘twinning’ ventures and their role in Asian design education. Perhaps, having experienced first-hand Singapore’s appetite for foreign universities, the reaction from the West is focused on what has been learned and what needs to be done to rebuild and create the next evolution in the graphic design education system. It is also about creating methods for catching up with the ever-changing technologies that (somewhat ominously to some) drive change within the industry, online and in the classroom.

The West has definitely changed its business plan. Locally in Singapore the government has increasingly pushed for local, by local. Has it worked? Well, looking back—yes, it has worked in many ways. Singapore’s design culture began and subsequently flourished; students began to stay home instead of leaving their shores to study and from a Singaporean point of view this makes sense as, at the end of the day, such decisions are economically based. While many Western students would consider reputation in the industry when deciding which school it is best to go to, most local Singaporean students, being less aware of such options, skipped the big name reputation schools and went for the fast route in order to finish first—embracing true ‘kiasu’ mentality. This highlights something about the culture and the community. For now graphic design education is important, as evidenced by the investment of many countries in the South East Asian hub. However, the geography of education is changing fast and keeping up with international

12 standards is critical. Singapore has clearly decided how it wants to use design and the evidence is there to prove that it works. It now depends on future investment in the creative industry.

Aims of the study

This work has two main objectives. They are to show:

1. that ‘twinning’ graphic design education institutes in Singapore have made an impact on the local culture.

2. Western design education institutes have changed the perception of graphic design in Singaporean culture.

Significance of the study

One of the more experienced interviewees in the study pointed out that when he landed in Singapore in 1979 the lack of designers and the small scale of the design community surprised him:

Editor 1 “Design, graphic or product, was not considered a career for any local with brains to study. The trade schools turned out art technicians in those days, destined to become paste-up artists in studios. They picked up design while on the job.”

Having come over to lead a design agency, he had no idea the market was like this, and found out first hand how difficult it would be to hire locals. Fast-forward to today and the small island is armed with its own local design universities, with international ‘twinning’ relationships with Western design education institutes. Singapore Institute of Management (S.I.M.), (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology) LaSalle College of the Arts (Goldsmiths College, University of London) S.U.T.D, Singapore University of Technology (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), S.O.T.A, School of the Arts (International Baccalaureate) Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (Loughborogh University, (LU) Purchase College, State University of New York, (SUNY) University of Central Lancashire (UClan) N.U.S, Temasek Polytechnic (Glasgow School of Art - GSOA). He argues that the local scene was,

13 “influenced predominantly by Western thinking, while more and more we see a shift in focus as designers around the world begin to adopt Eastern ideologies. Staying true to the original manifesto, the board acknowledges that East and West have different perspectives on design education, and while these viewpoints may not

entirely coincide, design education can advance through both approaches.”(lcograda Manifesto, pg.6,)

However, while it may be thriving, Singapore still has a long way to go with the design industry and its culture working together. As one interviewee states:

Researcher 1 “Since British advertising agencies brought modern graphic design into Singapore after the Second World War, a thriving community of independent studios has emerged in this former colony in Southeast Asia. Today, Singapore is a modern metropolis set to celebrate fifty years of independence in 2015, but the nation-state is still struggling to create a distinct local identity while earning global recognition—just like its contemporary graphic design scene.”

Literature review

Comparable studies in the educational area in Singapore all revolve about economical benefits and what Singaporeans need to do to adjust to the future changes ahead.

This point is reiterated throughout this research. Olds and Thrift, (2005) indicate that, “Singapore, for example, has actively recruited western business schools as part of a campaign to ‘re-engineer’ its population into enterprising and flexible laborers. Ong (2006) also points out as well, the business side of education in Singapore suggesting,

“The restructuring of higher education more broadly appears to privilege neoliberal and post national subjectivities as students, providers, and their state sponsors favor business, technology, and science programs and the calculative rationalities that these disciplines prise.” (Ong, 2006)

Olds (2007) also addresses Singapore’s foreign focus, and highlights a business emphasis in regards to the “Global Educational Hub”. His findings are used throughout this thesis as his evidence is rather significant, and important to the foundations of my research. I believe

14 his paper is one of the strongest in terms of illustrating the local political trends of the time and distinguishing the reason why Singapore followed particular international trends in their education investment. In discovering Old’s work, economics became extremely important in the research as viable design-related articles pertaining to the relevant period were few and far between. Singapore’s government looked at industry in order to develop policy as (Ong,

2006) correctly points out, but he also addresses the negative impacts of the foreign investment and foreign workers that would come.

“Singapore’s style of ‘governmentality’, where careful engineering, measured approach and strategic control are keywords, will be increasingly challenged by globalisation. The PAP government has successfully engineered the Singapore society in the past. But, with the influx of talented foreigners into the country and the increasing global connectedness of the citizens, the landscape is far more complex now. The complexity of the social interactions in such a cosmopolitan city-state cannot be controlled. For example, National Education has been implemented since 1997. In 2001, a journalist reported that young Singaporeans were uncertain about what constituted a Singaporean national identity (Teo, 2001)” (P.T.Ng/ International Journal of Educational Development 31 (2011) 262–268)

Ong highlights the local feeling and, as to so do (Goh,1997 b) and (Ng, 2005 a), points out that innovation and cultivation of Singaporeans was justified by political “white papers” and economical decision makers. There was to be a huge shift in educational reforms, and it was to be called “Thinking Schools Learning Nation (TSLN). This was launched in 1997 and was geared to position Singapore as a knowledgeable economy, while additionally creating a local talent pool that would provide years of creative potential for the future. Their strategy was to give schools more autonomy to support new education initiatives. This was accompanied by a decentralization of tactical authority while also maintaining key strategic components, aptly described as ‘centralized decentralisation’. (Ng, 2007)

The overarching theme discussed throughout the available literature never really strayed far from an economical focus. Albeit limited in terms of availability the literature in the field does help to strengthen my argument of a constant economic emphasis when discussing education. Singapore’s economical stability keeps rearing its head. As I have noted most of

15 the ‘white papers’ published over the next decade in Singapore continually encouraged the local government to push their new thoughts and ideals all based on economic foundations.

As I discuss in most chapters of this research, it’s rather clear that economics and the business sector dominate when discussing the topic of Singapore’s use of design education and its impact. The findings from interviews throughout this thesis indicate that Singapore’s design culture during the decade this research focuses on, highlight how improvements in education promote societies that have the political capacity to encourage foreign investment that provides their local communities with the stimulus that provides jobs and a secure future.

Limitations

The identification of published literature on design education regarding South East Asian education proved to be the biggest hurdle to this research. When dissecting my terminology, problems also emerge as actual use of the term ‘twinning’ wasn't easy to find. However, the international relationships that existed were very prevalent and visible. It is discernable throughout the literature about the growth in international education in Singapore that began in the late 90’s, whilst not particular known as ‘twinning’ is known by a number of terms that suggest an international global pull. Terminology and titles such as ‘Global Schoolhouse’ as identified by (K.C.Ho,BrendaYeoh) are common. “At its inception, the Global Schoolhouse project was promoted as an East–West bridge and ‘springboard’. It was portrayed as providing rich opportunities to bring a US-centric model of world’s best practice to Singapore’s universities. The East–West analogy played on the island state’s colonial heritage, English speaking population, modern and western friendly government— factors anticipated to attract elite foreign institutions keen to position themselves in an economically dynamic but culturally alien Asia. More recently, a discourse of Asian renaissance has emerged, premised on a shift in political and economic power towards the Asian hemisphere (Mahbubani 2008).”

However, its also evident that many relationships with international schools, can be credited to business schools in Singapore where from 2002 major global universities set up centres, including INSEAD (Institute Europe´en d’Administration des Affaires), University of Chicago Graduate School of Business, University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School, Massachusetts

16 Institute of Technology, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Technische University Munchen, Georgia Institute of Technology and Johns Hopkins University (Ng and Tan, 2010). As a result the local universities were required to push their standards to a much higher level and adopt an entrepreneurial model (Wong et al., 2007). (Pak,Tee Ng,2011,pp 265)

Although I have worked as a design educationalist for almost 19 years in multiple South East Asian countries as I’ve researched the literature I have realised my understanding of ‘Design Education in Asia’ is still in its developmental stages. In many South East Asian regional areas design education hasn't reached it’s the limits of its potential. There is much to be done and much is still unexplored.

Triangulation methodology

Triangulation involves the careful reviewing of data collected through different methods in order to achieve a more accurate and valid estimate of qualitative results for a particular outcome. Triangulation compares information to determine corroboration; in other words, it is a process of qualitative cross-validation (M.Oliver-Hoyo & D.Allen, 2006, pp35-42). Triangulation is one method for increasing the validity of findings by deliberately seeking evidence from a wide range of sources and comparing findings from those different sources. For example, if you have conducted interviews and focus groups, you would compare the findings from each. If they coincide, that strengthens our faith in having identified important issues. However, people talk about things very differently in different contexts, so any differences you find are an important source of data in them.

As my primary focus is investigating education, specifically design education; I will be looking at design folios as well as the local reputations of schools in the design community. Opinion is important in graphic design, and it is crucial that young designers develop their ‘design eye’. I interviewed my colleagues and asked them questions about design education, knowing that most have a strong opinion based on having been involved in the industry over so many years. This methodology provided a valid basis upon which to work. Despite my own personal and professional experience in Singapore, I am not able to base my findings on my own personal opinion, as a definitive outcome could not be guaranteed. Using the triangulation methodology allows me to place respondent’s answers, and their

17 work together within the context of Singapore’s history (whitepapers). However, the work represents one methodology I utilized in depth and wanted to really focus on. As the work was presented during interviews it came in a variety of different formats, different conditions and in many instances given its age was not photographic or presentable enough. I, along with my supervisors determined it was best to carry on with interviews otherwise the processes would be held up further.

In saying this its important to realise that folio methodology has also changed a lot. Identifying work these days is much easier as the websites and the ‘BEHANCES’ we have before us give students many new opportunities that the interviewees didn't have back then or weren’t aware their work was relevant to present publicly.

Its clear there is impact in the folio aspects of the research. I did highlight this in the discussion of industry in ‘The Gap’ chapter. The industry directors I spoke too were fully aware that it’s becoming harder to distinguish the locals and foreigners, and the college and university names aren’t even mentioned.

It’s more about how folios have grown up - just like the industry, the gap is getting closer and this is the best format it’s design. In industry all folios are judged just like that.

Once the respondent’s interviews had been transcribed, I was able to connect their observations to the industry context between 2000 and 2010. This approach establishes a more definitive research methodology that does not simply refer to a designers’ work, or elicit data based only on opinions.

Identifying the design community leaders Unsurprisingly, Singapore’s ‘design community leaders’ are a very small group initially. As new design industries take shape they need time to grow and evolve. From my perspective of a designer working and living in this community (2000-2010), it is relatively easy to identify the local ‘design community leaders’. For example at any design event one was sure to meet or be able to identify the real opinion leaders and influencers. Within this community leaders were identifiable by what they had achieved which made them stakeholders in the future and history of the design community in Singapore. It also made

18 them ideal interviewees for this study. Below, I provide details on how I assessed the individual practitioners I identified as design leaders in this research.

Chris Lee, Creative Director, Asylum (sng) Chris is identified as a design community leader as he is the Founding President of The Design Society, a non-profit organization aimed at promoting creativity in Singapore. He is also the founder and creative director of Asylum. Since 1999, he has worked on a wide range of cross-disciplinary projects including interactive design, product development, environmental & interior design, packaging, apparel design, branding, and graphic design, garnering more than 60 international awards including One Show and D&AD, and numerous mentions in international publications. He is also active in creative education, giving regular guest lectures and talks to universities and conferences around the world. (DesignSociety) Unfortunately, as much as I did want to interview him for this process, he couldn't confirm my invitation as he was based overseas at the time. But he was on top of the initial list of interviewees for the obvious reasons, was a name always advised to interview by his peers.

Hanson Ho, Design Director at H55 (sng) Amongst many other achievements, Hanson is a recipient of Singapore’s highest design accolade, The President’s Design Award 2012, ‘Designer of the Year’. As founder and creative director of Singapore-based design studio H55 which he founded in 1999, Hanson has created numerous visual identities, brand applications, and publications which have represented Singapore on an international level. These include the visual identity designs for the Singapore Pavilion at various Venice Biennales and the Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize. He was featured by the Sunday Times as one of the top graphic designers in Singapore. Hanson has also received recognition and awards from some of the most prestigious international design competitions for his works, including the British D&AD, New York Type Directors Club, New York One Show Design, Creative Circle Awards, Tokyo Type Directors Club, and the New York Art Directors

Club. (Design Society) Based on his work commitments at the time of my interviews Hanson also didn't get to respond to my questions, however as you can see from above he was more than qualified to be apart of the process.

19 Jackson Tan / Creative Director, Black Design (sng) Jackson is clearly a design community leader in Singapore. Just mention his name to the local designers and everyone knows him or has heard of him. He participates in many different design forums. Jackson is the co-founder of :phunk, one of Singapore’s most successful and internationally renowned art and design collectives, together with his colleagues artists/designers Alvin Tan, Melvin Chee, and William Chan. They met in LaSalle College of the Arts, Singapore and came together in 1994 to form :phunk studio. This period is significant because they are a product of the local system whereby they were inspired by their locale and became what they are today. The are described by some as “The Champion of Singapore's Graphic Scene”

(Creative Review, UK), “Asia's Hottest Agency” (Computer Arts, UK) and “iconic representatives of the new wave of young Asian creators” (GetitLouder, China). They have propagated a visual signature that seamlessly blends and reinterprets their diverse influences such as traditional Chinese craft and folklore, Hong Kong's Wuxi fiction, Japanese manga and otaku subculture, Western popular culture, art and design movements into a singular creative thought that reflects their multi-cultural identity, background and environment. (DesignSociety) Jackson is also the Creative Director of Black Design, he designed and curated Singapore’s landmark “20/20” design showcase in 2004. The Singapore Design Festival 2007 saw the premiere of ‘Utterubbish’, an exhibition based on the theme of sustainable design. In 2008, he was invited by Japan’s Center for Creative Communications to curate and present, ‘New

Wave – Singapore’s Contemporary Design Culture’. (DesignSociety) I was very fortunate enough to get some quality time with Jackson, his opinion and contacts in the design industry were extremely helpful with the next stage of interviews and gave me great direction with introductions of other designers and historical references. His background and knowledge of the local scene isn’t questioned.

Allein G. Moore, CEO / Editor, Adasia Media Pte Ltd (eng) Allein was a founder member of the Creative Circle of Singapore and was the Chairman from 1981 –1984. He also founded and became the first President of the Designers Association of Singapore, a role he held for four years. For many years he organized the annual Singapore Outdoor Advertising Awards, Asia Interactive Awards, Asia Travel Creative Awards and the Phoenix Film Awards. I was very grateful to have been able to meet Allein given his busy life and he

20 was generous in passing on his knowledge of the past. Few other designers or locals possess his knowledge of the design scene. He was there when the agency life was taking off, and was one of the first foreigners to stake claim to a senior position in the creative scene in Singapore in the late 1970’s. His expertise and reputation is extraordinary and he is a great resource because as has been emphasised this area of design and design education hasn’t been documented enough. He knew historical points that you can’t simply find in a paper or thesis, either because it has not yet been written about, or no one has discussed in the correct forum. Many practitioners feel Allein is a local legend of the design and advertising community.

Justin Zhuang, Author / Independence “History of Graphic Design in Singapore”(sng) Zhuang is a writer, researcher of design, cities, culture, history and media. He has written several books about Singapore design, however, he was an integral part of my research as he is the author of INDEPENDENCE: The history of graphic design in Singapore since the 1960s. This was a major published piece of work of the local creative community, nothing existed prior to this with such significant documented events and people of importance before hand. It was indeed a major factor in leading me to historical and significant contacts and many new leads to further my research when I first began, he is indeed a design community leader in this regard to my research.

The original Founding Fathers. The first and perhaps the more well known of the four “founding fathers” is Brother Joseph McNally, who was an artist and educator in Singapore. He was key to the upgrading of the original LaSalle-SIA to become LaSalle College of the Arts as a degree-awarding institution. Brother Joseph was bestowed the country's meritorious service medal, and is commemorated by the ‘Brother Joseph McNally Museum’ in the LaSalle College of the Arts campus. As well as this, his sculpture ‘Counsellor II’ sits on the grounds of the National Museum of Ireland. His greatest legacy perhaps is LaSalle College of the Arts, which has continued growing and its reputation, locally and internationally is excellent. Today, it has produced a strong alumni and it has very strong recognised international ‘twinning’ relationships with international schools, such

21 as ‘Goldsmiths College’ and ‘The University of London’, in an arrangement where they share design curriculum and international alumni programs.

Lim Hak Tai, like Brother Joseph, was another foreigner who was seen to be a strong pioneer artist of his time. He was the man behind the famous ‘Nanyang style of Art’ and who was the Principal of Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts. Lim was appointed founding Principal of NAFA. He created a curriculum similar to that of the Xiamen Academy of Fine Arts, offering courses in Western art, sculpture and applied arts. In 1937 NAFA commenced classes and still is a strong local establishment to this day.

Loh Khee Yew, artist and one of the leading pioneers of design education in Singapore, studied art, design and advertising in Canada, at the Alberta College of Art. He was one of the first to participate in the Colombo Scheme scholarships offered in the late 1960s. He also was one of the instigators of the design curriculum at LaSalle College of the Arts, while in the role of Dean of the design faculty from 1992 to 1995.

Dr Earl Lu was one of South East Asia’s strongest advocates for art and design, and a close friend of the late Brother Joseph McNally. Dr Lu was a renowned Singaporean surgeon general, as well as a keen philanthropist, art patron and painter. He served on several institutional boards to promote the visual arts and art education in Singapore.

These entities, both contemporary and historical were identified in this study as leading figures because of their achievement and roles they have undertaken in contributing to the evolution of Singapore’s design industry and its education landscape.

Interviews / ethics

Informal conversations while people are going about their business can be more informative than a formal group interview. However, my investigation required interviews with a range of former students of design, all of whom now have different jobs and lifestyles. To make the interview process more manageable, I negotiated to use a gallery space for the

22 interviews. Phunk Studios Gallery is a well-known local design studio gallery where homegrown talent is on show and nurtured. Additionally, two of the 12 interviewees were members of the influential Singapore design team Phunk, so locating the study in this context made sense. However, the characteristically busy Singaporean lifestyle saw the location and time of most of the 13 interviews changed on the day, or the day before. With the participants’ consent I made audio recordings of all interviews. Interviews ended up being held in cafes or bars after work. Some were conducted in studios where I could see the respondent’s studio space and their work first-hand. To ensure reliability of my analysis, I made sure I maintained detailed records of all interviews and discussions, and extensively documented the process of analysis.

An ethical issue was making sure the interviewees were not persuaded or coerced into taking part. By identifying the design community leaders, I then knew whom to invite and found out if they wanted their opinions included. The initial list was defined by my knowledge of the local design community and the educational institutions that were there in the changing times of the study. Initially, I developed a mix of local schools and Raffles students as this was a cohort I could expediently access. All invitations were vetted.

The Interviewees

1 / Chris Lee, Creative Director, Asylum (sng)

2 / Brendan Tay, Freelance interactive designer (sng)

3 / William Chan, PHUNK Studio, / Owner at Tmrrw (sng)

4 / Hanson Ho, Design Director at H55 (sng)

5/ Jackson Tan / Creative Director, Black Design (sng)

6 / Lim Chong Jin, Director School of Design / Temasek Polytechnic (sng)

7 / Vibeke Sorensen, Professor and Chair /School of Art, Design,& Media (us)

8 / Nur Hidayah Bte Abu Bakar, Dean Faculty of Design, LaSalle (sng)

9 / Justin Zhuang, Author / Independence “ History of Graphic Design in Singapore”(sng)

10 / Allein G. Moore, CEO / Editor, Adasia Media Pte Ltd(eng)

23 11 / Edward NG / McCann Erickson (sng)

12 / Salihan Lagesezon / Freelance Designer (sng)

13 / Jae Tan / Student / Designer at Acacia design consultants (sng)

The above listed names in bold declined or did not reply. The other listed names replied, and were interviewed. Further names were then generated either by their contacts or via their industry that fitted the criteria. All interviewees signed a letter of acceptance from the invitation before being interviewed, and agreed to a photo and examples of their work being used during the allocated time period. As was clearly pointed out to them in the invitation, they were selected as a participant in this study because they met the following criteria: (1) They are Singaporean; (2) They are currently living in Singapore; and (3) They were educated / worked, or have been professionally impacted by Singapore design education during the years 2000 – 2010 (See Figure 1). However, capturing design work from the period 2000-2010 proved to be a challenge. This period had been chosen as it is a time, I believe, that best showcases twinning evidence. Most students did bring some work as evidence, but the quality of the work and, in some cases, the presentation and condition of where it had been kept really didn’t assist this component of the research.

‘Local culture’ in this study refers to Singaporean culture. Highlighting the brand or signature design style of each designer over a period of years will contribute to evidencing impact on local culture. Here I am referring to cultural characteristics evident in Singaporean design education and its various design schools, as well as the impact of the local culture apparent in the work. Documenting the designer, the studio and the office interiors where they create is important for highlighting a designer’s local or international aesthetic.

Figure 1 - Respondents were selected because they met the following criteria: (1) They are Singaporean; (2) They are currently living in Singapore; and (3) They were educated / worked, or have been professionally impacted by Singapore design education during the years 2000 – 2010

History / white papers

Finding literature for my research wasn’t easy as the ‘design education’ system in Singapore is still very young. Coincidentally however, the very first documented, locally- written and privately commissioned book of graphic design in Singapore had just been published and launched. Celebrating a history of graphic design, “Independence: The

History of Graphic Design in Singapore Since the 1960’s. (The Design Society, 2012) was a very useful starting point that opened me to earlier beginnings than I was previously aware of. Another valuable resource was a locally-produced quarterly design magazine called “The Design Society”, which provided insight into the local design dialogue and opened an avenue to writers discussing design. This was a good start as it also opened my eyes to the lack of studies and writings in the design education area. After meeting the author of ‘Independence: The History of Graphic Design in Singapore Since the 1960’and listening to

25 his perspectives, I understood there was a need for design research that identified the winds of change and the years when these movements had occurred.

I subsequently identified government white papers that were influential in relation to the swing towards creativity in education in Singapore and also highlighted my focus on twinnings. I selected the period 2000-2010 as in this decade there had been significant investment from the government. This is highlighted in the number of events and design societies that have evolved from this period—for example Design Singapore, The Design Society and the National Design Center. Perhaps the most significant shift in the teaching and assessing of higher-order thinking in Singaporean classrooms was encapsulated in the vision of ‘Thinking Schools’ launched by the Ministry of Education in 1997. Underpinning this vision is a move away from conventional assessment to authentic assessment. Unlike conventional paper-and-pencil tests that focus on knowledge reproduction and low-level cognitive processing skills within artificial, contrived contexts, authentic assessment tasks underscore knowledge construction, complex thinking, elaborated communication, collaboration and problem solving within authentic contexts. (Kim.h.Koh, Charlene Tan, Pak tee Ng,

2012).

However, the creation of thinking schools in Singapore remains a constant challenge, as many teachers tend to rely on conventional assessment and are often ill prepared to implement authentic assessment. By presenting the findings from a recent empirical study we propose that schools build teacher capacity by providing ongoing and sustained professional development on authentic assessment for teachers.

Work / design examples

As well as identifying and interviewing former students and local designers I took into consideration the design work they had produced. This in itself was an activity that led to speculation on opinions and perhaps opened up more questions regarding what is good and bad design. With this dialogue open, a platform is formed whereby we can look at the influence of Western design education institutes locally. By establishing and recognising its influence in ‘the East’, in this case Singapore; the international design community has a

26 starting point. Theoretically, both Eastern and Western design can discuss respective influences and their impacts by assessing and making comparisons based on the different practices of educational institutions. In this unique context and over time the different reputations of institutes develop. When looking at work examples and folios in this study, I took a tacit, observational approach gathering knowledge from groups and individuals based on my prior experience and from learning and engaging with the industry and the local design culture.

This strategy includes:

• Interviewing experts / designers / educators / researchers / editors / students

• Learning by being told / locals working with local clients

• Learning by observation / Seeing first hand the clientele

My research questions were informed by and shaped by the nature of respondent’s jobs and the impacts of their design education and their design work over those 10 years. More than half of the students interviewed had found jobs in established international design agencies or design houses. And it goes hand-in-hand that those students all clearly have perspectives and can evidence how and why they work in a Western agency.

As Designer 6 points out, he felt comfortable surrounded by ‘angmohs’ (a local term for foreigners). The angmoh creative heads were from all over the world, and as he had been exposed to foreigners teaching him in his design school, he felt comfortable in job interviews when seeking employment in a large international agency. He is currently employed as a creative at McCann Erickson.

Designer 6 “Design folio! It gave me a chance to get in the door! The way I talked, the way I thought, it got me into an MNC, the way you (me and the other foreign teachers talked in class) and thought…over local teaching. It made us think differently.”

Designer 3 works as a Senior Art Director at DDB, and foreign influences clearly show through. He highlights similar experiences and discussed how he felt confident about talking to senior angmoh creative without hesitation.

27 Designer 3 “Yes definitely, the perception of no hierarchy, the classroom was more fun, more social, it was ok to say let’s go for a beer, transparent environment, learn a lot more. A lot of work in my first local agency whereby I was told to tone down my work in the first local agency as most of my work was based or influence on Sagmeister!”

My authorial voice

The opinion and findings in this research are informed by direct experience as I am a designer first and foremost. I have also tried to develop an ‘academic’ voice through both teaching and design practice. This has taken on a particular flavour having spent much of my career living and working in the design industry in the Asian region. I had to adapt to the Asian way of working and learn to understand their censorship of some aspects of creativity and the creative thought process. Many instances from my personal experience assisted me with this research and have contributed to a sound foundation from which my own opinions about the issues were formed. My academic voice has grown and continues to expand, as I am still working in the design industry in researching and lecturing on graphic design in higher education and also the TAFE sector in Australia. By exploring Singaporean design education institutes that adopted twinning strategies with international design schools, I am investigating an area of design education in which I have taught, helped to develop curriculum, and have guided local students towards foreign diplomas and degrees during the period 2000-2010. Therefore I am well placed to identify key individuals who were affected by the evolution of the design industry at this time. My experience involves lecturing in diploma and degree design programmes in Singapore, Saigon and Shanghai and during this time being involved in the coordination, training and delivery of BA Honours programs from western universities that were twinning with Raffles College of Design and Commerce. Those universities were Northumbria University and Middlesex (UK), and Curtin and KVB from Australia.

In addition to teaching I have led student teams to international design events including the D&AD Awards, London (2007); collaborated with Singapore Design Festival, (2007); Delegation, Utter Rubbish, Conference/Exhibition, Singapore (2007); headed a delegation to Beijing, ICOGRADA World Design Congress (2009); and conducted a workshop held at

28 Shanghai Design Week, Brazil Pavilion (2009); as well as participating in design industry awards, where my teams have achieved great success—both locally (Young Guns) and internationally (D&AD and The Crobars).

Figure 2 - Authorial Voice: a break down of my overall professional experience in relation to the selected research area.

Design industry experience

During 19 years in the design industry, centered on publishing and advertising, I have been fortunate enough to be based in locations throughout Australia and South East Asia. My opinions and rationale in the following research come from this first hand experience. When looking at the quality of work from the Asian countries and when comparing ‘Western’ and ‘Eastern’ design work I can substantiate my claims based on both work and life experiences. I came to Singapore in 1999 as an art director for creative services at MPH Publishing, which is now part of the Singapore Press Holdings family. I was the only foreigner in the office of this publishing house and worked on many magazines from Female to NuYou (local Chinese fashion magazines) whilst also working on men’s and wedding sections and advertorial promotions. I was in the right place at the right time—I saw first hand the culture begin to shift and the push for adopting new technology. We

29 moved our offices, which were situated in an industrial park off Upper Thompson Road in Angmoh Kio, to downtown Orchard Road. Meanwhile, the new millennium had begun and Singapore was in the middle of the IT boom. It was absorbing a sudden influx of new wealth, new ventures, and most significantly of all, new start-ups. The industry grew very quickly, and there were lots of opportunities and lots of new investment to absorb ideas. There was also a massive incoming throng of foreign talent and Singapore was enjoying the attention.

From there I went across town to the competitors’ publishing office, ACP (Australian Consolidated Press Holdings); I had previously worked in their Melbourne offices. Again, I was art directing in creative services. In this role I worked from initial briefing to end print, taking the clients’ products and executing it in the best possible way in their chosen magazine. With ACP, I worked on a mixture of female fashion publications that were new to the South East Asian market, namely CLEO, Harpers Bazaar and Women’s Weekly. I was fortunate enough to also be able to fly to the Malaysian office to train the local staff, who were also in the midst of a new technology shift that impacted both creatively and culturally, across the publishing industry in Asia.

As mentioned, I had worked in the Melbourne offices of ACP when, after graduating, I had been fortunate enough to be offered a position in the creative services department. I worked on many Australian titles that were aimed at a spread of different lifestyle and age demographics, and consequently became acquainted with many different photographers and built a large network of industry contacts. At the same time I was living with a photographer who was just starting out in the industry. We established our own business, SODA Productions, through which we crafted creative visual solutions for many of our social contacts, who were fashion designers and product designers.

I also served as a PR to international media and local press for the Singapore leg of the WOMAD music festival. In this role I was responsible for designing T-shirts, posters and tickets for the event, as well as acting as international media organiser for media events and announcements. More recently, while based in Singapore, I also held the position of Creative Director at a young start-up; an integrated agency called 3ree. Here l had the

30 overall creative input with a small team, from briefing through to final art direction. When looking back to those early days in Singapore and comparing that period to today, I realise how much the creative market has changed. Back in 1999 foreigners were welcomed and encouraged to join companies; in 2013 it has changed—in particular, the number of new positions made available or promoted by the government to local designers over the foreign designer across all media has dramatically increased (Gavin W. Jones, June 2012, pp311–336). Local focus for the local market is a strong trend that has emerged across the world with more government policies being developed to regulate foreign talent and working visas as a result of countries becoming more worried about ‘boat people’ and ‘refugees’ (Kayoko Ueno, pg. 41). .

My design education experience

I have been involved in design education for the past 13 years (see Figure 3), lecturing in vocational and higher learning throughout Asia. While based in Singapore I worked for the private design education provider Raffles Design Institute, (also known as Raffles College of Design and Commerce). I specifically worked in the visual communication, graphic design faculty teaching all aspects of graphic subjects and across levels of education from diploma through to degree.

When I began my teaching career with Raffles in 2001 I was teaching the foundation subjects of diploma students. At that time Raffles was marketed as an international teaching school and most of the staff were from around the world. The visual communication group was still small and defining its signature within the local market, as there were other schools creating their own marks at the same time, namely Temasek Polytechnic and LaSalle College of the Arts, and NAFA. Apart from academic duties, preparing classes and assessing work and the delivery of lessons, we were also responsible for curriculum changes, hiring staff and recruiting students, and for marketing the school to local high schools. Under my guidance students won a series of awards such as the Crobars, Young Guns, Future Brand's Future Talent Awards and international recognition in the D&AD Student Awards. I was also extensively involved in the

31 coordination, training and delivery of Bachelor Honors (Graphic Design) from Northumbria University (England), and Raffles College Design and Commerce BA (Visual Communication).

From my role in Singapore I was subsequently based at other campuses. Initially this involved the Saigon campus that had been opened to the local market and required a voice from Singapore to help with marketing. From travelling inland to give presentations to farmers in community centers, to holding presentation nights with parents whilst jackhammers were still going on a few floors down this was a close encounter — a no- holds-barred look into the changing face of Vietnam. Seven months later I had accomplished rather a lot—from hiring staff, choosing Wi-Fi vendors and hiring and firing contractors to develop our local site. Upon reflection, it reminded me of Singapore in 1999 with regard to how people were ready for change, the new foreign market, and especially for this new world of design. After Saigon I returned to Singapore to work on the BA Program at Raffles College of Design and Commerce (RCDC) and to focus on curriculum writing. Multiple educational validations and audits followed leading to the incorporation of the new degree into the college program.

Figure 3 – A simple breakdown of my years lived in Asia (so far).

Next I took this new degree and moved to the Shanghai campus where the issue of sustainability in design was topical at the time due to the Beijing Olympics and World Expo in Shanghai. In response the faculty developed a program where, as part of their study, students would work over 4-5 months to research companies in China that distribute, produce or were promoting sustainable/eco-friendly products or services. Through their research they would then select a preferred method of promotion through event design and implement re-branding and re-packaging to position the product or service in the market. Industry designers from the local design offices of Frog Design, TBWA, Taschen Books, Weiden & Kennedy and IDEO then externally judged the exhibition of works. Additionally I was involved when the Raffles Group led a delegation to the inaugural ICOGRADA World Design Congress in Beijing.

“The ICOGRADA Foundation was established in 1991 for the advancement of worldwide understanding and education through the effective use of graphic design. …99 graphic design students from Singapore, Shanghai and the local campus in Beijing met up and conversed for this graphic design congress.” (ICOGRADA,ico-d.org/)

I also spent some time living in Japan. This was a completely differently experience, as it was more of a sabbatical—I wanted to not think about design and education for a while; to give myself a recharge. I spent the next year learning Japanese, travelling and enjoying all the festivals I could. I began teaching English and I oversaw, taught and tutored professors at the local university while also teaching at a local English company where many different age groups attended language classes. This in itself was a very rewarding experience, apart from the enrichment of living in and appreciating the Japanese culture in what is the smallest prefecture in Japan.

Over recent years since leaving RCDC I have been working for the Virtu Design Institute, a new online design provider. I was initially brought in to write new subjects for diploma and

33 advanced diploma courses for the online graphic design curriculum and to open the Singapore office for marketing and recruiting. At Virtu, I am currently the program leader of graphic design as well as lecturer for online subjects. Additionally, I serve on the Examination Board, the Learning and Teaching Committee, and the Management Committee of the school. I am also involved in teaching at vocational and higher learning in design. At the Mount Gravatt campus of TAFE Queensland, I lecture in graphic design at Certificate 3, Certificate IV and Diploma levels. I am also a casual academic and sessional online lecturer for the online postgraduate program at UNSW Art & Design, UNSW Australia in a program where we look at contemporary graphic design and its impact.

These invaluable skills and experiences have equipped me as a Western designer with the knowledge and lessons about life, work and design in Asian contexts necessary to form valid opinions. I feel qualified to credibly discuss the topic of design education in Asia, and specifically in Singapore, where I have maintained a constant dialogue with the design culture since 1999.

Chapter one The founding fathers

“Having the most open economy in the world, Singapore is affected by the process of globalisation. This takes on an added dimension and speed as nations compete for talent and find ways to internationalize and transform their education for sustainable competitive advantage. Singapore’s education system, regarded as one of the best performing in the world, offers a unique opportunity to explore the issues where East

and West culture, values and systems meet.” (Prem Kumar ,2013 pg76)

37 By simply looking at influences we are overlooking an essential part of what makes up the local educational creative body. As Kumar suggests, Singapore offers a unique opportunity where we can step back and begin looking at the foundations—the locals who were given opportunities and the foreigners who were brought in from various backgrounds, whereby their knowledge and teachings would be seen to be benefit for both. When we do look back, a few good men seem to be pivotal to laying down strong ethics and structures to create the local art and design education system to where it is today. The first and perhaps the more well known of the four is Brother Joseph McNally, who was an artist and educator in Singapore. A foreigner from Ireland whom in 1945 taught in the Catholic De LaSalle Brotherhood, he became very attached to the island nation, so much so, he became a Singapore citizen in 1985. The second, Lim Hak Tai was another foreigner who was seen to be a strong pioneer artist of his time. He was the man behind the famous Nanyang style of Art and who was the Principal of Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts. Originally from Xiamen in China, Lim was an artist and educator who came to Singapore in 1936, his primary role being to set up the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts. It has been well documented that until his death, he continued to dedicate his passion and service to the Academy and students, as well enduring many trials over the years.

Loh Khee Yew, an artist and indeed one of the pioneers of design education in Singapore. He studied art, design and advertising in Canada, at the Alberta College of Art. He went on a Colombo scheme scholarship in the late 1960s, as one of the first to participate in the scheme. Having completed his studies, as is required he returned to Singapore to work in advertising. He was one of the early pioneers of the design curriculum at LaSalle College of the Arts as Dean of the design faculty from 1992 to 1995.

Dr Earl Lu was one of South East Asia’s strongest art advocates, and a close friend of the late Brother Joseph McNally. Dr Lu was a renowned Singaporean general surgeon as well as a keen philanthropist, art patron and painter. He served on several institutional boards to promote the visual arts and art education in Singapore.

These four men are of critical importance, and I will begin by examining their singular visions and explain how they contributed their skills and expertise to the design and art community in Singapore. To begin, let’s look at perhaps the most famous, or more

38 commonly known of the four—a man who not only turned cultural trends-, but also, significantly, was the first to introduce the teaching of Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism to schooling in Singapore. He also made a strong impact on creativity and how it was perceived.

Brother Joseph McNally (b. 10 August 1923, Ballinrubber, Ireland – d. 27thAugust, 2002, Galway, Ireland)

McNally’s story paints a picture of a man, whom to many was so humble in his approach to his daily life, not just his works, but Brother McNally when working with the government, was truly amazing. He worked extremely hard to make the case for the founding of LaSalle. He was key to the upgrading of the original LaSalle-SIA to become LaSalle College of the Arts as a degree-awarding institution. For his efforts, Brother Joseph was bestowed the country's meritorious service medal. He proved himself truly inspiring and a man whom never gave in.

Being such a humble man, after he stood before the President of Singapore in full view of the Republic’s leaders to receive this Award in November, 1997, Brother Joseph later confided that the only thought which flashed through his mind at that time was:

“Why are they doing this to me? I have nothing more to show than what seemed to me to be my duty. Yet I was proud that Singapore had taken me to its heart and thanked

me for doing my duty." (lasallian.org)

His premise was based on providing a quality, affordable arts education to Singaporeans. He saw that the local community needed to begin to look at art and design in their culture with a different perspective. At the time, Singapore barely had a recognised art school where people could learn and prosper as practitioners. In his early years in Singapore, McNally taught at St Joseph's Institution, a boys’ primary school till around 1951 and later moved to St John’s Institution in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. In the 1950s and 1960s, Brother Joe was teaching in schools in Malaysia that were affiliated with the De LaSalle brothers. Those institutions were St John’s Institution and St Paul’s Institution in Seremban, St Xavier's Institution and St Joseph’s Training College in Penang. Whilst a natural teacher,

39 Brother McNally was also a keen academic, and in the midst of his teaching career he took further studies abroad, namely at Dublin’s Irish National College of Art, from 1951 to 1954. In Rome, Italy, for his second Novitiate, from 1960 to 1961. He also attained his Master’s degree in Art and Education in 1969 at New York’s Columbia University, then followed that with a Doctorate in Education in 1972.

In 1973 McNally returned to Singapore to begin teaching at St Patrick's School, and a few years later he became the principal. McNally then began implementing changes in order for his methods to be accepted in Singapore schooling. Firstly he began abolishing corporal punishment; he went about setting up a students’ council and a students’ parliament. He also went on to build a sports facility and hostel and formed The Patrician Society for parents, teachers and ‘old boys’ to discuss school issues together. In addition to all of that, he is famous for installing and introducing the teaching of Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism.

Brother McNally retired in 1983, however, he was later appointed as a consultant to Singapore’s Ministry of Education, a post that was an important moment in Singapore design history. He then helped to revise the art syllabus for schools and create the Art Elective Program. The basis of his thesis program and methodology still exists in most curricula today.

St Patrick’s Arts Centre was like all of McNally’s beginnings. It started with only 27 students and limited facilities, but slowly grew under Brother Joe’s tireless efforts. In 1986 the school moved to a new campus at Lorong J Telok Kurau and was renamed as LaSalle College of the Arts and McNally became its President. Over the subsequent decade he developed the college into a leading arts institution in the region with a comprehensive visual and performing arts curriculum, highly qualified teachers, and scores of well-nurtured students who became upstanding citizens in Tan Sri Dato’ Kamaruzzaman Shariff (KL City Mayor) and Dato’ Fong Weng Phak (past deputy Governor of Bank Negara). (lasallian.org ) McNally went on to become a highly sought-after arts education advisor to the government and other organisations as well as a leading arts advocate, even after retiring as President

Emeritus of La Salle College of the Arts, in 1997. (eresources.nlb.gov.sg )

40 As well as receiving many awards and accolades for art education over these years, he was a dedicated sculptor who would devote any spare time he had to his art making, and focus on his next exhibition. He was a part of at least 10 group exhibitions and produced six solo exhibitions. His sculpture art was exhibited in cities around the world like Dublin, New York, Bermuda, Penang, and Fukuoka, in Japan.

In Singapore today, as you make your way down McNally Road in the downtown Bugis area, you will find a posthumous memorial comprising Brother Joseph’s own museum. He is commemorated by the Brother Joseph McNally Museum in the new La Salle College of the Arts campus. As well as this, his sculpture Counselor II sits on the grounds of the National Museum of Ireland. His greatest legacy must however be the school itself, LaSalle College of the Arts, which has continued growing. Its reputation both locally and internationally is excellent, and it has produced a strong alumni. Today, the school has recognised international twinning relationships with international schools—Goldsmiths College and the University of London, in an arrangement where they share design curriculum and international alumni programs.

McNally is perhaps the most famous of the four founding fathers—a very talented Irishman who used his flair for arts and education to begin La Salle College of the Arts. We now (literally) cross the road to Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts, commonly known in Singapore as NAFA, and introduce another founding father from abroad—this time from China. This is a man most Singaporeans couldn’t talk about off the cuff; however, most Singaporeans would be able to talk about NAFA with affection and pride.

Lim Hak Tai (b.18 May 1893, Fujian China – d.14 February 1963, Singapore)

Like Brother Joe, Lim Hak Tai was an artist-educator; however, unlike Brother Joe, he was born in Xiamen, China. He came to Singapore in 1936, primarily to establish the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts. Lim was a pioneer artist in Singapore who initiated the Nanyang style of art and was the founding Principal of Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts. For the 25 years until his death in 1963 his passion and dedicated service to the Academy and its students endured many trials. He created paintings that married Western and Chinese techniques and styles with Singaporean content and subjects. He encouraged his peers

41 and students—mostly migrants from China—to create their own responses to their new Southeast Asian environment, giving rise to the Nanyang style that will be discussed later.

“During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries empires and diasporas functioned as powerful ‘motors’ of globalisation, generating traffic in goods, peoples and ideas that integrated vast portions of the planet. Research into the global exchanges this

traffic facilitated, however, has been a relatively recent endeavour.” (Mark Ravinder Frost, 2005, pp 29–66)

Lim Hak Tai co-founded, and taught at, the Xiamen Academy of Fine Arts in 1923 with

Chinese artists Huang Suibi and Yang Gengtang. (artinasia.com) In 1936, immediately prior to the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese war, Lim accepted educator-philanthropist Tan Kah Kee’s invitation to teach art and mathematics at the Chinese High School, in Singapore.

Whilst in Singapore he connected with other Chinese immigrant artists and raised the possibility of establishing an art school in Singapore. Some were alumni of art institutions in Shanghai and Xiamen and, in 1935, together they collaborated to form Singapore’s first arts organisation, the Society of Chinese Artists. With encouragement from his contemporaries and the financial support of Tan See Siang (a Jimei School alumni and philanthropist Tan Kah Kee’s son), the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA) was established in 1937.

There were, in fact, a small number of private art studios and schools that predated NAFA; however, it was the first art school that included a diploma course in art education, and would become the only pre-war art school in Singapore to survive the Second World War. As a result of his renowned experience as an established arts educator, Lim was appointed founding Principal of NAFA. He created a curriculum similar to that of the Xiamen Academy of Fine Arts, offering courses in Western art, sculpture and applied arts. In 1937 NAFA commenced classes in premises at 167 Geylang Road with only 14 students and four teachers.

Later in 1940, four students of the academy became NAFA's first graduates. Even with this first group of successful students, the academy lacked the financial support needed and, unfortunately, struggled to pay its teaching staff. Despite knowing the struggle ahead, the staff stood by Lim and found other sources of income via teaching at local secondary schools in their spare time. Lim’s passion was steadfast, and he also taught at the local

42 Chinese high school not only to survive him but also to make sure that NAFA wasn’t in trouble financially by pumping his own money into the school.

In 1942, during the Second World War, Singapore fell to the Japanese and the Academy had to be closed. Lim stopped working, kept a low profile and joined the local anti-war effort. The war ran its course, and when the Japanese Army surrendered in 1945 Lim reopened NAFA the following year in a new location at 49 St. Thomas Walk, Singapore.

In China, the end of the Second World War saw the beginning of a cultural revolution, and from 1946 Singapore witnessed a fresh influx of Chinese migrants, including several artists who would play significant roles in Singapore’s ongoing artistic development. Like Lim Hak Tai, most had been schooled in Western and Chinese art and were already established artists in their own country. The Academy gained additions to its teaching staff, including Cheong Soo Pieng, who had been Lim’s student at the Xiamen Academy, Chen Wen Hsi, Chen Chong Swee and Georgette Chen.

During the 1950’s Lim applied to the Singaporean Ministry of Education for funding, but NAFA was not recognised as an official college and only received funding consistent with that given to local primary schools. To make matters worse, the Academy’s graduation certificates were not recognised in Singapore or in neighboring Malaysia, which contributed to the Academy’s dwindling student numbers. However, Lim’s artistic vision in the early years of NAFA gave birth to a new approach to art and to art education in Singapore.

As a sensitive observer of his new home environment, Lim also created many paintings. Sadly many of his works would come to be irreparably damaged by water years later. However, those that survived reveal an artist who sought to portray compelling images of the changing times in Singapore with immense feeling and purpose.

As an educator Lim urged his peers and students, mostly migrants from China, to embark on artistic explorations of Singapore and the immediate region. He encouraged them to create their own responses to their South East Asian environment and to develop their own local and cultural sensibilities as Chinese migrants, which gave rise to the Nanyang School of Painting. In 1962 Lim received the Sijil Kemuliaan (Certificate of Honours) from the Singaporean government in recognition of his contributions to art in Singapore. In reality, he carried on by heading a still-struggling Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts until 1963, when he

43 passed away. His son Lim Yew Kuan succeeded him. In 2009, as part of NAFA's 70th anniversary celebrations, in honour of their founding principal, Lim Hak Tai, the Academy unveiled a portrait sculpture by his son, Lim Yew Kuan, in conjunction with an exhibition and gallery naming of The Lim Hak Tai Gallery.

Lim Hak Tai’s story is one of progression from a humble artist from China to a leading Singaporean educator. Lim was given an opportunity to nurture his vision of design and art, and it is one that has inspired many local Singaporeans on to greater achievements. Lim deserves his place as an important mentor for other leaders such as Brother McNally. He was a man who forged ahead with the same passion as McNally and was similarly to encounter the same if not greater obstacles. However, Lim would go on to conquer them with his passion and perseverance.

Loh Khee Yew (b.1933, Singapore) Mr Loh is an artist and another pioneer of design education in Singapore and someone I was fortunate enough to have worked alongside with when I first began lecturing in Singapore. Loh studied art, design and advertising at the Alberta College of Art in Canada, and was one of the first incumbents of the then new Colombo Scheme scholarship in the late 1960s. The Colombo Scheme, in which Mr Loh was selected, was offered from the 1950s until the late 1980s. The UK, Australia, Canada and New Zealand offered Colombo Plan Scholarships to top Singapore students as a form of aid to ensure a supply of qualified manpower returned to support Singapore's ongoing economic and social development.

The Colombo Plan was a framework for bilateral arrangements involving foreign aid and technical assistance for the economic and social development of the region. Although the experience was challenging for Loh, because he had to leave his wife and young children at home in Singapore while he studied in Canada, it opened a world of opportunities for him, none of which could be found in Singapore. He returned to Singapore to work in advertising and subsequently helped to pioneer the design curriculum at La Salle College of the Arts as the Dean of the design faculty from 1992 to 1995.

44 Concurrently, collaborating as a practising artist with Brother Joseph McNally’s Group 90 artists’ alliance, he retired from teaching in 1996 to focus on making art. Since then he has become an established Singapore contemporary artist known for his exploration of different techniques and media, and for his skill in using calligraphic strokes to illustrate the human body.

In 1970, when Loh returned to Singapore, he was determined to bring design into his teaching and became a pioneer of design education. As a creative thinker with an eye for design, he also offered his design services to advertising agencies for free. Loh refocused his teaching to include design subjects and continued in this vein until 1982, when he left the teaching profession. In 1982 he embarked on his second career as a designer, beginning with corporate design projects for blue chip companies, holding the senior positions of creative head, director and design consultant with three different advertising agencies before eventually starting his own design agency, Lo-Design.

In 1990 Loh retired from the design industry and joined Group 90, a pioneering artists’ group encouraged by Brother Joseph McNally. Loh and other group members would gather at the old La Salle College of the Arts campus at Telok Kurau on Saturdays to practise drawing the human form using live models. Two years later he re-entered the teaching profession after being approached to revamp the School of Design at La Salle College of the Arts. From 1992 to 1995 he served as Dean of the design faculty at La Salle, establishing the design department, with a focus on how graphic design could be nurtured. As the government was moving ahead with the white paper on ‘nurturing and fostering creativity’ it was time to push forward new ideas and Loh had the perfect platform in order to do so. By establishing industry relationships (which weren’t very reliable at that stage), he could make graphic design a stronger, more viable curriculum for the industry - an industry the government were now pushing forward with support - by re-conceptualising the faculty’s design curriculum. With this Lo had found his voice and now the state of graphic design in Singapore was also to find its strongest foundation with which to gather pace. With other local completion from NAFA and BVI also changing names and upgrading facilities Loh was there at the most pivotal time for LaSalle to begin to forge its reputation and to push on, from being not only a good school, but to later have a significant graphic design reputation, not only locally but regionally.

45 Concurrently, Loh was busy with his group exhibitions, with which he shared the same passion with McNally. However, the time he could devote to art slowly decreased as the LaSalle projects were building around him. By the end of 1995 he realised that having achieved all he could at La Salle College of the Arts he should retire as Dean. Instead he accepted a new position as a consulting academic at La Salle Design International, where I would later meet him as a gifted art teacher. At last aged 62 he could focus on his primary passion—being a full-time artist. He currently continues as a practicing artist with great enjoyment and relentless pursuit. Not being able to ignore his love of teaching, he also conducts community art classes for students of all ages and from all walks of life. Beginning as a passionate educator and designer, he has become an artist who in terms of the Singaporean arts culture, has established a series of signature collections throughout Singapore.

Dr Earl Lu Ming (b.15 September 1925, Hong Kong - d. 2 September 2005, Pisa, Italy),

Dr Earl Lu Ming was born in Hong Kong on 15 September 1925. Lu Ming was the only son of four children. He grew up in a variety of locations including Hong Kong, Malaysia, Shanghai and Singapore, where he studied at St Andrews School from 1938 to 1942. During the invasion by the Japanese, Lu Ming was lucky to escape Singapore with his family and relocate to India. It was in India that he completed his schooling and formal O- level qualifications.

He became a renowned general surgeon by profession, as well as a keen philanthropist, art patron and painter. But Ming is known for many roles in the community, and apart from his title of surgeon, he is best known for his paintings of the ‘Roses’. When we examine his life, Lu’s love of medicine was matched only by his passion for art—both buying and creating it. He not only served on a variety of institutional boards to promote the visual arts and art education in Singapore, but was also chairman of the Singapore Art Museum for eight years, which is where he made his name amongst the local arts culture. By collecting and donating artworks by pioneer and emerging local artists to various museums and galleries, he celebrated the local artist like no one before him had done. He indeed took the local

46 market of artists into a new avenue, and was the first and most passionate advocate in the marketing of Singaporean and South East Asian art.

As a 17-year-old, stationed in India Lu discovered the importance of spirituality in life. This gave him an affinity for Hinduism that would last a lifetime and was one aspect he always used throughout his working life. His love of art had developed early as a child surrounded by traditional Chinese ink paintings and antique ceramics that his father and grandfather loved and collected. Lu also started collecting art while he was still a student, initially buying prints and photographs that he could afford. It was only when he began working as a surgeon that he became a serious art collector, buying Chinese and South East Asian paintings and ceramics and building up a large and valuable collection.

He later donated most of his collection to various institutions including the Asian Civilizations Museum, National University of Singapore Museums, and the Singapore Art Museum. He also donated several artworks by local pioneer artists to the LaSalle College of the Arts, leading to the institution later naming its art gallery after him. Additionally, when Lu became the Singapore Art Museum’s founding Chairman in 1992—a role he served until 2000—the museum under his advice, bought a large number of 20th Century South East Asian artworks. Today the collection is considered the largest of its kind in the world.

During the 1950s, Lu himself began to paint. Then aged in his early 30s, he took lessons from pioneering local artist, teacher, and furniture-maker Chen Wen Hsi—a friend of his father. Under Wen Hsi Lu learned to paint from life and became a keen student of Chinese ink painting. He became an accomplished landscape and figurative painter, painting landscapes as seen in his imagination and painting female figures often as sensual motherhood figures. Although an art buyer, he did not make money from his own artworks, choosing instead to give them away or donate them to art institutions and worthy causes.

By the early 2000’s Lu had become one of Singapore’s leading surgeons and had been appointed a Justice of the Peace. In doing so, he was awarded in 1990 the Public Service Star Award from the Singaporean President in 1995. As mentioned earlier, he would go on with donating many precious paintings and ceramics from his personal collection to local museums. He supported organisations such as the National Arthritis Foundation and, as

47 always, Lu would organise charity auctions, with the proceeds from the sale of his works going directly to various medical funds of his selection. He definitely kept himself busy with other foundations and societies, and also served as President of the Southeast Asian Ceramics Society, The Society of Chinese Artists; and was also part of the Lee Kong Chian Museum’s Acquisitions Committee and the Istana Art Advisory Committee. But it must be said that, above all, Lu’s passion was plain for all to see: as well as being on all these boards and committees, his main priority was to promote the visual arts and to entrust that arts education would be nurtured for the future. When Lu retired, in 2003 he devoted himself to making art, enrolling in drawing classes at LaSalle College of the Arts and travelling overseas with fellow artists to paint. On 2 September 2005, during a cruise in the Mediterranean, Lu contracted pneumonia. He was brought to Pisa, Italy, and passed away two weeks before his 80th birthday. Today his ‘Rose paintings’ grace the walls of several hospitals in Singapore and throughout the world, including: the National University Hospital; Mount Alvernia Hospital; and the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, UK. They serve as lasting and gracious reminders of their creator’s many contributions to the fields of art and medicine in Singapore.

Through the contributions of these four ‘founding fathers’ Singapore has developed a very well respected and established art and design education foundation. The emergence of LaSalle College Of The Arts, NAFA, and of the Singaporean artist to the world in general, is a testimony to these four good men who were there from the outset with the right degree of passion and perseverance. Equally important was the support of the local art community to realize their visions despite cultural taboos and critical events such as wars and economic crisis threatening to slow them down. All four men contributed significantly to the growth in Singaporean arts education in their own unique manner.

Of the four, only one is a really still well known in more than just in art and design circle. McNally was a strong instigator of changes in education across the board, not just in terms of the LaSalle reputation, but at St Joseph’s as well for example. Brother Joe’s name can be seen on street signs in Singapore - LaSalle College of the Arts in downtown Bugis is located at No.1 McNally Street. The McNally Award for Excellence in the Arts is awarded to LaSalle's most outstanding student in each year's graduating cohort and recognises the

48 role of the artist in society. The award is also representative of his legacy of academic excellence and his significant contribution to professional and social communities.

“Though Brother Joseph is no longer among us, his vigor and spirit will continue to live on through his paintings and sculptures. Brother Joe, as he was fondly remembered, had certainly left an indelible mark on all whose lives he had touched.

May his soul rest in peace.“ (lasallian.org)

An ex-LaSalle student, now established in the design industry was one of my interviewees. He inadvertently speaks very fondly of a very strong McNally informed path without really meaning to when discussing his education. His choices of primary school and design school were not based on reputations and folios. It is only now, when reflecting during his interview that a certain pride and sense of stature is evident in his answering of the questions regarding his education. The interview really reflected just how strong an impact McNally had on the Singaporean creative industry.

The industry needed a foundation for form itself on. It required some form of stability in order to prosper, and it needed founders with strong ideas and the commitment to consolidate their visions whilst also maintaining education and duty of care in the circumstances that they were teaching in. Although it is by global standards still very young and the culture of a design and art school is still very new when one understands the collective drive of all four ‘founding fathers’ it is arguably something that today’s Singaporeans should be more aware of.

In the next chapter we will look in more detail at the institutions these men formed, and particularly at their impact on Singaporean society over the past decade. The chapter also raises questions about how the culture of Singapore will adapt to design as an emergent profession. I will also examine the respective institutions the ‘founding fathers’ set up and nurtured, and extend the discussion on the impact they had on the Singaporean design education culture in their early days. It will also be critical to discuss how the publishing of important white papers and the politics of ministerial reshuffles can affect the profession of designer.

Chapter two The schools, the impact

“The shift in economic strategy from import substitutions to export orientation towards the end of Singaporeans first decade of industrialisation resulted in an urgent need for the improvement of design, packaging and presentation of manufactured goods” (Dr. Ahmad Mattar, 1979)

52 Having established the importance of the founding fathers, we can now proceed to looking at their respective institutions and the impact they had on the Singaporean design education culture. As discussed in Chapter One, La Salle College of The Arts and Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts were separate institutions and had very influential leaders, who tended to ‘lead from the front’. When considered this a very special occurrence when you think about the times and the local culture. To have two talented, strong-minded, passionate artist-educators come into this city island, in which the art world was non- existent by western standards, is remarkable. Their ideals and philosophies were shaped by their own willingness to nurture and guide, and government eventually over time, having come on board, has further supported this. There is clear evidence to support this view in the case of both institutions.

Brother Joseph McNally was an arts leader and educator who taught in the Catholic De La Salle Brotherhood and grew so attached to the island nation that he became a Singapore citizen in 1985. Lim Hak Tai, a pioneering Singaporean artist, the founder of the Nanyang style of Art, and the founding principal of Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts. He was an artist- educator, who, for the 25 years until his death in 1963, dedicated his services to the school and students which endured many trials to stay afloat and continue. Without his passion and persistence, there quite simply would not be a NAFA, as the local expression goes. McNally and Lim personally harnessed emerging creativity and promoted change in the local culture. They fostered a new belief that local talent could flourish with quality education and appropriate nurturing systems, as well as being aware that a good education could change people’s lives. In addition to all of that they encouraged and practiced their artwork and indeed left legacies in their respective forms of expression. They believed that by implementing a good education and balancing that with a creative outlet, putting these systems in place and into practice could lead to a more creative society.

The fostering of creativity

Creativity could only be pushed and nurtured so far by McNally and Lim. They needed further support and, at least in McNally’s case, in his lifetime he got to see the fruits of the hard work. Indisputably the pioneers of creativity in education in Singapore, Lim and McNally had accomplished much over a short space of time and local government

53 eventually rewarded their efforts. The recognition came with the introduction of a very important white paper that had a strong focus on creativity. To be more precise, on 30 July 1995, the then Singaporean Education Minister, Mr Lee Yock Suan, stressed the need to move away from an over-emphasis on rote learning practices in the educational system. The initiatives behind the paper were based on a focus on ‘fostering creativity’. It was also a paper that addressed the widening gap with local jobs and need for creativity in industry.

The paper had a vision and the scope to look forward to what Singapore could possibly become. The locals had to take note that foreign talents were needed, and that foreign talent would take Singapore forward; but first, culturally the government had to address how it would do so. This paper was therefore also concerned about what and who would make Singapore move forward. As it was stated, it was after,

“Enquiring minds, with the ability to think critically and creatively, outstanding people who are responsible for major innovations are inclined to see and interact with the world in ways that are different from others...Creative are able to move beyond being experts, toward actually adding new dimensions to their chosen field. At the same time, as they can see multiple possibilities where others see only one route, they critique and seek to perfect their own work. The products of cognitive flexibility are made possible through the exercise of discipline within a community of expertise. From these examples we see that creative individuals constantly undergo monitoring

and regulatory control of their thinking processes” (Robina Shaheen, 2010,pg167)

A fact that was brought to light was the issue of creativity, which came out of the report from leading industrials and entrepreneurs highlighting that there was a strong indication that staff in Singapore were more often ‘conforming’ than they were ‘independent thinkers’. This led often to them being ‘not curious enough’. When local Singapore Ministry of Education websites marketing copy encourages people to “be

creative and imaginative” (MOE, 2009) it is an indicator that over time there has been a cultural swing. This swing may have been small, but at least such words were out amongst the community. At this stage almost 14 years later, within Singapore’s primary curriculum, creativity was placed amongst the eight core skills and values. Looking across the region, Singapore’s competitive neighbour, in particular Hong

54 Kong, had established its views on creativity by 2003, and had firmly established the education policy of positioning creativity as important “higher order thinking skills”. Even though there is a tendency think of Hong Kong and Singapore as the leading governments in the region, Post-Second World War Japan had also managed to include the development of creativity in the school curriculum. The Japanese National Council on Educational Reform outlined, “The development of creativity was st the most important objective of education for the 21 century.” (Robina Shaheen,2010,pg167)

By examining its schools, different approaches can be identified in how Singaporean society has both absorbed, and sometimes neglected, the new challenges involved in fostering creativity in design. This can be expanded further in comparing different local models and mission statements from schools with their desired educational outcomes, as well as in identifying how government bodies consistently introduced new papers to address the issue. There is also evidence demonstrating schools are introducing creativity and this can also be seen to highlight inefficiencies in how schools are still trying to embrace the arts. This data also provides some insight into the constraints that creative institutes have had to battle with in order to survive and to open the minds of local communities to new avenues of education aimed at nurturing creative visions.

The introduction of SOTA is an example where the government are addressing the need for an arts school where the student can still complete his or her education yet have a creative arts focus at the same time. How successful this will be is still a

matter of conjecture (JGwee,2011,pg1-14). One of the aims of this research is to examine the motivations and the objectives for Singapore in opening up its territory to new forms of foreign educational knowledge, institutional structures, practices and technologies as they related to graphic design. The introduction of specific programs and industry practices, have over time, enabled Singapore to promote itself as an ‘oasis of talent, a knowledge hub, and to enable itself to become an ideas exchange

incubator for inspiration. (Kris Olds, 2007,pp959-975)

One of the major themes of this thesis is to open up the discussion about such changes and how education in design became important to the extent that Singapore single-mindedly sought to fashion education as a tool for economic development over all the other objectives that perhaps were its foundation of financial growth in

55 the past. When you take into account Singapore’s relatively small population, the lack of natural resources, and the impact of economic recessions etc, the government’s reactions are critical. However, although almost anywhere in the world governments always trigger changes in policies, in this case the Singapore government had particular opportunities to exploit. The mid 1980’s recession was a moment in which the government led with the emergence of the twin-engine strategy

(J.Gwee,2009.pp240-252.) whereby the recommendations about new growth were amongst other directives, to “nurture and strengthen local enterprise and to develop

human intellectual capital with cost-competitive and outstanding capabilities” (J.Gwee,

2009.pp240-252.). This was to involve instruments such as higher valued-added

manufacturing and exportable services, as well as a regionalisation drive. (Kris Olds, 2007,pp959-975)

A similar push also happened later and this was foregrounded in a 1999 report issued during a time where the government was in the midst of a leadership overhaul. The Prime Minister of the time, Goh Chok Tong's gradual process to hand over power to a third generation of leadership was underway, and there were imminent cabinet reshuffles in play. In May 1999, based on forthcoming changes in the region where China was rapidly opening itself to the world, Singapore went about doing its best to be prepared.

“However, around this time, Singapore played host to the annual ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, at this Post-Ministerial Conference (ASEAN PMC), at the same time there was an ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) meeting toward the end of its tenure in July 1999. For Singapore and its fellow ASEAN states, the major challenge in 1999 was firming up the organization's credibility. So in order to change face, and to reverse the bad perception for the severe beating the Asian economy recently been hit by, Singapore went about initiating a free flowing approach with foreign ministers at a retreat. This retreat was to serve invaluable and was all about resolving and aiding the region, and more so about remolding its future approaches with china in mind, it

proved a winner.” (To, L.L.2000, pp78-86)

As far as Singapore was concerned, China's imminent entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) would be a major challenge for the future and the government urged

56 ASEAN “to get its act together” in order for its member states to compete with Beijing. (To, L. L.2000, pp 78-86)

“As has Singapore for decades now, has been well documented for rather successful in generating respectable growth, as was the case, in the 1985 recession, and the more recent Asian economic crisis, it has proven it can bounce back. Singapore's soundness can be seen, for example, in the judgement that the city-state was among only a handful of countries deemed well prepared to cope with any potential Y2K computer bug problems. Which, once paired with their future foray into overseas twinning relationships, a plan for further educational sustainability, this type

of recommendation does go down very well for educational investors” (To,L.L.2000,pp 78-86)

It was during this period that education was for the first time identified as a service sector worthy of being nurtured. The government had realised, as its net worth to the economy became apparent, that education possessed significant potential to grow revenue streams and also provide great export earning potential (K.Olds,2007,pp 959-975). Beyond this, much of the mid-1980s to mid-1990s was spent devising and implementing a series of manufacturing and service sector-oriented development policies and reform programs. The government went about reshuffling leadership roles and identified key department changes looking towards the emerging changes within some sectors in the job market - namely the IT sector.

In May 1999 there was a significant shift for the IT sector. This was where Singapore began its new statutory board called the Information Technology and Telecommunications Authority of Singapore (ITTA) by merging the National Computer Board with the Telecommunications Authority of Singapore. There were no promotions involved and the change was not so much about an exchange of portfolios, but rather the formation of the

ITTA, which was meant to help Singapore to become a knowledge-based economy (To,L.

L.2000,pp78-86). This highlights (1) the Ministry Of Education’s recognition of social and educational change; (2) the measures that had been introduced to establish funding; accompanied by (3) efforts in regard to positioning Singapore in markets with foresight into

57 the ASAEAN trade agreements. However, despite these new ideas, for the best part of 50 years, since the Peoples Action Party (PAP) have been in power, Singapore had cultivated its education system with a focus on developing individuals skilled in mathematics and the technical subjects.

Mainstream local education, in primary, secondary and tertiary concentrated on producing engineers, bankers, technicians, doctors, lawyers, scientists and business managers. The education philosophy was productivity driven, to develop a skilled workforce that supplied manpower to industry.

Changing straits

In Singapore’s society, education as we know it had emphasized its academic foundation for many years. This meant that for LaSalle College of the Arts, Nanyang Academy of Fine Art and indeed other smaller art and design schools to grow and prosper, everything was looked at from a performance-based perspective. One of the local initiatives aimed at developing a creative culture in the general community was named ‘Creative Community Singapore’. It was targeted at the community at large. Authorities hoped to discover talent, increase awareness and present a platform for participation in the creative industries (J.Gwee, 2009,pp240-252).

Launched in July 2005, Creative Community Singapore was meant to promote a ground up approach towards creative entrepreneurship and to facilitate a change in the public mindset. Not only was this a new avenue for the government to encourage locals to embrace the concept of design, it was also new in terms of making professional creatives aware that they now had an environment for expressing themselves with government support. Creative Community Singapore laid down some basic premises. By bonding creative professionals in the local community, it was engaging in building a sense of identity; and hopefully changing old perspectives by unleashing higher levels of professional creativity and promoting community creativity (J.Gwee,2009,pp240-252). The program continues to provide seed grants and marketing support, facilitate public, private and people partnerships, and organise training programs designed to develop the capacity to realize new ideas.

When we begin to examine these programs we need to look further back and take into account why these programs have been popular and if there remains a problem with the culture of the arts in Singapore. Looking back at the initial policies of the PAP there is little evidence of a vision for creativity at all. In fact it’s the opposite as Koh writes,

“Material and social welfare, earning a living, and economic survival have always been Singapore’s mostly immigrant community’s primary concerns, and the arts

have never been seen as ‘ basic need”. (Chong, T. (2010,pp131-149.)

However, when reflecting on this history we see, how development and investment in policies by supportive government departments, has created the conditions for the creative industry to make a significant contribution to local economics. Questions may also be asked about the extent the creative industry has enriched the society. It becomes abundantly clear how limited the PAP focus was once the then instated government took control of the country. It makes McNally and Lim seem like they had super powers - especially Lim, as his school really came into its own around the time of the instalment of the government despite receiving no government support whatsoever. “The government neglect of the arts and culture is evident in the extent to which they were rather far down the queue whenever public finds were

distributed.”(Chong, T. (2010,pp131-149.)

It can’t be said that the PAP government saw no role for arts and culture. There may have been no clear arts policy at the time, however there was a clear and consistent cultural policy. By examining their beginnings one gains insight into the struggles the schools such as NAFA had with the government, whose policies and lack of funding at the time weren’t supportive at all. In saying all that, in 1966, just one year after independence, the Minister of state Culture, Lee Khoon Choy, claimed in his speech at the opening of an art exhibition at the national theatre:

59 “The days of Art for Arts sake are over. Artists should play an integral part in our effort to build a multiracial, multi-lingual, and multi-religious society where every

citizen has a place under the sun” (Chong, T. (2010,pp131-149.)

The Minister of Culture, Jek Yeun Tong attended a local performance a few years later in 1972, at the Cultural Centre on Fort Canning Rise. He reiterated the message of his colleague years before him, promoting the government’s cultural charter; he went into how that can be achieved by arguing:

“Our national culture should therefore not only reflect the culture of our forebears but should also express and embody the new character and personality of Singapore’s modern society – its dynamism, its industrialism, its multiracialism and its ceaseless endeavor’s to create a better milieu for all. A modern Singapore should portray this hope and optimism of the people, whether these be expressed in dance or song, art,

literature or drama” (Chong, T., 2010,pp131-149.)

It must be said that for a policy to be moved forward and have impact on the future in this society it will be systematically measured on the performance of the industries’ impact on Singapore, and how locals have absorbed it. After reading the available literature and seeing first-hand changes in the culture of schools and policy changes, I find it surprising how many design schools have survived in what is such a small design community.

Designing serious education

However, years later, there remained concerns that the education system was not keeping up with the new economy, and needed a review. Hence the government went about creating and overseeing a committee for future recommendations for both LaSalle and NAFA. The recommendations of the committee were to,

“Adopt a two phase model, to upgrade LaSalle and NAFA, to extend polytechnic level funding to LaSalle and NAFA from 1999 onwards for development and recurrent budgets. To allow LaSalle and NAFA to award degrees in the visual arts at

60 the end of five years if they meet the necessary standards as agreed by the Arts

Education Council.(J.Gwee, 2009.pp240-252)

Their objectives were to preserve LaSalle and NAFA as private and autonomous institutions, as well as to commence establishing the Institute of The Arts (ITA) at National University of Singapore, which would conduct degree programs in the performing arts. Additionally, they established a remit to establish an Arts Education Council comprising representatives from Ministry of Education (MOE), Ministry of Information and the Arts (MITA), National Arts Council (NAC), Ministry of Trade and Education (MTI), and the education sector, to set up an arts education agenda for a sustainable future in Singapore. The committee also made a range of recommendations on arts education programs in the primary and secondary school levels. As they were setting up such a larger platform, it was critical to establish sound basic foundations suitable for Singapore’s primary education systems. The educational quality of teachers became a focus as was monitoring of the qualifications and experience of arts teachers in the visual and performing arts.

The committee was charged with ensuring all levels of education from primary to tertiary are well served, and that new teaching methodologies were introduced and practiced. A major change was made in regard to how student payments were handled, and this provided a great advantage. Student payments were to be handled by the MOE rather than the institutions themselves. The MOE then started providing the same level of funding to NAFA and LaSalle diploma programs as polytechnics. This meant that students now could take advantage of lower fees and the institutions were able to employ more qualified teachers and administrators. These fundamental changes also brought additional funding from the MOE, which also provided extra budgets to schools to NAFA and LaSalle in order to grow their campuses.

“The government provided $65 million of the $80 million NAFA campus. LaSalle new campus cost $138.5 million of which $104 million were funded by the Government. In agreement with SIA, LaSalle-SIA was rebranded simply as LaSalle in 2007” (J.Gwee, 2009. pp240-252)

Coinciding with these important structural changes, the international twinning system breathed new life into the local education markets and introduced local government to more

61 contemporary and creative educational approaches. While the society and government changed their focus, private institutions like Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA) and La Salle – College of the Arts continued to offer combinations of full-time and part-time diploma programs in all design and art related subjects from overseas and locally.

Further investigation into the twinning situations of both schools reveals both had began relationships early with foreign institutions. It seems that as early as the 1980s, some of their programs had been linked to foreign universities in twinning arrangements so that the students had the additional options of entering into degree programs with these universities. What is clear is that Australian institutions including Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT), Curtin University in Western Australia, as well as Queensland University were linked with visual arts programs already. Notably Kingston University (UK) had also established a number of ground level twinnings in multiple educational institutions.

As well as twinning and new diploma and degree programs entering Singapore’s education system, the government were also realising the urgency around pushing Singapore into the new millennium. ‘The Renaissance City Report 2000’ was meant to provide a new benchmark for Singapore. This project was carried out with a view to positioning Singapore as ‘a renaissance city’ (J.Gwee, 2009.pp 240-252). Developed in 1999 it was intended to brand Singapore as a leading arts city alongside cities such as New York and London. The report ambitiously aimed to lay out a framework that would establishing Singapore as global arts centre, providing the populace with both the stimuli and the opportunities to create products and services that were innovative and value adding. The intention was also to increase excitement about Singapore abroad, thereby improving its image and capacity to attract foreign talent.

The strategy did work; at least initially. An example of this can be seen in that in 2000 the design industry contributed SGD 2.7 billion in value adding to the Singapore economy. This amounted to 1.9 per cent of GDP and employed 25,000 people (J.Gwee, 2009.pp240-252). In that same year the media industry in Singapore generated $2.6 billion or 1.6 per cent of GDP and employed 37,000 people. There is definitely evidence therefore, that Singapore’s traditional conservative approach to the arts was slowly changing and that through local government policy, white papers, new and effective committees as well as local community

62 programs that Singapore has evidenced and driven the shift that is clearly demonstrated in the economic data.

Their legacy

McNally ultimately developed the La Salle College of the Arts school into a leading arts institution in the region, putting together a comprehensive visual and performing arts curriculum. He also sought out highly qualified teachers, hence beginning the LaSalle style. The basic foundation he set up is still practised. As stated on the school’s website:

“The LaSalle name is associated with progress, quality and uncompromising

standards in creative arts education.” (lasalle.edu.sg/about/about-lasalle/)

Today LaSalle College of The Arts is a specialist tertiary institution leading contemporary arts education in the fields of Design, Fashion, Fine Arts, Media Arts, Dance, Music, Theatre, Asian Art Histories, Art Therapy, and Arts Management in the region. It has a reputation built from a strong track record of nurturing some of Singapore’s leading creative talents who formed the backbone of the creative industries regionally and internationally. The local Singaporean design community find it very desirable to be linked to this as it represents significant social creditability. However, because it may be difficult to argue this in the case of all local institutes it is useful to consider how local credibility comes about. In the case of LaSalle College of the Arts a clear and substantial foundation was started. This was forged from the reputation of Brother McNally as a leading arts advocate and a highly sought-after arts and arts education advisor to the government. His vision was recognised as promoting contemporary practice and research and his teaching philosophy emphasised new ideas and new interpretations of creative disciplines that have been taken up by subsequent generations.

In an important phase of recognising the aim of LaSalle SIA to be a high profile Singaporean education brand, it was agreed SIA would be phased out of the institution's name. It was branded simply as LaSalle by the end of February 2007. This would later change again to LaSalle College of the Arts, as it is known today. As well as this important change to the naming of the school, the prestigious Institute of Contemporary Arts (ICA)

63 was established inside LaSalle College of the Arts, to promote an understanding and appreciation of contemporary arts. The ICA was set up to curate exhibitions, create and to publish research in the arts.

LaSalle is also now a partner of Goldsmiths, University of London, an institution renowned for having a highly creative and innovative approach to arts teaching and research. Goldsmiths has approved LaSalle as an appropriate tertiary institution in Singapore to offer degree programs leading to Goldsmiths’ validated awards. All degree programs offered at LaSalle College of the Arts have been designed and developed by LaSalle to fulfil the needs of the creative industries of Singapore and the Asia-Pacific. The programs go through a validation process of external peer review by Goldsmiths to ensure they are of a standard and quality equating to a Goldsmiths’ award.

As much as LaSalle have robust twinning relationships, it did take time for both LaSalle and schools like Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA) to be in the position to establish themselves in the local market and to be able to market themselves overseas in the region. NAFA was established in 1938, which, in the context of this research seems very removed from the LaSalle model (dating from 1984) and the challenges of the past 20 years. However, when we do reflect and compare, we find that NAFA actually remained outside the boundaries of Singapore’s local education system for many years. While its founder, Lim Hak Tai, struggled to maintain budgets and student intakes he also managed to create a style of painting that would be widely known around the world.

As I established in Chapter 1, Lim came to Singapore primarily to set up the school. The Nanyang Style, for whom Lim is credited for nurturing whilst undertaking the massive task of setting up and marketing a school, was not locally recognised for some years. Lim’s Nanyang Style refers to the use of a mix of styles and techniques from Chinese pictorial traditions and the School of Paris. This style was honed from and practiced by a group of artists who featured prominently within the local cultural scene in the years after the end of the Second World War. The first attempts to define the Nanyang Style were made by the art historians Redza Piyadasa and T.K. Sabapathy during a retrospective study of Nanyang artists in 1979. Their study was done in tribute to the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA), which Piyadasa recognized as being responsible for the emergence of this group of artists. According to Piyadasa, a Nanyang artist is an artist who is also a NAFA affiliate,

64 teacher, or student. Other artists who studied privately under NAFA teachers have also been called Nanyang artists. Sabapathy concluded that the Nanyang artist generally painted their surroundings using the aforementioned mix of styles and techniques while striving to represent the region’s culture and the way a Nanyang artist lived his or her life.

Gradually the term was taken further to impart the idea of a Nanyang identity and regional culture for the overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. As Chinese nationalism and Southeast Asian regionalism grew, the emphasis by proponents of Nanyang ideals was on one’s locale being one’s new home and the need to forge a new identity in new lands. It seems only natural that NAFA, which resumed classes at that time (post-war), began to draw artistic inspiration from its Southeast Asian surroundings instead of its prior pro-China stance. With the renewed talk of a Nanyang identity, there also began the quest to find the quintessential Nanyang visual expression to go with it. Key proponents were usually graduates of Shanghai’s Xin Hua Academy of Fine Arts, often taught at NAFA at some point, and had exposure to the varied French schools of art – whether through living in European cities for periods at a time, or via art journals and communication with European artists based in Southeast Asia. The Nanyang artists worked to articulate a Southeast Asian viewpoint through the integration of Chinese and Western elements in their works. To this day the influence of the Nanyang style clearly continues to resonate in discussions of the identity of Singapore art and its directions for the future.

The Ministry of Education’s Vision

The Ministry of Education (MOE) vision is fundamentally to establish a framework, within which local students in Singapore are able to discover their own talents, and to make the best of these talents, giving them opportunities to realise their full potential. With a focus that strives to develop most locals by instilling a passion for learning, it is believed that this can be translated into daily lives as life-long learning that lasts through life. The local education system in Singapore has evolved a strong reputation worldwide and it is very proud of this stature.

65 “We have a strong education system. Singapore students aim high and they

achieve very good results. This is recognized around the world.” (Ministry Of Education)

However, to its credit, it also admits it has faults and endeavours to ameliorate these in the academic world as much as in the industry. The MOE too is therefore working on developing better facilities that reflect Singapore as a world-class education hub. They promise a lot for the future and it seems that shaping the next generation of Singaporeans is the Ministry of Education’s prime concern. Careful not to promise anything it can’t deliver, the Ministry of Education guarantees opportunity but also offers timely warning of changes that may occur. As they state their role it is clear:

“The task of our schools and tertiary institutions is to give our young the chance to develop the skills, character and values that will enable them to continue to do well

and to take Singapore forward in this future.” (Ministry of Education)

The Ministry indicate, that they will encourage students to follow their passions, and promote diversity of talents. The system seeks to support students who ask questions and look for answers, and who are willing to think in new ways. I feel that as much as they say this, the design education sector still has a long way to go before it is accepted. Even though there is a significant education budget, the Singaporean culture is rather clear in that it won’t do anything it doesn't have a chance at gaining from in the education sector. Schools like SOTA, NAFA and LaSalle all are at different stages of development and all need ongoing support in order to grow. From the evidence gathered in this study, I feel the Ministry is prepared for the next 20 years of development. Both locally and regionally it is also in the interests of the creative industry work with government to support the design education sector as it moves into its next phase. With all these factors in play, I look forward to watching how the ministry will participate in the advancement of the design education of the future.

I have highlighted how twinning schools in Singapore have emerged, are working effectively and are gaining in popularity. From these initial schools and their beginnings we have seen how despite earlier governing policies that halted progress, through the strength and persistence of figures who were asked to come to Singapore and teach and nurture

66 creative talents, the sector has gained traction and has prospered. The important men who founded the institutes discussed, persisted, and from their efforts, albeit slowly an art and design culture has been nurtured. Pivotal moments have occurred as they do in any country; however, it is difficult to imagine that without the influence of McNally and Lim that there would currently be an art and design school system that has the creditability of Singapore’s at this moment. For local students, there are now at least four key creative art and design colleges to select from. In terms of private schools, the list is much longer and continues to grow.

Though still in its infancy, the sector is learning quickly. Given Singapore’s central location in this thriving region, it is important to look at both the positive effects and negative outcomes that may have come from the past 10-15 years of investment from abroad in the educational sector. Therefore the upcoming chapters will begin to look into the responses of interviewees and discuss their professional context and what educational and cultural factors led them to where they are now. Interview questions canvass the respondents’ initial feelings about the industry upon graduating from a twinning school, the nature of job prospects when compared to those of graduates from local schools and their perceptions about how other schools compare with their own design education.

By identifying when design became relevant we can see how the government has reacted to key pivotal moments – for example during the recession of the 1980’s. The research will also discuss and evidence why the twinning experiment has lasted so long, and how programs like The Colombo Scheme are being revisited and re-introduced on a larger scale

(Weigold, A. 2013). I will also further explore why design education has evolved in Singapore in the unique way it has, and to what extent it can be pushed forward.

Fundamentally this research is investigating whether the educational systems put in place by Singapore’s governing bodies are working, or how much they need to be refined for the contemporary context. Design education has shown it can exist successfully all over the world. In particular, it is thriving throughout Asia through a diverse set of twinning relationships. In the next chapter I will specifically address the student experience— perhaps the most significant focus in this research. The research presented will investigate how graduates working in industry have been influenced by the twinning experience as design students. We will hear from them with regard to their industry experiences and their

67 experience of the twinning schools they attended. We will also look at locals who didn't attend such schools and get insights into their perspective on the changing landscape of design education as they grew up around the emerging twinning schools, and how this impacted them while they attended a local design school.

Chapter Three The twinnings

“The infusion of foreign talent has ensured the benchmarking of industry to global standards. The same trends and reasoning follow in other sectors from

telecommunication to professional services” (Linda Low, 2002, pp409-425)

71 In acknowledging its societal development and its admiration for everything from the West, we can see where Singapore’s local systems changed. By identifying when design became relevant we can see how the government reacted to a key pivotal moment, that particular moment was during the 1980s.

Editor 1,“When I came to Singapore in 1979, design, graphic or product, was not considered a career for any local with brains to study. The trade schools turned out art technicians in those days, destined to become paste-up artists in studios. They picked up design while on the job. Slowly a few local designers returned from Australia with design training and started graphic companies.”

Editor 1 was not exaggerating when talking of how he witnessed first-hand the change in Singapore’s trade schools. He discusses how the local culture changed and confirms how the education system moved to make Western design a vocational option as opposed to merely just another trade.

Editor 1 “In the mid-eighties the first of the international design companies opened up here. However, Singapore designers, local or expats, stuck mainly to what you may call Western design. The West was strongly admired then and society had not yet developed where people were nostalgic for elements from the past. We also had, and still have, a problem where we have three cultures Chinese, Malay and Indian rather than one homogenous group sharing a common culture.” Mr Pak tee Ng from NUS concurs with Editor 1, the future goals were often looked at pragmatically “ Singapore’s style of ‘governmentality’, where careful engineering, measured approach and strategic control are keywords, will be increasingly challenged by globalisation. The PAP With the influx of foreign talents and their children into the country and the beckoning of other countries to the local talents, the culture is even more complex for clinical management. There will be a limit to the success of the government’s current style of ‘governmentality’. (Pak,Tee Ng,2011,pp 267)

After experiencing one of the country’s worst economic recessions, the government went about setting up the 1985 Economic Review Committee (ERC). The ERC was headed by

72 the then Deputy Minister Of Finance, Mr Lee Hsien Loong, and they sought to put forth the various service sectors to be explored as potential growth industries. The ERC report singled out the potential for economic growth of the cultural and entertainment sector, which included the performing arts, film, production, museums and art galleries” (Terence Chong, 2010, pp131-149).

This set the scene for Singapore’s first explicit expression of coherent arts policy four years later in the form of the 1989 “…report of [the] advisory council on culture and the arts. This advisory report contained several recommendations that have altered the complexion of the arts and cultural landscape in Singapore” (Terence Chong, 2010, pp131-149).

As I discussed in the introduction, the government had begun to look into many schemes, with one particular method being the ‘Colombo Scheme’ that is now having a resurgence of its own. However, like many things in that era, when first proposed the scheme drew criticism, with many Asians seeing it as another imperialist handing down of orders, particularly as it was not aimed at developing national self-sufficiency. When finally understood, and the correct methods were set up, The Colombo Scheme offered a unique opportunity for opening up economic solutions for regional governments participating in it. In the case of Singapore, the government of the day sold it based on the promise of economic and social balance towards the growing Singaporean economy. The Colombo Plan was not intended as a master plan in that national plans were expected to conform with and grow from its adoption. Rather it was intended to be a framework for bilateral arrangements involving technical assistance for the region’s economic and social development.

By the time Singapore had eventually selected its scholars for the scheme in 1966, namely Mr Khaw Boon Wan, (currently Minister for National Development), Mr Raymond Lim, a former Cabinet Minister, and Mr Yeo Cheow Tong also a former Cabinet Minister in Singapore, its neighbours, Malaysia (1957), Laos (1951), Myanmar (1952) India (1950) Indonesia (1953) and even Thailand (1954) had already adopted the scheme.

Subsequently, while adhering to the concept of human resource development and South-

73 East Asia cooperation in addressing issues of economic and social development, the program content has evolved to take account of the needs of member countries in a fast- changing global economic environment. In the early years, the training programs were of a long-term nature, while more recent programs have focused on providing advanced skills and experience sharing aimed at arriving at the best practices in different fields of economic and social activities as a means of good policy making and governance.

The more recent programs are in the areas of public policy formulation in an environment of globalisation and market economy, private sector development as a prime mover for growth and in drug abuse prevention and treatment in member countries. The Colombo Plan also provided skill development opportunities for technicians, in the middle level sectors where Singapore had to grow stronger. The results speak for themselves, as the scheme continues to be employed around the world. This helps both parties and continues to get stronger: “The current Colombo Plan looks very different since our restructuring and revitalisation in 1995. As we continue to build upon our past successes, the new Colombo Plan uses cooperation among developing member countries or South- south cooperation between the developed member countries and developing member countries, to underpin all our activities. Since our restructuring in 1995, we have now provided 16,082 scholarships to 23 member countries for both long-

term and short-term training programs." (Patricia Yoon-Moi Chia, 2010)

As recently as June 2014, The Colombo Plan was still having strong effects in Singapore and Australia. The Western influence is in some ways now in full circle of investment for a few Asia Pacific countries. Now, the new push from President Tony Tan and the current Foreign Affairs Minister, Hon. Julie Bishop have spoken about how the scheme will be put back into place as a Singaporean institution with an emphasis on Australian students studying in Singapore and Asia more generally.

“I am confident that the New Colombo Plan will play an important role in strengthening our education and people-to-people ties. The New Colombo Plan also reflects the

74 Australian Government's broader focus on enhancing its engagement with Asia” (President Tony Tan Keng Yam, June 2014.)

Design school impact instant

Although Singapore’s founding fathers laid down strong foundations a major hurdle that remains to this day is that there are cultural and political issues still affecting the growth of the mainstay schools, namely LaSalle, NAFA and Temasek (Formerly the Baharuddin Vocational Institute.) Education is generally understood as being pivotal to national strategies for competing for global market share (Slaughter, 1998; Tannock, 2007). Education plays a critical role in ‘successful globalisation’ (LittleandGreen, 2009). In Singapore, the education system has always been a supporting tool to economic development. Education is seen as an investment for the future, rather than an expenditure on the public account. (Pak,Tee Ng,2011,pp 265) Over time they have made significant inroads and continue to grow, but have far more competition surrounding them. When we think of the progress made there are other strong examples like LaSalle and NAFA and, if we trace the history back to 1974, the Baharuddin Vocational Institute (BVI). BVI’s focus was on technical skills because its students were fulfilling an industry demand. When we look at the employment numbers of the first cohorts from BVI, we get a very clear picture of how the schools were catering directly to the market. “Well over 75per cent found employment. One of the founding fathers, loh remembers fondly, that most of his students,

“Joined advertising agencies and design houses, while others became in- house designers in exhibition companies, hotels, retail outlets and media companies. Before graduation came, advertising agencies and design houses

were lining up to absorb them,” (Justin Zhuang, 2012, pp20-44)

In 1975, NAFA, was showing evidence of the growing industry demand. Its decision to begin offering a graphic design course was directly based on the economy and social awareness of work placement. However, it was also on the backing of a recent returned graduate in graphic design from London, Sim Kok Huoy, who noticed the opportunity, or void, in the marketplace. “NAFA was in deep trouble financially. There were a dwindling

75 number of students as there was no demand for the fine arts,” he says. (Justin Zhuang, 2012, pp20-44)

In contrast, many signed up for its two-year part-time design course and the school fees provided financial relief for NAFA. These classes saved NAFA, while the classes were conducted in the evenings as the teaching staff, including Sim, worked full-time in advertising agencies. Sims says, “This helped to attract students despite it having higher school fees than Baharuddin Vocational Institute, BVI". (Justin Zhuang, 2012, pp20-44)

Many of its students were working adults in the creative industry wanting to switch careers and become graphics designers.

In 1974 NAFA revamped its course offerings, shifting away from craft and moving towards design. Courses with poor employment prospects such as shell craft and doll making were cancelled. With the changing times, along came new programs for studying fashion design, furniture design and advertising art, all of which were upgraded to offer an Industrial Technician Certificate (ITC). In 1977 BVI also set up an Applied Arts Trade Advisory Committee to gather feedback from the industry on how to better serve its needs. The first two committees in 1977 and 1979 discussed setting up a Singapore Institute for Art and Design. The idea behind this initiative was to operate as an independent college from the vocational schools, as Mr Wee states, a former Baharuddin Vocational Institute lecturer, ”I still hold the opinion that the institute should have been set up.” He stands by the idea the time was right, and Art and design in Singapore had to be autonomous and have growth by its own governing body. He recognised that nothing could really flourish under the wings of some big organisation as the local system is far too different.

Further evidence of the expanding nature of design and graphic design in particular in Singapore was the opening of global brand consulting firm Landor Associates in 1981. Landor Associates opened a representative office to test the market and access business locally and in the region. However, interestingly, it did not anticipate there would initially be enough business to station a designer there full-time. Allied International Designers made up of some 15 locals set up and were headed by an expatriate creative director. With its foreign credentials allied became the design house to watch out for. Other firms soon followed including Australia’s Ken Cato. Cato Design opened its representative office a few months later and soon had a full-time studio and staff, well aware of his British counter part.

Local schools were now providing adequate education to service the new industries and there were now jobs in the design marketplace. This availability of jobs was expanded with the emergence of international studios opening offices. The government was obligated to maintain their support and put in place correct measures so the industry would be viable and sustainable for the future. In order to maintain momentum for change, the government also needed to be able to look within the education programs and see how the local educational institutes were implementing the systems and decide if further changes had to be made. In 1997 the then Prime Minister, Goh Chok Tong’s vision aimed to develop creative and critical thinking skills, a lifelong passion for learning and a nationalistic commitment in the young. With the concept of ‘Thinking Schools’, Goh Chok Tong stressed the urgency for Singapore schools to nurture thinking and for committed citizens to keep Singapore vibrant and successful in future. Mr Goh explained that thinking schools are ‘the crucibles for questioning and searching, within and outside the classroom, to forge this passion for learning among our young’ (Goh. T. June 1997,p73)

At the Seventh International Conference on Thinking on 2 June 1997, Mr Goh Chok Tong, entitled his opening address as "Shaping our future: Thinking Schools, Learning Nation". The opening lines of his address are as follows:

“A nation's wealth in the 21st century will depend on the capacity of its people to learn. Their imagination, their ability to seek out new technologies and ideas, and to apply them in everything they do will be the key source of economic growth. Their collective capacity to learn will determine the well being of a nation. The Prime Minister went on to stress that strong nations and communities will distinguish themselves from the rest by how well their people learn from and adapt to change. To prepare the young Singaporeans for the unknown future in the new millennium, the Prime Minister felt that the young needed to think for themselves so that they could find their own solutions to the new problems they may encounter. For Singaporeans to meet the challenges of the future, Prime Minister Goh captured

Singapore's vision in four words: "Thinking Schools, Learning Nation". (Goh Chok Tong, 1997, p.73)

77 Schools in Singapore, in his view, should nurture innovative thinkers and problem solvers. To achieve that goal the Ministry of Education in Singapore has, since 1997, regularly reviewed its curriculum system to better develop the thinking and learning skills and dispositions required for the future. Teachers are encouraged to expand their repertoire of teaching and learning strategies to include new and innovative pedagogies, communicate effectively, collaborate widely and solve problems reflectively. New educational reforms that aim to bring thinking schools into fruition include “Innovation and Enterprise” (I & E), “Teach

Less, Learn More” (TLLM), and Curriculum 2015 (C2015). (Goh Chok Tong, 1997,p.136)

“It has, however, been more than a decade since the launch of the TSLN vision. Despite the implementation of a number of reforms to promote thinking schools, the

creation of and long-term support for such schools remains a challenge” (Goh Chok Tong, 1997, p.140)

This is due to the tendency of many teachers in Singapore to rely on conventional assessment. Where conventional assessment underlines the reproduction of factual and procedural knowledge from students. That so many teachers in Singapore adopt conventional assessment is due to their conception of what ‘higher-order thinking’ entails. The educators in Singapore tend to interpret a ‘thinking school’ as one where ‘thinking skills’ are taught explicitly with the help of ‘thinking worksheets’ and other paraphernalia taken from various ‘thinking programmes’ (Tan 2006; Nathan 2001). It is thought that, in order for this to progress and for change to succeed in Singapore there needs to be more real-world problem solving ability brought into the classroom, and when that has been brought into the classroom, then and only then will there be a real cultural change in education and subsequently in society. “As the results, will indicate, students are immersed in an environment where standards of achievement are of high-stakes, and the uncommon atmosphere of exam like conditions are assessed at each level” (Koh,K.H,Tan,C.&Ng,P.

T.2012pp135-149). Although it remained common for teachers to focus on rote and drill modes of teaching students it was seen as time to implement methods that could encourage better learning practice with skills such as the identification of deductive and inductive reasoning, rules on validity and soundness. The notion of ‘thinking outside the box’ would come into its own once the implementation of new learning materials and methodologies were indeed

78 accepted at all levels of education. (Koh,K.H,Tan,C.,&Ng,P. T.2012,pp135-149).

Although framed in ways not dissimilar to educational processes used in England, Mr Goh had earlier (in his role as Education Minister prior to becoming Prime Minister) begun his dialogue on an educational system review by acknowledging the Singapore Education Minister, Mr Lee Yock Suan’s, comments (30 July 1995), where, “the need to move away from an over-emphasis on rote learning practices in the educational system” was stressed. (Goh,T,June,1997).

“Singapore's education system will have to move away from the current emphasis on mastery of content to one that will give students more opportunities to acquire thinking and learning skills. The shift towards thinking and learning skills will prepare students for a world of intense global economic competition and rapid changes in technology. They have to learn to think independently and solve unexpected problems to survive and prosper in the years ahead, when knowledge and skills will become obsolete before. Lifelong learning will become a necessity we want to move away from the emphasis on rote learning because a lot of information can be obtained through

computers and it becomes obsolete faster.” (Mr Lee Yock Suan’s,30 July 1995),

This premise laid the foundations for where Singapore was heading educationally. At the opening of the ‘Renaissance City Report 2000’, additional funding of $50 million over five years to be invested into scholarships and funds for promising talent was announced. There was also 20/20, an exhibition curated by Jackson Tan from Phunk Studio, and the very important implementation of the President’s Award that highlighted the skills of local talent as well as many art community groups. Through these initiatives the events foregrounded a push by the design community to become more international was leveraged and acknowledged an increased move toward international collaborations in the form of ‘twinnings’ had begun, and there was a sense of growth supported by an influx of investment. With the introduction of international ‘twinning’ local design schools were establishing partnerships with internationally recognised schools and delivering an equivalent international degree. The hope was that students would therefore stay at home and the local design scene would grow. (Gwee, J, 2011 pg1-14) Local universities are also pushed to work towards world-class standards and adopt an entrepreneurial model (Wong

79 et al., 2007). Correspondingly, in terms of national investment in research and development (R&D), the government has increased the overall research spending to S$7.5 billion per annum by 2010, or 3% of the GDP, with one-third of this being publicly funded research

(Tharman, 2008a). (Pak,Tee Ng,2011,pp265)

The benefits and impact

Researcher 1 is a writer and researcher with an interest in design, cities, culture, history and media. He has written several books about Singapore design, including “Independence:

The History of Graphic Design in Singapore since the 1960s.” (The Design Society, 2012) When asked about government influence and design-influenced events, he doesn’t hold back:

Researcher 1 “We can see this from the point of Singapore’s independence when the government set up the country's first applied arts school, Baharuddin Vocational Institute, to train people that could present Made-in-Singapore products more creatively. Independent art schools like NAFA and LaSalle eventually followed suit by setting up their own programmes. Most design schools in Singapore continue to be run by the government, so there is a direct connection there. In terms of practice, government units tasked with promoting design have always had funding programmes that help clients take up design services. The more recent ones have a bias towards “internationalization” and “innovation”, so that must have an impact with how designers and clients frame what is produced.

However, when asked about the influence of twinning schools in Singapore, he is rather frank and non-judgemental, yet he won’t commit to a clear answer as to whether there is a legitimate, definable evidence in the community about whether the Western influence is real or not. Remember, this view represents the perspective of a Singaporean currently studying overseas and who is inspired by international architecture in all is writings and photo blogs.

Designer 5 “The first opportunities for Singapore designers to get degrees locally have come from such partnership programmes in the 1990s. I believe this legitimized the profession to some extent, particularly in the eyes of Singaporean parents whom

80 always want their children to get a degree (although a design one was probably still suspect). It also reflects how Singapore design must be “accredited” by the West before it is recognized back home. I’ve also heard about how design educators in Singapore need a degree, so I would speculate that graduating from such programmes helped some existing lecturers in Singapore design schools now.”

Researcher 1 “Yes I do think there is a slight difference. Local institutions will certainly have some limitations as to how creative a designer can be as the entire education from kindergarten till tertiary is quite regimented. And it could hinder a designer from reaching full potential as he or she would probably do something that is safe and accepted than thinking out and beyond the box. I would think Western- influenced school would allow the students to explore freely, because there is no predetermined factor like the need to conform to the Asian culture and not to be different from others. Also the style of teaching allows more interaction between teachers and students rather than students follow the rules that the teachers have set.

Global Schoolhouse

The initiation of the Global Schoolhouse Development Policy in the early 2000’s (Vidovich &

Sheng,2007) was in no way particular to the origins and evolution of creative policies laid down before it. In it’s tentative integration of public and private education sectors it was rather a response to the changing times, and represented a step further into the creative evolution that was having such an impact on the local creative industry broadly - not just the educational dimension. Importantly the emergence of international twinnings grew faster than expected and with it the requirement for new regulations that the local government had to develop. The rapid changes undoubtedly presented a new frontier. For example there were the respective agendas of the Singaporean state and the many Western universities that had deepened their presence in Singapore since 1997. The main selling points the government had instigated were also connected to their policies as outlined in most of the ‘white papers’ published during the period and some of the preliminary impacts of the

Global Schoolhouse Development Policy (Vidovich & Sheng, 2007).

The Global Schoolhouse is a key platform within Singapore’s knowledge economy environment and rests on three pillars: extend financial support to an identified group of ‘world class universities’ to establish operations in Singapore; attract 150,000 international students by 2015 to study in both private and state-run education institutions, and re-model all levels of Singaporean education to inculcate the attributes of risk-taking, creativity and entrepreneurialism (see MTI 2007). (K.-C. Ho• Brenda Yeoh, pp26) The government differentiated the city-state to the world by promoting some key aspects. For one, it is a great location - a place to be linked to as being based there represents a strategic advantage. Along with Changi’s Airport growing reputation as one of the best airports in the world and the status of Singapore Airlines also growing in reputation the main focus was the country’s proximity to the southern parts of East Asia. The quality of life in Singapore was also a selling point; it had relatively cheap housing and the local street food was more than affordable for both visiting and permanent faculty and students. The benefits were broken down into simple basics points:

• A significant and often well-placed alumni base in Singapore;

• The large number of transnational corporations with a base in Singapore;

• Singapore’s political stability;

• The relatively high quality local universities;

• The presence of other foreign universities;

• Singapore’s well-known commitment to education;

• Previous linkages with Singaporean academics and universities that were forged during the 1980s and early 1990s.

Education hubs as an education industry

Over the past five-year period, there has been a growing body of academic and policy

82 literature which seeks to link the shifting role of universities to economic development (Lai,

A., & Maclean, R. 2011,31(3), 249-262). It is argued that as there is a global shift from industry-based to knowledge-based economies, universities should play a new role in fostering closer university-industry partnerships, ensuring technological innovation, promoting knowledge generation and dissemination and facilitating knowledge transfer from academia to society

(Ka Ho Mok, Kar Ming Yu, 2013). The role of universities in striving to promote regionally the new technological and economic development (Leydesdorff & Etzkowitz, 2001; Meeus, Oerlemans, & Hage,

2003; Rutten, Boekema, & Kuijpers, 2003; Youtie & Shapira, 2008) and stimulating the growth of knowledge-intensive industrial clusters (Hershberg, Nabeshima, & Yusuf, 2007) is stressed. Lai, A., & Maclean, R. (2011).

“For one, the hub strategy may jump-start development key industries, with domestic universities and foreign partner institutions serving as magnets for established researchers. Singapore has used the promise of new facilities, generous funding, and minimal regulation to make rapid gains in the biomedical and engineering

sectors. (Claudia Hanson Thiem,2009, pp163)

Sometimes, the idea of building an education hub is suggested with these ideas in the future, there is further evidenced in my interviews, where it is clear that Western-educated students, being exposed to Western idea and language think differently. When asked about this, respondents suggest the stimulation of new technology and working collaboratively with industry, not just locally but internationally has had positive impacts locally…

Designer 4 “That’s a difficult question, but definitely in the folios from overseas, are much better, more risk in their work. Different kind of ideas that wouldn’t see in local folios, experimental with more techniques. Its rather a clear difference if you put two together quiet clearly.”

The potential for positive impact is also acknowledged in academic commentary, its rather common to discuss the building of a global education hub in Singapore as being a way to build a platform for innovation, research, development and enterprise that will help shift

Singapore’s economy from being production-based to knowledge-based (Olds, 2007; Sidhu, Ho,

& Yeoh, 2010; Wong, Ho,&Singh,2007). The concept of a hub is said to imply “spanning boundaries”

83 (Youtie & Shapira, 2008) while the concept of an “education hub” is often used interchangeably with concepts such as “innovation hub” and “knowledge hub” (Olds, 2007; Sidhu et al., 2010).

In regards to the term “education hub” its was envisioned as a source of new knowledge and innovation, which would help the advancement of local economies. This would be practiced through the boundary of spanning the local knowledge transfer. The technology spillovers, and commercialisation, would indeed involve the local universities, industries and the government. With this in place, the impact of the gap between local design and design education imported from the west is reflected in how schools configure their offerings as highlighted by Designer 8. Designer 8 “Some local schools now are doing foreign exchanges, but their just local lecturers, no Western lecturers. Six months exchange, maybe two months, maybe meet foreign students, do a mini project, but not a major difference now. Raffles Design Institute 10 years ago was a huge leader, now the gap is closer.”

As observed by Olds (2007) the partnership model has proved to be very popular. It is an approach to education partnership whereby Western and Singaporean stakeholders have benefited long term. As shown previously, the LaSalle model did need to be changed, and it was subsequently identified as a future model case study that all local institutions would then follow. It is now a most common mechanism to further the internationalisation objectives of the foreign universities that are active in Singapore. The model is typically pursued via the exchange of students and faculty, the joint operation of teaching and research programs. The partnership model is almost normal in the local higher educational sector, and presents as relatively low risk in nature from the perspective of the foreign university as well as the local sponsor. However olds also states, that “Western universities – despite their interest in tapping new student markets and research opportunities – have been particularly reluctant to make deep commitments abroad. Singapore’s potential partners face financial risks, and are also concerned about replicating institutional cultures, protecting their elite reputations, and preserving academic freedom at new overseas outposts (Olds, 2005). (Claudia Hanson Thiem, 2009, pp164) Partnership negotiations between local and foreign universities are established and in some cases negotiated between foreign universities and the state. They tend to be institutionalised in the form of time-

84 specific Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) or Agreements.” (Olds, Kris, 2007, pp17-18)

Education hubs as a way to internationalise higher education

In Singapore’s case, education hubs are discussed in terms of both policy and practical considerations. Although such partnerships are rather common practice these days for most educational invested countries, Singapore was indeed ahead of its time in the 90’s when these strategies were put into play. That is, they were implementing schemes to build educational revenue while growing their educational reputation, not just regionally, but internationally. As Old’s (2007) observes, Singapore’s model for educational change, is “…seen as belonging to a strategy of transforming a predominantly public education system into an industry capable of generating (often very substantial) revenue and income by satisfying a growing demand for education from other countries. (Olds, Kris. 2007, pp959-975).

“By recruiting elite institutional partners, Singapore hopes to signal its centrality in global knowledge-intensive industries, thus ensuring continued in-flows

of capital and labor. (Claudia Hanson Thiem,2009, pp164)

As we have identified in the beginning of this study, Singapore is a country with a wealth of aptitude in being forthright in getting things done, sometimes it seems almost over night. It has this capacity, facilitated by its governmental business ideology, to quickly put in place plans and achieve outcomes. As has been proven over the last 50 years, the Singapore government went about realizing its educational ambitions in an efficient manner. They identified the market, identified the demand in the appropriate industry sectors, and while acknowledging they were behind the educational growth in the region, they went about setting up the correct committees, processes and policies in order to place itself in a forward position.

What is also evident is that Singapore has integrated and applied these initiatives successfully in building a higher education hub with a long-term development strategy in the education industry. This is based on private and public educational institutions and the aim to transform these education providers into an industry or a business. The policies installed

85 as a result of the aforementioned ‘white papers’ have formed a solid foundation that supports their vision to “develop a self-sustaining education ecosystem offering a diverse and distinctive mix of quality education services to the world, thus becoming an engine of economic growth, capability development and talent attraction for Singapore” (Education Review Committee (ERC), 2002, pg2).

Important initiatives such as “The World Class Universities” program launched in 1998 forged the foundations for the very successful “Global Schoolhouse Initiative” in 2007. This would go on to help established universities to integrate their research strength with local industries and to brand Singapore as “a premier education hub”. And as previously discussed, this was all driven by the reformed tertiary education sector which was, in addition to the three other sectors within the Singapore education system, identified as having export potential to attract students worldwide. At its inception, the Global Schoolhouse project was promoted as an East–West bridge and ‘springboard’. It was portrayed as providing rich opportunities to bring a US-centric model of world’s best practice to Singapore’s universities. The East– West analogy played on the island state’s colonial heritage, English speaking population, modern and western friendly government—factors anticipated to attract elite foreign institutions keen to position themselves in an economically dynamic but culturally alien Asia. More recently, a discourse of Asian renaissance has emerged, premised on a shift in political and economic power towards the Asian

hemisphere (see Mahbubani 2008). (K.-C. Ho • Brenda Yeoh pp38) This research confirms, Singapore has developed in practice the capacity in constructing an education hub created through incorporating renowned foreign universities forming an identified market strength that perhaps wasn't present in many other educational markets. Through this process and the application of their research strengths to renew the local industrial base and the university system, the education hub has in turn, become an attraction of its own helping to build an education industry. The multiple benefits of building an education hub appear to be clustered around the formation of a model for emulation, particularly for newly-industrialised economies as noted previously, which can constantly feel like they are lagging behind in the global race to excel in a knowledge-based economy (Wong et al., 2007).

86 In the competitive market place of design education Singapore competes with English- speaking countries like Australia and the UK. Their education sectors have performed well and have already become one of their great export earning assets. The income generated by education is undeniable with an economic contribution ranging from 5.5% and 5.6% to the Gross Domestic Product of the two economies respectively back in 1999. However, there are some downsides to these successes. Although there has been a huge swing turning education from a public service into a profit-making business this often offends educators themselves and challenges the deep-rooted and sacred image of education in society that has been installed for so long. It indeed changes local culture, and its educational pathway thinking. (Healey, 2008).

From this, we have to reflect on the degree to which educational institutions such as a university can act like a business. This is most certainly debatable. Arguably, it is not common for universities that have a large public local sector to become involved in recruiting international students for profit making. But, this perspective is evolving and it is changing in Australia and Europe. When tertiary education experience cuts in subsidies to local students and tuition fees for international students are deregulated, we see that in these cases international students are reactively recruited by universities to “cross- subsidise research and domestic students” (Healey, 2008, p.346).

Overall the educational subsides that were in place in these countries also upheld government grants and commission. Essentially the public, state-subsidised character of universities in means that universities are subject to state regulations and policy interventions and do not purely and naturally act on a profit motive. This highlights a somewhat alarming trend whereby the drive for making education a business is the government, either through direct policy encouragement or indirect policy distortion, rather than the universities themselves. In these cases, making education an industry may serve monetary as well as other purposes for the government. For example there is the appeal of attracting skilled and educated students as talented migrants (Baas, 2007), or the dubious desirability of drawing foreign students as cheap temporary labor (Liu-Farrer, 2009). This is perhaps where the change of circumstances like making education an industry, does not include the knowledge transfer functions sometimes associated with the creation of an

87 education hub. As I have mentioned, ideally the education hub is envisioned as a generator of new knowledge and innovation that advances local economies and the society itself.

Another policy context in which the idea of “education hubs” often arises is in the debates concerning the internationalisation of higher education (Chan&Ng, 2008; 2009; Ng & Tang, 2008). Internationalisation in higher education is, however, a multi-faceted concept since it can refer to the mobility of students, the delivery of education to other countries and curriculum changes that raise international awareness or academic collaboration between local and international universities (Knight, 2004; Mok, 2007). (Lai, A., & Maclean, R. (2011). 249-262.)

The idea of an education hub is often raised in debates when authorities want to recruit international students to increase the international knowledge and contacts of domestic students. The creation of an education hub is likely to have no implications for the local economy in terms of knowledge transfer and university-industry linkages. Instead, it is often related to the preparation of domestic students for a globalised economy, which has become increasingly interconnected and competitive (University Grants Committee (UGC), 2010b).

Such an internationalisation policy will contradict the strategy of developing an education industry, since international students recruited for the purpose of internationalisation of the campus will not be charged tuition fees that will (in theory)

make a profit. (Lai, A., & Maclean, R. (2011). 249-262.

Singapore’s attempts to become the ‘‘Boston of the East,’’ a global knowledge-based hub associated with innovation, creativity, informed debate, and significant university–industry linkages has strong momentum. The response from Singapore’s investment has triggered a response from over a dozen universities including Duke, Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Cornell and Carnegie Mellon. The response is swift, and in all cases the relationships they have established are on big scales, with campuses, centers, research laboratories, joint ventures with Singaporean universities and joint degrees, all since the ‘‘World Class University’’ (WCU) program was launched by the government in 1998. A white paper that clearly impacted on another level that created the Global Schoolhouse program. The Singaporean

88 state pushed the envelope, in a relative sense, back in 1998 with respect to the opening up of its territory to the global trade in education services, including on a commercial presence. The formation of Singapore–foreign university linkages, and university–industry linkages, are viewed through the frame of four ‘‘globalization of higher education’’ models they are: the Import model, the Export model, the Partnership model, the Network model. An analysis of the planned role of foreign universities in spurring on the global city formation process in Singapore highlights many factors in which there isn’t one main factor in which one sector is stronger then the other. The importance of addressing the global city formation process from a geographically and historically specific perspective. This line of argument is pursued because the developmental city-state character of Singapore is relatively unique, and there are few direct lessons about university– industry linkages that can be derived from a place the same geographic size of an Island. The local government has a budget and a powerful and well-resourced nation state that isn’t matched. That said, the Singapore experiment provides fresh insights on assumptions and expectations associated with the formation of university–industry linkages in other cities and countries. This is without question one of the most watched schemes and patterns looked at by global investors in and throughout the education sector. Once we step back and look at the many countries involved, it is clear that Singapore’s legacy perhaps may lay in being a major component of the way education has been marketed over time. If not the past 15yrs, but indeed, the next 5 to 25 years throughout the world of twining relationships. (Olds,Kris. 2007,pp 959-975).

In the next chapter I will highlight the direct impact of these policies in the local industry. We talk to designers, educators and past students who were all involved in the period from 2000 to 2010. The twinning’s were still fresh at that time and it is only now that we can see how such a period of change in one industry in fact impacted upon both the country and the region. Evidence is drawn from data about the government departments, new committees and strategies brought about by new relationships around design education and a design industry which had been sleeping but was now more flourishing with new design centers, exhibitions, conferences, societies and regional enterprise. We will also look at evidence as to why the twinning experiment has lasted so long and how programs like the Colombo Scheme are being revisited on a larger scale at and further explore why and how design education itself has evolved in Singapore.

Chapter four The industry, designers and government

“Singapore continues to pursue its goal to be a global city, particularly in terms of expanding its role within Asia (Yeoh and Chang,2007). As global cities need to maintain a competitive edge, it is important for the government to nurture innovation and knowledge production (IDA Singapore, 2006). It is the deep commitment to the advancement of information infrastructure that enables global cities like Singapore to stand out. As Castells (1997) notes, once a global city becomes established, surrounding territories would create subordinate functions to stimulate regionalisation based on the special features of the global city. However, it is also important to consider the degree of participation of the state in the articulation of a global city discourse. (P.Chung,Pg.33)

In this chapter I go on to highlight the key elements that exist within Singapore’s design culture—what makes it go, who and what are the important movers and shakers in the industry and how they are nurturing the design culture. It has taken a while for these people to be recognised and, as I have identified, the graphic design culture is still making slow ground in comparison to that of the fashion design industry in the Singapore community. However, with groups like Phunk and The Design Society, the graphic design community is in good hands and will keep getting publicised and spreading the word on the local scene not only locally but also, and more importantly, building a name internationally. The local graphic design culture was recently in the news as it celebrated the publication of ‘Independence: The History of Graphic Design in Singapore since the 1960s’. As much as this work gave voice to graphic design in Singapore, it is the first of its type for the local graphic design community ever. It highlights a few elements: firstly, discussing how the scene came about and, most importantly, who the important characters were that played pivotal roles for the movement of a design community to happen. As I have established in earlier chapters, with ‘the founding fathers’ there were so many people coming in and out of Singapore during this developmental period, it is clear that most of it wasn’t or hadn’t been documented. It is important for us to acknowledge and analyse the pivotal moments in the past in order to appreciate the contemporary design scene, and what is happening now. The culture has communities, it has events, and it has major architectural centres, that cater to the whole community not just designers. Now is an exciting and prosperous time for design in Singapore, yet it must not relax and become complacent—with advancements in technology and emerging technology-savvy generations coming up, it must be on top of the next wave and engage with the new methodologies. It must not depend on government backing; it must have growth from within and strong design groups with good leadership to push it for the next 20 years. It’s really all about the local design culture creating its own reputation by using its newest talent to broaden and open the world to a Singapore design style.

Researcher 1 “Today’s designers in Singapore cherish having their own voice, which is evident in the diversity of studios with different design styles, specializations and approaches. While older designers believe it is important to keep their voices out of their

93 designs and cater to all kinds of clients, many of this generation of designers want to have a say in their designs, developing their own visual languages to sell to select clients instead.”

Researcher 1 writes what he knows about the Western influence. He has written several books about Singapore design, including Independence: The history of graphic design in Singapore since the 1960s, comprehensively covering the timeframe and identifying key people and moments. His subject matter, research and design documentation is pioneering in regard to telling the graphic design history of Singapore. (J Zhuang,7/08/14 ). These days he writes from New York where he is studying and writing about design and architecture, as stated on his blog. Himself a product of the themes in my research, he is a local who has been inspired by and yields to Western ideals. While not looking at graphic design overseas, our researcher is a local who has gone overseas to study so he can come home and receive local recognition armed with a Western masters degree. This further evidences the local Singaporean mentality that becoming educated overseas and coming home carries far more weight than that of a locally acquired education. He paints the local picture in the space of two sentences, yet also totally contradicts himself. Somehow this accurately represents the two steps forward, two steps backwards path the local design industry has taken.

Researcher 1 “Since British advertising agencies brought modern graphic design into Singapore after the Second World War, a thriving community of independent studios has emerged in this former colony in South East Asia. Today, Singapore is a modern metropolis set to celebrate 50 years of independence in 2015, but the nation-state is still struggling to create a distinct local identity while earning global recognition — just like its contemporary graphic design scene.”

Strong Ideas here, which we can argue have some merit, given they’re being told first-hand by one who’s been involved with such an important book relating to Singapore’s design industry. He doesn’t shy away from opinion borne of Western influence and understands the local industry needs to find its own unique image. However, when talking to local designers, it becomes evident that they may or may not have very strong ideas, about what the local industry requires. While they all have some idea of what the West has brought to the profession, they are also very proud of what is happening locally, but are largely unable

94 to define a precise signature of the local industry. An example of this can be discerned in Zhuang’s observation that,

“…Phunk studio is known for its youth-centric illustrations that incorporate both elements from the East and West. On the other hand, Asylum’s work is seen as corporate chic with an offbeat touch. Then there is the experimental WORK that handles mainly fashion clients, versus Epigram, better known for its annual reports with a strong story-telling concept. And while H55 is known for its minimal modernist

output, Kinetic Design tends to create more irreverent work. (J Zhuang,7/08/14 )

All the above studios are well known locally in the small design community, and some have received awards and enjoy international recognition. But after the awards and after the international recognition, how do these studios continue to survive? By going global, or staying local? While these young designers began making waves internationally thanks to the Internet and winning international design awards from Tokyo Type Directors Club, New York Art Directors Club, The One Show, and the Design & Art Direction (D&AD) in the early 2000s, they remained unknown in Singapore. But the spotlight came after the recession when the government reviewed its economic policies again. In 2003 it set out to embrace globalisation, to develop a diversified economy and to be a “creative and entrepreneurial nation,” as discussed in Chapter 2. Design was again regarded as being important to helping Singapore; it had a role in helping get the economy back on track. Graphic design was seen, together with the media and the arts, as the “creative industries”, a new growth sector for Singapore that wasn't tapped into yet. This is exactly what was occurring with other developed countries such as the US, the UK, Japan and South Korea which regarded design as an economic growth engine in itself. Design was also vital to creating a vibrant global city to attract talent from around the world.

When we ask questions about the growth, for instance: “How did the government help with this?” “Did they push these studios to seek design contracts for foreign investors?” As one interviewee points out, as a foreigner, though I would stop short of saying he is a true local by now, as he landed in Singapore in 1978 and hasn’t really left:

Editor 1 “The Singapore government now recognises the importance of design and creativity and, typically, has wasted no time in pushing this. It currently

95 puts a lot of weight in terms of money and support into these areas. A variety of design and communications courses are offered in government and private schools. The students on design courses within the Republic are given opportunities to spend time in foreign schools, so they are exposed to new ideas. “

As I mentioned earlier, the Internet has also opened up opportunities to see work currently being produced in developed and other developing markets. Singaporeans are also affluent enough to travel overseas, so the young people are regularly exposed to other cultures. One can sense Singaporeans are becoming more aware of design due to the opening of trendy furniture stores. High end products and top fashion design brands are also selling well. Companies are now understanding that branding and good design are vital to their success.

The local push

Looking historically, in 1988—again we find evidence of the local government activities promoting design with a particularly strong influence from the Advisory Council on Culture and the Arts. After a review of the state of the arts and culture in Singapore, there was a strong and confident outlook aimed at transforming Singapore into a culturally vibrant society by the turn of the century.

As discussed in Chapter 2, the advisory council established a structure whereby educational institutions would be nurtured through investment into the schools NAFA and LaSalle. However, it also became clear from the study’s recommendations that cultural development in Singapore was being impeded by a range of factors. The advisory council recommended developing infrastructure, enhancing education and creating greater exposure for the arts. Specific actions were proposed to address the weaknesses and to create opportunities for the development of culture.

Although economic nationalism is often regarded as an anachronism in this age of globalisation, the Global Schoolhouse reveals the co-constitutive relations between economic nationalism and economic globalisation. To sustain its economic progress,

96 Singapore is crafting a new type of national identity for its citizens: transnational, self-sufficient, innovative, entrepreneurial and committed to self-betterment. The city- state’s economic future and survival is portrayed by government to be reliant on such a citizen, suggesting that the accumulation of innovativeness and entrepreneurial potential is increasingly becoming an obligation of citizenship. (K.-C. Ho • Brenda Yeoh pp 37)

In terms of supporting design practice, government units tasked with promoting design have always had funding programmes that help clients to take up design services. The more recent ones have had a bias towards “internationalisation” and “innovation”. This one assumes must have an impact with how designers and clients frame what is produced.

Researcher 1 The set-up of Design Singapore Council in 2003 has helped nurture a culture and network amongst the practices, especially in the early years under Dr Milton Tan. You will notice a large variety of programmes where designers were brought together to work with one another (Venice Architecture Biennale, Singapore Design Festival).

To push this new agenda, the Design Singapore Council—a national agency to promote design was set up to acknowledge design’s importance to the local culture. This was intended to form a platform for design, the arts and culture; it was seen to open up the conversation about a local design strategy, cultivating interest and nurturing a creative design industry. Unlike the government’s previous design promotion agencies that came under the umbrella of the trade ministry, Design Singapore was part of the Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts (MICA), a move championed by its late founding chairman, Dr Milton Tan. Tan saw the importance of the arts and culture as part of a healthy design strategy, and officially acknowledged the role of culture in nurturing a creative design industry. Now, after many years we can witness many examples that inspire encouraging confidence in local design selling across both print and online contexts. As well as growth in online we are seeing many uses of graphic design in other areas that are less obvious, more interdisciplinary, but are getting local accreditation.

97 Researcher 1 In recent years, there has been a shift towards focusing on selling design to clients instead, and letting designers organise their own events. This explains the set-up of units like the Design Thinking & Innovation Academy and the Asian Insights & Design Innovation.

An example is when we look at local Singaporean hotelier Lik Peng Loh. He opened a line of hotels and wanted to create a unique boutique feel in their design. Peng went about hiring a number of local design studios to design distinctive interiors. He wanted to create a unique experience for each of his guests:

“Local studios have a distinct voice because they are in touch with the country and

are sensitive to the culture restaurant” (P.loh, 2012)

Much was revealed in a survey conducted by the Design Council between 2005 and 2007. The findings suggested the public had become more design-conscious. New design studios were also popping up, ‘like new pioneers’ of the new millennium. As stated previously, these new design studios and communities believed design has no boundaries and wanted to explore its potential more. However, as with all studios, there were problems with struggling to get clients to understand this. But clients in the new millennium have become more design savvy too—not a bad problem to have, when you think about how fast the design culture has turned about. (Fleischmann,K,Daniel,R. 2015, pp1-21)

The policy, in which the Design Council envisioned Singapore as a global arts city, was a huge vision and with that came a significant responsibility to create a cultural identity of its own. Building upon the governments’ previous efforts has created returns. When we consider how the industry has progressed over the past decade and reflect on its earlier engagement with the community, it is rather astounding how, in such a short time period the design community, the local populace, and the international community have taken the arts and culture of design Singapore so seriously.

In this climate of support—the international and local recognition—a young graphic designer can now find new opportunities within a blossoming arts and cultural environment. In this they can set up a studio and be allowed to work with musical bands, theatre companies, festivals, museums and art institutions, to engage in other cultural productions,

98 and to continue to be inspired just like their design heroes in Europe. This is in part at least all about the cultivation and enthusiasm showed by the Design Council towards its local design community. With the creation of a vibrant cultural environment in Singapore as we have witnessed in the last two decades, the rise of an increasingly design-conscious society that not too long ago was non-existent, unlike their shopping malls has emerged. This has provided more scope for Singapore’s designers to explore and experiment with new forms of art, in a sense paralleling the growth and maturity of the country. In some parts of the industry the growth of design is gathering pace, as is the advances in design education and industry acceptance. So when we begin describing the local design culture, we tend to imagine perhaps an Asian influence. However, Singapore’s design has traditionally been described as international, with commentators suggesting it has a ‘Western’ or ‘trendy’ feeling.

Before the appointment, Prime Minister Goh, in his 1998 National Day Rally speech, laid the foundation for appointing a foreigner to the job by saying that: . . .if our companies want to be as successful as Microsoft, then they too must make talent a burning corporate priority. When they hire, they must go for the best

person, whether Singaporean or foreign. (Goh, 1998) (Pak,Tee Ng,2011,pp264)

This is perhaps another reflection of the West’s impact, whether that be through twinning in education or indeed just wide usage of common design icons and styles. Whilst as a perspective it's a starting point, one might equally argue a newer, more unique Singapore design is gathering pace faster than most expected. As is further discussed by Pak,Tee Ng, It is the ‘creative talent’ that really enhances economic competitiveness. In the same tone, Cohen (2001, xvi) opines that ‘‘the talent of top performers has become the critical difference between those companies that grow and innovate, and those that falter or merely survive’’. In fact, there are suggestions that the majority of the productive performance of a company comes from the contribution of a minority of talented top performers (Michaels et al., 2001). Therefore, in many countries, comprehensive primary and secondary schooling have been abandoned as middle and upper class families seek to position their children in the most desirable and prestigious schools and programmes, so that they could one day become well sought after global talent (Ball, 2003; Brown, 2000; Tomlinson, 2007). (Pak,Tee Ng,2011,pp 262-263)

Designers such as Albert Leeflang, a Dutch designer who first came to Singapore in 1997 and somehow ended up working in a design studio, has worked for close to 10 years in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. He knows full well how the industry has slowly but surely grown, and can see regionally how far it has come in such a short time frame. He set up his own studio, LSD Corporation, in 2006. Wanting to work for himself, he was encouraged by how design industry had grown in Singapore:

“In 1997, coming from Holland especially, graphic design had no real presence here,” he says. “There is a complete ‘new’ design landscape, which is more independent, more local and very good. Besides coming here to practice design, more foreigners from the region are also flocking to Singapore to learn design in the growing number of design schools. ”

When you hear stories like Albert’s you become more confident with how such opportunities have arisen. It is a small and crowded industry, yet it has experienced as much advanced creative growth over the past decade than some parts of Europe, the US and the UK. We can say this, as the industries in the UK, the US and in Japan have each developed a design culture and identity all of their own, whereas Singapore is still in its infancy by comparison. However, it is also useful to remember that Singapore is a hub; it is a meeting point and it has been marketed that way. The pace of growth and the development of a Singapore design culture and identity continues therefore, to be tempered by globalisation. Globalisation is a complex phenomenon, but it has been arguably a positive force in the case of Singapore’s design identity. Today Singapore’s design community has become increasingly cosmopolitan—it lends itself to this because of geography and its aspirations as a regional hub. We continue to see multinational design companies (such as NiCE and Anthem Worldwide) set up studios, and with the overseas expatriate designers basing themselves in the city there are a lot more independent studios. This is evidenced by the presence of studios such as Chemistry, Zebra, Bunch, and Shift.

Designer 1 “In the last 10 years, the status and the way Singaporeans look at design has changed, a graphic designer back in the day, a design was on the same level as a barber!! Instead of technical school….it became a professional level from

100 blue collar to white collar started to see Singaporeans to push creativity. Design got pushed higher, There is presidents designer award now…almost 10 yrs. old, its recognised. Open design categories, 20/20 just started, first project under design Singapore to promote Singapore designers. it was the first project. Design was previously parked under ”trade development board” export tool, support element, creative renaissance / white paper / 1994 white paper changed that”

This statement reinforces how quickly the process has progressed. It wasn’t so long ago that the barber was on a decent wage bracket, but under current circumstances designers are profiting. Perhaps this does highlight something that Singaporeans have mad themselves known for; that is, embracing the latest trends. Singaporean locals love the novelty of new gadgets and gizmos. The ‘Kiasu’ local, as acknowledged in previous chapters, is very aware of trends. Indeed, if graphic design is seen as such a trend, it is important to take note of recent history and the government concern about trade problems. As Designer 1 acknowledged, design was historically place under the remit of the Trade Development Board and it moved forward through applied future thinking, forthright ‘white papers’, and bold leadership. However, during my interview process I found that many practicing designers still felt like things hadn’t progressed at a pace at which they feel the design community needed to maintain. Designer 2 elaborates about how the government had applied their methods, but perhaps the quality of design work and design briefs wasn’t available yet for a practicing designer.

Designer 2 It was a trade, then Design Singapore opened, and they pushed design as Singapore’s hub, there’s so many design schools now maybe 5-6. Propaganda Channel 8…they push it on Channel 8, government will push it on TV shows and say to the masses that it’s ok to be a designer. Focus used to be on trade, no actual design itself. Graphic design back then was moon cake boxes and annual reports!

This it prompted me to ask the designers about their feelings towards the local design community, what they saw in the local community, and how good they felt it was. When asked what they felt about the local community of design, the answers were most revealing. Most designers were unsure of what the question meant. This reflects the state of the identity of the local design community.

101 Designer 4: Not sure, I hear, but I’m not sure where or what. I hear things, but I can’t say it affects me. SOTA. I don’t feel it, what about the support funding for the middle people. Why support the famous ones??? They should encourage a sponsorship. You never know. Instead of looking at a score, Western recognition helps them get local support!! You got to get famous outside. Then come back to Singapore and Singapore will support you! Sad. Support, there is a scene but I’m not really part of it. There are so many awards, I hear about them. But it’s not really come to my world and I’m in the industry!

With regard to international recognition, Designer 4 highlighted a much-published topic that illustrates the value of international recognition first and foremost, and being a Singaporean second. Perhaps this is a cultural issue that will change one day, but for the time being, and with such a huge expatriate community in and around the industry, it is entrenched for now. As I can confirm from experience being the only ‘Angmoh’ designer in a busy publishing house back in the years 2000-2001, the perceptions held then are still there, but local confidence is growing.

The twinning influence

Designer 4’s reaction no doubt confirms that Western design education has had a strong influence locally, and this was most obvious from the frequent name-dropping of designers from Europe or America in every interview I undertook. Every approach to design—and more importantly, the designers themselves who created the dominant influences and topics of study, all originate from the West. Looking at the retail facades of western shopping brands down Orchard Road you get an idea of why design operating at different levels has been enthusiastically absorbed into this culture. Simply put, Singaporeans cannot get enough of Western brands. Whether it is a ‘designer’ phone or a designer bag, the elite form of any marketable designer item is a must in Singapore hence the strategy of selling things in Singapore. It’s often where marketing agencies test their brands and products first.

102 The kiasuism mentality that was highlighted in earlier chapters is somewhat unique to Singaporean society. It is a local trait many identify with and it lends itself to the imperative of must-have and must-do. As the community has become more design-savvy, the finest designer goods can be found in the many malls selling designer brands. When considering the popularity of designer labels, in addition to the proliferation of branding we might assume that this can also be connected to the influence of Western design education’s in the local market. With the massive uptake of social networks by tech savvy young Singaporeans they are far more likely to be engaged with Western products more frequently. From this we might from some inferences about why design education could easily be sold by an international design school. As Claudia Hanson Thiem points out the locals are indeed the driving force behind how international investments can be easily accepted into the local culture,

“The ‘multicultural self’ was one who was able to work with and through difference, and conditioned to believe in the positive advantages of diversity in constructing and unifying the nation. The ‘strategic cosmopolitan’ is, by contrast, motivated not by ideals of national unity in diversity, but by understandings of global competitiveness, and the necessity to strategically adapt as an individual to rapidly shifting personal and national contexts. (Mitchell, 2003: 388) (Claudia Hanson Thiem,2009, pp161)

As discussed earlier, with the introduction of international ‘twinning’, local schools— including NAFA and LaSalle had forged partnerships with design schools in institutions such as Curtin University, RMIT, QUT (Australia) and Kingston University (UK). This meant the local schools that were established could partner with internationally recognised schools and locally deliver an international degree. Therefore, students would stay at home while studying and the nation’s design industry could grow faster as local talent stayed on home shores. These recognisable brands also made the design education easier to sell. With the government actively promoting design and changing the status of a design, the market grew and the local schools then had international partners selling degrees and selling the ‘lifestyle’ of Western design. Designers in Singapore also have a mixture of clients and many have international clients. This is an important factor—the international clientele can work with local designers as they have been educated with foreigners. This makes

103 communication an easier process. Most designers give mixed reviews when discussing their experiences in these international twinning schools. Some are ‘on the fence’, or ‘non- committal’, with regard to the quality of teaching, and those who are now in international agencies and winning international design awards talk openly and frankly about their experiences.

Designer 8 “Yes, it got me into a job, by showing folio. Folio got me a job, Western influence helped the eastern people” “to fit the Asians!” lots of Western influences. Definitely helped my folio! It gave me the chance to get into the door. The way I talk,

the way I think, it got me into a MNC! The way you think, over local teaching.”

Clients raise important questions. Most local design houses serve a diversity of international local firms, or international companies with head offices located in Singapore, to local companies and regional clients which was a growing market from all interviewed. Many designers said their client meetings are often held on Skype and/or in airports, again reflecting the nature of hub-life in Singapore. However, at the end of the day the designers I interviewed all have the same point of view about the local culture and clients. All designers surveyed are of the opinion that the local market is still very conservative and that their clients lack the courage to break from the norm. This is reflected in their answers, as finding specific examples was difficult for most. Perhaps it is best illustrated in the following response from Designer 5:

Designer 5 “Well it certainly has brought more attention to the possibilities of what good creativity can bring to the industry or rather the entire country. Maybe some examples would be in our public signage, which are more effective and also easily comprehended by the masses.”

Having discussed how the government has put in place committees and platforms to nurture and broaden local Singaporeans’ understanding of design, it is important to examine further how this has impacted the industry itself. In the next chapter I will discuss in more depth, how the changes are affecting designers - from their schooling in design until today. A selection of local designers who where educated and began work during the selected time frame for the study were chosen. I asked them to respond from their point of

104 view as a local who had been educated by Angmohs and to describe how had it affected them. Had their life as design practitioners improved because of it? I examine the gap between the quality of student work from the local design schools, and compare this to the work of locals who attended a foreign twinned school to see if indeed there is a gap between the look and feel of design folios used for job interviews in industry.

We will also look at their experience in current jobs and discuss what they think about the local design culture. Has there been progress does any progress made meet their expectations. I also asked the designers about local government input over the past 10 years and look at the investment that has been perceived and actually occurred, again evaluating the quality of the design culture. It is an important look and a conversation that is not brought up often enough; its relevance is crucial to the effect of the reputation of the growth of design programs in Singapore. While perhaps it is an ongoing conversation, the facts are that there is little written on the subject matter, which reinforces my research on the conversation and its growth between industry and educational institutions.

There are a number of pertinent questions. Is the current generation of young designers aware of changes in the gap between local and internationally educated design? Does it really matter to the industry? Do things begin to look the same? One designer kept telling me that when they view portfolios, because of similar approaches to art direction and photo styling, and the high quality of finish, individuals don’t tend to stand out. Everybody is trying to meet the same look; everyone looks at the same reference points. The influences are accessed mainly online on sites like Pinterest and Behance.

When I asked students about relationships and the studio culture working with foreign bosses strong points of view were expressed that suggest a student’s way of thinking changes about design not being just a job, but more a lifestyle. Perhaps this is an important point; design education in Singapore has to foster the perception that being a designer is more than a Mac and a studio. It's the lifestyle of a designer that needs to be pushed forward. This highlights the advantages of the foreign institutes’ influence on local design students, which has fostered strong competition in regard to reputation growing through the local design institutes. The benefits to the design culture of harnessing and nurturing this for the next generation from this point is are enormous. As the design industry grows and becomes more sophisticated, so too does Singapore - or is that the other way around?

105 Either way, evidence of this study suggests the Singapore design community already has a healthy, faithful community full of competition in order for it to thrive; a healthy, prolonged period of successfully twinning institutions that has brought about a strong sense of sustainable graphic design education. If this is the case, that situation can only build momentum for a creating a stronger design community. However, in saying that, it is also appropriate in the context of this research to provide a deeper perspective on the design community. As much as there is strength, some respondents suggests that perhaps that the awareness of design is getting lost, or not being heard. When Designer 10 who is based in Singapore and is working for high-end brands was asked about local government support for the design industry and what she felt they contributed, the following comment came back:

Designer 10 “NOISE” Singapore…well known…. and even HEARTLAND malls are having design exhibitions”

Someone in Design Singapore hearing this comment would most definitely want to change this perception. It suggests there’s still a lot of work to be done, even within the design community.

106

107

Chapter five The gap, almost disappearing

108

“Ultimately, the development of a global city may well rely in part on the nurturing of its local cultures, a possibility which has relevance for Singapore. Singapore’s policies on fostering the creative industry have been formulated to achieve goals for job creation, economic performance and global competitiveness (Kong, 2000). Policymakers calculate the effectiveness of public policy based upon the economic gain that Singapore can achieve in the global information society. But even in global cities, agency and human practice are the basis of social development. Attention should therefore be paid to local dynamics and how they enhance the process of creating a global city. Local culture is often a primary driving force for industrial development, and perhaps especially so for cultural industries. That is why it is important to look at ways in which the creative industry policy in Singapore opens up space for public participation in media and art, and examines how the policy confines or restores public energy in the service of its local communities.” (Peichi Chung,p.34)

109 In this chapter we follow on from industry designers and let them explain their opinion on all elements involved in making sure the design culture is well maintained and has sustainable growth. As well as the designers, we discuss local government input over the past 10 years and look at the investment that has occurred, again evaluating the quality of the design culture. From interviews we will establish the reasoning behind the influence of the Western institutes. Additionally, we will look at the early experience of choosing a design institute back in the mid 1990s.

From multiple interviews I’ve gathered evidence of designer experiences in choosing the right school at the time for that particular designer. Educational costs, the appeal of foreign lecturers and the time it takes to complete a degree are all discussed. By the end of the chapter it is clear that the impact from these institutions has caused what was a rather obvious design ‘gap’ to slowly disappear. Well, almost. As one of my interviewees, a creative director, points out about the way folios have changed dramatically over the past 5- 10 years:

Designer 1 “It’s getting lesser, the distinction is getting closer, the scale is skills. Same software, conceptualization, almost the same, however, internet exposure is greater, so ideas are more exposed. Schools are more exposed, so kids are seeing more and more what is needed to get into schools and get a job. So, almost hard to see the gap.”

The evidence begins to show the advantages of the foreign institute’s influence on local design students, and this has fostered strong competition in regard to reputation growing through the local design institutes. The benefits are enormous, and the design culture needs to further harness and nurture the next generation from this point on. In some ways it already has, however. A point that was repeatedly raised throughout the interviews related to the change across the local design culture. Designer 5, for example, has a fairly rounded opinion of the gap in relation to the qualities of the schooling system locally,

Designer 5 “Yes, I do think there is a slight difference. Local institutions will certainly have some limitations as to how creative a designer can be as the entire education from kindergarten till tertiary is quite regimented. And it could hinder a designer from

110 reaching full potential, as he or she would probably do something that is safe and accepted than thinking out and beyond the box. I would think western influenced schools would allow the students to explore freely because there are no predetermined factors like the need to conform to the Asian culture and not to be different from others. Also the style of teaching allows more interaction between teachers and students rather than students follow the rules that the teachers has set.”

A change of thinking

“Because of education’s role in reproducing economic and cultural capital, uneven distributions – of both opportunities and outcomes – have significant implications for social geographies. These connections, however, remain largely unexplored. Uneven access and attainment are important themes in the inward-looking literature, but the extra-educational effects of these and related inequalities are more often

assumed than elaborated.” (Claudia Hanson Thiem,2009, pp155)

The more we look at the creativity gaps in the past, the more we open up large cultural trends, and these had to be identified in order to define the influences. The local trade and ports were buzzing in the early and late 1970s, and through this came change. As Singapore’s economy was largely based around its ports—its provider, it looked into further enhancing its wares. So, whilst we as designers and educators grew up being inspired by international and local designers it wasn't always the case in Singapore. When asked about his early design school selection process, Designer 1 tells a rather surprising story. The more he opens up and explains, the clearer the picture is of just how naive Singapore was during its early design education development. His story highlights that less than 20 years ago there was a real gap in the industry with all the western influences coming from the trades of the time. The degree of structural change that has occurred in the educational system since is staggering. This may be traced to the impact of two defining white papers in 1995 and 1997. At the time, the then Singapore education minister, Mr Lee Yock Suan stated;

111 “The shift towards thinking and learning skills will prepare students for a world of intense global economic completion and rapid changes in technology. They have to learn to think independently and solve unexpected problems to survive and prosper in the years ahead, when knowledge and skills will become obsolete faster then

before” (Cheong, Loong, 1999, p.72)

Claudia Hanson Thiem, concurs in her paper and illustrates why such actions are assured, she writes,…These substantive changes within education systems are being accompanied by a repositioning of the sector in broader social, political, and economic formations. In recent years, education has emerged as a policy priority for many states – tied to both the restructuring of welfare services and the pursuit of economic development.” (Claudia Hanson Thiem,2009, pp 155)

In 1997 this notion was backed up by the Prime Minister of the day, Mr Goh Chok Tong. In his address to the Seventh International Conference on Thinking, entitled Shaping our future ’Thinking schools, Learning nation, he stated in regard to the country’s students:

“ Their imagination, their ability to seek out new tec12`hnologies and ideas, and to apply them in everything they do will be the key source of economic growth. Their

collective capacity to learn will determine the well-being of a nation.” (Cheong, Loong, 1999, p.73)

Both were rather instrumental papers and speeches for the coming changes. In particular, they highlight the shifts in people’s thinking and the subsequent changes in educational practices. From this point a very new and growing market for graphic design emerged and exerted its appeal in the early to mid- 1990’’s. How well people regarded one school in relation to another was based on completely different characteristics that we may still look at with regard to educational institutes in today’s jungle of education marketing. A new way of life in Singapore was opened up with the changes to curriculum. Most of the local art schools were languishing, but as a result of the white papers Temasek (previously Baharudin) was born, and LaSalle and NAFA were thrust into a new educational

112 environment. These pioneering local art schools were now going through a definite renaissance that would see the government go on to launch many new phases. As was written by (K Olds,p.962) the second phase of Singapore’s post-colonial evolution was in fact in full swing, that being from 1985 to 1995, where the primary focus was on expanding science and technology education. The government’s recognition and nurturing of the industry then generated the third phase, hence the fostering of creativity and innovation was beginning. Once we understand these phases and how matters worked logistically, we get a better idea of how quickly and well these industries adapted to the changes. After all, this was an important time for the changing times of design education. With this came the influx of Western workers from abroad who set up the industry with locals who had returned from overseas studies, from small design studios to large advertising agencies. Growth of the industry was at full speed, and the Western influences from industry to education were more and more prevalent. As Designer 1 recalls:

Designer 1 “We are totally influenced, graphic design originates from the western world, everything we learn and read from is from the western world. You had Raygun, Star Wars, and The Face magazine, all of them from the west. Even at school, like in a branding class, we were reading Ogilvy & Mather, the bible on advertising. Most levels if not all we learnt about were all western influence and referenced.”

In 1994 Designer 1 eventually chose a local design school that was still in its infant stages. He explains why he chose LaSalle as opposed to the other options; again, this says a lot about just how much the industry has grown since then.

Designer 1 “Back then, there was only three schools offering graphic design and my O levels were too poor, I wanted to go to NAFA first, Temasek was a problem, as I didn’t have enough points to get into Temasek. So it was NAFA or LaSalle. However, I only knew about NAFA really, as LaSalle was still a young new school. Then I found out LaSalle didn’t require a portfolio and all I needed was three credits for my O levels.”

Designer 1’s decision about schools suggests how much has changed in such a short space of time, particularly when you look at the lack of reputation these schools carried in the community, the cultural change that was required in regard to the word ‘design’, and for

113 locals to think of design as a legitimate job. Designer 1 goes further into the local culture of being concerned about his national service:

Designer 1 “It was very open, a new campus recruitment was in Goodman, and was coming soon, so I just went. And I would have had to go to national service if I waited six months to get into NAFA. So that’s the reason I chose LaSalle!”

The white papers were perhaps challenging for the times, as the industry and locals were adapting to what the government’s vision was. However, it really does say a lot about the adaptivity inherent in Singaporean culture when we look at how fast things can change and the how locals can adapt. This can be seen from the rate of change in design education and the rapidly-evolving status of design in the culture. For students to be deciding on a career whilst thinking about their national service is also indicative of the nature of the local culture and practices. It also suggests something about people’s thinking and how they were ready for change; they were ready for thinking more independently.

Defining points

Artifacts and evidence of historical moments in graphic design in Singapore are few and far between. This is only now being nurtured and documented with the effort and activities of certain design groups. Now Singapore can be safe in knowing an intact graphic design history exists. When we look at the defining moments of Singapore’s short graphic design history, two in particular stand out. It has been documented (J.Zhang,7/08/14) that two design exhibitions staged by Singaporean graphic designers in the mid 1990s and a third show held more then 10 years later, in 2005, are of key importance.

These exhibitions establish how the profession had changed significantly in the city-state within a decade. They reflect how the taboo of design diminished and how the profession of a graphic designer has now become more widely accepted as a viable and respectable vocation. The first of the exhibitions in 1994, featuring work by Su Yeah, entitled “Breaking Barriers” was held in The Design Centre. The exhibition of work wasn't intended to highlight graphic design; it was, in fact, staged to educate the public on design and local businesses on the importance of good design. Eleven years later the now famous Phunk Studios (later

114 to changed to Phunk) held an exhibition. The exhibition, entitled “A Decade of Decadence” was a retrospective exhibition of Phunk’s “greatest hits”. The contrast between these exhibitions is as great as the change of the design culture, as was the public’s response to it. The fanfare was far greater than in the case of earlier exhibitions. On many levels the Phunk exhibition highlighted the local community’s acceptance and awareness about design and demonstrated the need for such an event. As one of the Phunk crew reminisced:

“When we started, people thought all graphic designers could do were design ‘Big Sale’ flyers and lay out text on posters. But these days, we are viewed as

trend-setters.” (J. Zhuang, 7/08/14)

In the mid-2000s many things had been introduced into the local design culture, and the growing hunger for western culture was a distinct trend. Design was no longer just the big fashion brands and the giant shopping malls renovating overnight down Orchard Road. This swing was indeed reflected in the support for the Phunk exhibition that came from influential marketing brands in the city-state. It was this mainstream marketing support that marks the 1994 exhibition as being both incomparable to what had preceded it and far more important. Additionally, now the influence of music, local MTV support and a local brewery sponsorship all provided telling signs that the local design culture was flourishing and was indeed accepted by marketers who had seen its potential.

While the reputation of design was headed in the right direction, the design educational market was also becoming more competitive for the local institutes. This is best reflected by looking at how many design schools were running at the time and the emergence of new private design schools. As well as the established design institutions like Temasek Design School, NAFA, and LaSalle College of the Arts, there was now more intense competition with the new privately-owned education providers. With the arrival of First Media Design School, New Media and The Arts, Raffles Design Institute, and the Orita Sinclair School of Design, the design education market had grown immensely, and the level of competiveness had grown so much that the way design programs were marketing changed.

This was reflected in many of my interviews, where we discussed the schools’ marketing techniques. As an industry veteran and someone who chose a twinning institute over a local school, knowing full well of the savings in the local product, one interviewee

115 commented that: “…for many of us exiting high school or college we apply for the best design universities based on reputation and regard it’s held in the industry.” It wasn't merely reputation or the cost; in fact it was temperament, experience and indeed a faster tracking for a desired degree, which made the final decision easier:

Designer 4 “The international lecturers, whom were working overseas, brought that into the classroom. Local schools don’t offer that; that’s huge. The local Asian lecturers at school were good at software, but not good for other classes. The foreign lecturers were really good at Typography, History etc. The foreign lecturers had experience, had different designers to talk about, they will tell you about working overseas, the expectation and design industry” These comments clearly encapsulate key aspects of the local culture and how it values technology skills, yet is learning to appreciate a wider, more international design history and context. That's understandable when you listen to the selection process of schools. What’s important to them is completely different from what we (as Western designers) take for granted. As we now know, at the interview stages some of these schools asked for and required a portfolio. However, as some weren’t so focused on the creative side, merely showing your ‘O’ levels and school reports were essential. However, this has changed a lot over time. Schools like the newly-established SOTA, a local arts school, has enforced a strict folio and interview format. For those at such an early age of 11-13yrs old, the requirements are rather high and somewhat unrealistic when you look at the local school art curriculum. On top of that, it's a rather demanding process, particularly when you are so young and are just starting out.

However, there are also students who have studied both overseas and studied locally. Their stories are rather reflective, are neither black nor white and come from their different personal experience. Rather than basing their opinion on Western education, their ideas are formed around their experience of different countries. As Designer 2 goes into his experience when studying overseas at Central St Martins, before coming back and studying again at LaSalle:

Designer 2 “They’d send their own lecturers that came over to see the work. I felt it didn’t make sense. Because a lot of the local people designer or parents want to have an overseas education, I can really see it now, it makes some sense, cheaper,

116 they don’t have to go overseas. Overseas teacher can have an impact. The quality of the teacher is important to me, a different person from different cultures is a good experience.” Looking ahead, the design foundations are in place for design education to prosper in Singapore. The schools are growing, the industry is stable and, regionally, Singapore is in a location whereby a designer can very conveniently fly to a new client in a nearby country with a moment’s notice. However, even with all the logistics and convenience in place, there are still cultural hurdles that may take more than 10 to 15 years to address. Those hurdles are perhaps more related to local law and the ongoing issue of expressing oneself in the local culture. This is a topic that remained very fresh while I was researching in Singapore. As Designer 8 points out in discussing contemporary street art:

Designer 8 “ Maybe, a lot of restrictions here: rules, government rules. No vandalism allowed. No graffiti allowed. In the West, there’s a lot of murals, you will get fined, imprisoned here. Huge restrictions for locals, so the influence is there, but can’t really practice like you could in the west.” Not so long ago a man was caned and then jailed for seven months for spray-painting a subway train. And at the time of this research, a mysterious vandal began applying stickers to traffic-light buttons and stenciling on pavements in a possible protest against a repressive social order. The authorities refused to tolerate it, and a woman said to be “Sticker Lady”, was revealed as a known blogger and artist named Samantha Lo. “Sticker Lady” was arrested and faced up to three years of jail time. The debate over creativity was opened again, local opinion was tested with social networks set abuzz, and self-expression in the public domain was in the spotlight. “According to the report in The Straits Times, the duo are likely to plead guilty to seven and three charges respectively, and will have their cases heard next Tuesday afternoon. These charges were meted out after Law Minister K Shanmugam made a representation to the Attorney-General's Chambers on the back of a meeting with the duo. This case has sparked an intense debate among the public about the fine line between art and vandalism, and Mr Shanmugam says the government is willing to re-evaluate its stance on vandalism if the majority of society wanted more freedom for artistic expression. The maximum penalty for mischief is a jail term of one year and a fine. If damage or loss caused amounts of at least $500, the penalty is doubled. (Brave Thinkers, 2012)

117 As is well-documented world wide, Singapore is a ‘fine’ city so punctilious about its streets that it bans chewing gum and capital punishment is worn by most as a medal of strength. The mystery of the sticker vandals was uniquely Singaporean; however, it must be asked: why all the publicity and the outcry for a more lenient outcome amongst locals who meet even with the most mild disruptions of public order with serious reprisal?

The foundations changed

When did design suddenly become an avenue for the economy of Singapore, and what was the turning point? Editor 1 is a man who is more than qualified to speak about the local design culture. He was a founding member of the Creative Circle of Singapore and served as its Chairman from 1981–1984. He also founded and became the first president of the Designers Association of Singapore, a role he held for four years. For many years he organised the annual Singapore Outdoor Advertising Awards, Asia Interactive Awards, Asia Travel Creative Awards and the Phoenix Film Awards. Editor 1 has lectured at several Singaporean education institutions, including the Institute of Advertising Singapore (IAS) and the National University of Singapore (NUS). He sat on the Advisory Board of Temasek Business School for many years and currently advises Nanyang School of Design.

Editor 1 “The Singapore government now recognises the importance of design and creativity and, typically, has wasted no time in pushing this. It currently puts a lot of weight in terms of money and support into these areas. A variety of design and communications courses are offered in government and private schools. The students on design courses within the Republic are given opportunities to spend time in foreign schools so they are exposed to new ideas.”

Designer 1 backs this up in regard to how locals perceive the word design and how a ‘graphic designer’ is now a job. He saw first-hand the government back the design community with its President’s Designer Award.

118 Designer 1 “In the last 10 years, the status and the way Singaporeans look at design has changed, a graphic designer back in the day, a designer was on the same level as a barber!! Instead of technical school, it became a professional level— from blue collar to white collar. Started to see Singaporeans to push creativity. Design got pushed higher. There is the President’s Designer Award now, which is almost 10 years old. It is recognized. Open design categories like 20/20 just started. First project under Design Singapore to promote Singaporean designers. Design was previously parked under ‘trade development board’ an export tool. Support element, creative renaissance, a few white papers, but in 1995 a white paper changed that.”

Signs that local culture was changing with the times were indeed happening. In the design industry specifically the signs were strong. So when did this change occur and what brought it about? As much as the industry was developing and white papers were being delivered, the momentum of policy still had to continue. In 2000, with the IT boom, a policy for the creative industry was initiated whereby the government now believed a creative economy was crucial and necessary for a more global business environment which, indeed, Singapore was positioned to capitalise on. The Renaissance City Report, 2008-2015 (J Gwee, G Wong, 2009,p.31) was a key directive on the development of the arts and culture in Singapore. It was finally a government policy for the creative industry to form its foundations on. As Claudia Hanson Thiem writes in ‘Thinking through education’ she writes how and what lead the Singaporean government to its vison,

“Singapore, for example, has actively recruited western business schools as part of a campaign to ‘re-engineer’ its population into enterprising and flexible laborers (Olds and Thrift, 2005). The restructuring of higher education more broadly appears to privilege neoliberal and postnational subjectivities as students, providers, and their state sponsors favor business, technology, and science programs and the calculative rationalities that these disciplines prise (Ong, 2006). (Claudia Hanson Thiem,2009, pp161)

The article shows their targets and how it promotes local culture and the arts, as this would

119 help to define and mould Singapore in a global context, yet still support the vision for Singapore’s design aesthetic to grow over time. Hanson Thiem goes further into the argument of the by discussing its clear educational plans.

“Universities and other education providers are also agents in these reterritorialization processes; cross-border ventures are becoming standard practice for entrepreneurial institutions, and constitute the center of a growing global education industry (eg, Heyneman, 2001; OECD, 2003; McBurnie and Ziguras, 2007). Emerging ‘knowledge spaces’ thus suggest roles for education in economic geographies that far exceed those addressed in standard accounts of (localized)

human capital development and brain drain/gain.4 (Claudia Hanson Thiem,2009, pp163)

Further initiatives were established in 2002. The government designed another blueprint, with Design Singapore aimed at creating a design standard that would build a design format of excellence in Singapore. It was intended to create a brand identity for local design and local design-related markets to enhance enterprise and market values and to have an identity and mark of quality for the local advertising and manufacturing industries to adhere to. Design sectors were targeted, with graphic design, advertising and IT, as well as architecture and software services falling under this new branding. With this plan came a national design award to showcase distinctive design style from Singapore, to promote discussion on Singapore’s style, and to inform the global design market on the level of quality that was indeed coming out of Singapore’s design community. The global business market was a key priority and, with an emerging design community, a national award and a credible face for Singapore design, the government could now begin to sell Singapore design as a brand.

“Design was again regarded as important to help Singapore get its economy back on track. However, it would not remain as an ancillary industry to help Made-in-Singapore exports attractive like in the past. Instead, design was seen together with the media and the arts as the “creative industries”, a new growth sector for Singapore. This was in line with how other developed countries such as the US, the UK, Japan and South Korea regarded design — as an economic growth engine in itself. Design was also vital to creating a vibrant global city to attract talent from around the world.” (J. Zhuang, East and West: 7/08/14)

120 Another project being developed alongside the creative branding of design in Singapore was the establishment of a distribution network with foreign talent and foreign partners so that any ‘Made in Singapore’ content could be used with foreign trade. Thus, Singapore was its establishing intellectual property rights in Singapore for global sale. Amongst the financial benefits for future investment it was a critical strategy that generated in the region of $2.15 billion worth of growth (PChung,2008,p.35). As well the ‘Made in Singapore’ push, other areas of focus were established—one area in particular being the recognition of future potential in the media sector. A project called The Media 21 Project (MDA) emerged from recognition in government sectors that the digital media industry had the potential growth to transform Singapore into a trading exchange hub for media. (P.Chung, 2008, p.35) Amongst the financial benefits for future investment, it also created 37,000 jobs for the industry. In an economic review in 2002, this yielded the idea to develop international channels with The Media Development Authority (MDA), the Economic Development Board (EDB), and the Information Development Authority of Singapore (IDA) co-operating on the project. The proposal was to export Singapore media content to overseas markets to support the development of an export policy with goals set by these governing bodies.

Designer growth

In 2003, after the regional recession and following the economic review of 2002 mentioned previously, Singapore set itself on a course to embrace globalisation. A strong focus was placed on a diversified economy to generate more entrepreneurism overall. However, while this was happening, young designers were already becoming very entrepreneurial locally and making waves internationally, thanks to the Internet. Across the industry there were good signs as local designers were winning internationally-recognised design awards from New York Art Directors Club, the One Show, and the Global D&AD Awards for Design and Art Direction in the early 2000s. This was at a time when Singapore was still thinking about its creative pathway.

With this wave of embracing design, additional programs were put in place. The first phase was to focus on the launch of the Design Singapore Council. With a launch in 2004, the Design Singapore Council mission was to focus on all levels of design, in particular design

121 development, promotion, culture, design futures in the industry and beyond, and to create a

Singapore Design Festival. As J Gwee and G Wong state (Singapore Civil Services College, 2009), the policymakers gave themselves little time for growth, yet in fact the strategy was successful. Over a period of five years, the Design Singapore Council set an ambitious program of tight deadlines to get industry moving.

“There was a five year plan during which the number of designers grew from 32,000 in 2004 to 33,000 in 2005, with even more in 2008 when the number grew to almost 42,000.” (JGwee, GWong, 2009,p.31)

A second phase was introduced with the Design Singapore Initiative announced in May 2009. The organisation’s role was to ‘support Singapore’s goal to be a global design city’

(jGwee, GWong, p.32) again with the agenda of fostering creativity and innovation in society and to create a competitive edge for Singapore enterprises. The Design Singapore Initiative adopted an approach that focused on developing capability so that local enterprises could leverage good design and innovation with design IP creation. Overall, this phase was to showcase design impact and to demonstrate its direct and unique economic contribution. A major event in 2003 was the International Design Forum. It was the first major project for the Design Singapore Initiative and featured a conference and exhibition. It held international weight and was a good starting foundation for what was to come. In 2004 IE Singapore launched the Design for International Programme, to further the support for Design Singapore Council initiatives. Another group which has acted more specifically to foster the media industry was The Media Development Authority (MDA), which offered grants for local digital media artists and game developers which government and industry saw as the next wave to come.

These examples represent the significant level of enthusiasm from the government in acknowledging that the local creative industries were making headway overseas. The high level of support and funding from the local government demonstrates how the local culture within governing bodies has changed, and how local creativity has repeatedly been embraced and vigorously promoted. However, this has at least in part come about because of ongoing exposure to the Western creative practices and whereby the local models of practice provided a unique environment to shape the creative work in which local designers engage. That is, whereas artists previously tended to work within the categories that were eligible for government funding through arts grants, the work produced would tend to be of

122 a similar style to ensure success. However, this evolved as the attention of artists and designers in Singapore turned to collectors from countries around the world and design trends from countries such as the United States, Europe or other parts of South East Asia for new ideals and ideas on creative exposure.

Some artists try to adapt to the local environment by not limiting themselves to local audiences and by continuing to make art that reflects their creative values. This demonstrates that the creative culture in Singapore is aware of, or has become aware of, the small market it has, and is much more open to international exposure based on the creative changes over the past decade. Similarly, digital media artists now also practice their art beyond the parameters of government proposals. Hence, even if the development of the local creative arts industry does not provide specific support for their areas of artistic practice, these artists would still practice their profession by connecting with supporters outside of Singapore.

With such change emerging from governing bodies in the early 2000s following the Asian recession, policies changed and local culture in some ways changed and adapted to the new nurturing of creativity. As we have seen, the foundations of local knowhow had begun to evolve following the white papers, but it really took outside influences’ greater knowledge of the economic benefits of design and the economic imperatives of the recession that hit Singapore very hard. Without the impact of recession and without the more internationally realistic approach to where Singapore’s next move came from, it seems more difficult to know if there would still have been such a strong belief in the creative industry. Further, if the 2002 Economic Review Committee hadn’t taken a strong push toward promoting local creativity, we must ask: what would have happened?

The strong investment by the government over the past 10 years has evidently changed the design landscape of Singapore very dramatically. Looking ahead, there are signs that through the influence of Western design education in the local context, there will be more international approached styles, and expectations about design have permeated through the industry. Twinning arrangements have changed local design curriculums, in turn influencing the nature and quality of student portfolios as they move into the industry. The competitive nature of marketing schools, combined with the recent engagement with international design awards, also made the local design scene stronger. Further to this, it

123 must be said that the design groups, committees, and awards established over the past decade have made the industry more accountable for its methods and direction. A comment from one of the local designers interviewed seems to make sense all of these committees and policies; that comes down to the truism that international recognition pays off. The designer awards and the international twinning partnerships that have been established work for all of the stakeholders involved.

Designer 7 “I would think it certainly has some impact as there are more diversity and it will encourage exchange of ideas, which will help bring the level of local design to another height. It shows in the quality of designs that the students produced and it has more international appeal.”

Another designer speaks about how simple strategies such as language and ideas exchange resulted in a job at an international design agency. The foreign teacher in the classroom and the resulting conversation influenced him and made him think differently:

Designer 5 “I can relate to clients, cause of my western education with foreign lecturers and helps me with foreign clients and foreign thinkers, can mix and adapt western thinking! It works out…”

We now see the gap between local and international design education in Singapore now almost disappearing where there was once a huge difference between locally-trained students and those with Western education from twinning institutions. There is now evidence that, due to the maturity of the industry and the result of a decade of state- supported development, it’s no longer where you studied that’s important. This is highlighted in how similar the folios and looks of foreign-trained students are becoming to those of locally-trained graduates. Discussions with local international agencies confirm they are focused on pitching for local and foreign clients and that there is a distinct trend towards employing a mix of students in their design studios. This is more evidence that the gap is becoming smaller and that Western design education has brought stronger competition to the local design community. In the final chapter we will oversee all of the points covered thus far and conclude with a discussion of the influential impact that

124 institutional twinnings have made to the local design community and, in some ways, to the broader local culture of Singapore.

125

126

Chapter six Back to the future

127

“It was not the intent of the discussion to lay claim to whether the Eastern or Western systems were superior to each other, neither is Singapore to be seen as the only country where Eastern and Western systems meet. The process of internationalising education offers us opportunities for comparative analysis and in developing more effective learning theories, policies and practices.” (Prem Kumar, 2013, p85)

128 This quote was taken from just one of many studies based on how open and enthusiastic the Singaporean government is to foreign investment, the influence of Western ideals and the ever-changing world of globalisation. The quote also highlights key elements in my rationale for embarking on this examination of design education in the island city. The evidence I have provided in researching the founding fathers, ‘The Colombo Scheme’, the steady growth of international institutional twinning, and the emergence of the ‘global schoolhouse’ in Singapore’s design education sector still doesn’t hide important cultural factors and influences. The study ‘Developing a Thinking Culture within the Singaporean University Context’ shows that as recently as 2006, the culture of Singapore was still considered to require more time to adapt to the scope of its own ambitions and practices. Agnes Chang Shook Cheong and David Hung Wei Loong (2006) write:

“The way to foster a thinking culture within the Singaporean university context has only seen its thrust in the recent events and activities that have taken place. Efforts from all levels and perspectives have been considered to instil the thinking culture into the education system in Singapore. Singaporean students need more exposure to the international arena, broader and alternative perspectives, and yet acquiring a disposition to differentiate and make wise decisions of relevance both to themselves

and to the nation. A sense of nationhood must be one of the major considerations.” (Agnes Chang Shook Cheong & David Hung Wei Loong, 2006, P.83)

When looking back at the starting point for this research, my study was in fact inspired by observing Hong Kong, one of Singapore’s main competitors in the Asian region. Hong Kong shared many common resource traits and elements of trade with Singapore, but not its governing policy. I discovered that in fact Hong Kong’s design education system had a much longer history. My inspiration came from a paper entitled ‘Review on the development of Design Education in Hong Kong: The Need to Nurture the Problem Finding Capability of

Design Students’ by Kin-wai Michael Siu (Kin Wai, Micheal Siu,2008, pp180-202). In this paper Siu addresses: (1) the culture of creativity in the school system; (2) how the industry had demanded change; (3) and how design was taught and delivered in schools over its history dating back to the 1920s.

129 Indeed, Hong Kong had a creative culture that was installed in craft and technical schools. The Aberdeen Trade School was highlighted throughout Siu’s findings as a school that reflects the practices of the early Baharuddin Vocational Institute. Now operating as the Temasek Polytechnic, this school has nurtured learning activities like handcrafts and traditional skills rather than creative thinking. This made me think about how the words ‘craft’ and ‘technical practice’ were thought about in the Asian region when comparing that to the Western usage, and the English system that had now installed itself in the local system. As Temasek reflected the changing design face of Singapore at a very important time, we now have a secure design community that doesn't rely on one such industry, but many. Indeed, the influx of the design industry had a big say in such a strong wave of Western design systems. It also prompted me to reflect further on my own experiences in Asia over a period of a decade practicing as a design educator, and a professional designer and made me wonder how much Western ideals had in fact influenced and changed the local culture in Singapore.

It must be said that at the beginning of this research it was looking into elements that haven’t necessarily been saved or documented properly in Singapore. However, I was fortunate with one element—as I was beginning my research the first graphic design book dedicated to local graphic design history had just been published. The writer, Researcher 1, clearly indicated to me that his starting point for the first Singapore graphic design book titled, “Independence: The History of Graphic Design in Singapore Since the 1960s’, all started from a simple newspaper article and was commissioned by ‘The Design Society’. The book is indeed a strong resource that fed me alternatives that perhaps I wasn't aware of at the commencement of research. (The Design Society, 2012) The book looks back to who made the pivotal moves in the industry back in the 1960s. As the book addresses the starting points, so to do I; however, I look further back and with an educational focus. That is where I identified the founding fathers.

Their legacy is clear; the beginning of a new culture in Singapore had begun under them. Now it’s coming through yet another revolution of forward thinkers. Something that is always mentioned when discussing the fine founding fathers is that they all represented a first, and that all had a burning desire, a passion, that shone through.

130 To this day, those who remain still practice their art and passion. Lu, who retired in 2003, is devoted to his art making, enrolling in drawing classes at LaSalle College of the Arts and traveling with fellow artists to paint overseas. Today his most famous works, ‘the rose paintings’ grace the walls of several hospitals in Singapore and throughout the world, including: the National University Hospital; Mount Alvernia Hospital; and the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh, UK. These artworks serve as lasting and gracious reminders of their creator’s many contributions to the fields of art and medicine in Singapore. Lu later donated most of his collection to various institutions including the Asian Civilizations Museum, National University of Singapore Museums, and the Singapore Art Museum. He also donated several artworks by local pioneer artists to the LaSalle College of the Arts, leading to the institution later naming its art gallery after him. When Lu became the Singapore Art Museum’s founding Chairman in 1992 he brought in a large number of 20th century South East Asian artworks, which these days is considered the largest collection of its kind in the world. Loh sacrificed a lot; while studying in Canada he had his wife and young children at home in Singapore. Yet this sacrifice opened a world of opportunities for him—none of which could then be found in Singapore, which at the time had no design schools. Returning to Singapore, he took work in the local advertising industry and helped lay the foundations down with the design curriculum at La Salle College of the Arts, as well as serving in the role of Dean of the Design faculty from 1992 to 1995.

Twinnings

Growth in the design educational sector over the selected ten-year period saw enhancement of the reputations of the institutions. However, the avalanche of private sector investment from the overseas educational institutes that came into Singapore perhaps caused more growth than expected. The government identified the market and encouraged foreign twinnings; its desire to make Singapore the ‘Boston of Asia’ was pragmatic and headstrong. Now with many strong private institutions and international students coming to study in Singapore, the twinning experiment clearly shows how it can work for the economy.

“In private discussions with senior administrators at the new Singapore University of Technology and Design (established with MIT) and the Yale-National University of

131 Singapore liberal arts college, they expressed deep concerns about meeting the diverse aspirations and talents of young Singaporeans in the face of social and economic changes. These discussions focused on curriculum innovations and transformative education for locals rather than the recruitment of international

students or economic imperatives” (Jack T. Lee, 20 March 2014)

Singapore has had a very successful creative period, and the fact that its creative industry has consistently grown is a good sign for the economy and local business. This is where we also must look at how indeed the creative industry came about. So where do we look? Before international schools and universities looked at Singapore, its neighbor Hong Kong had already opened up relationships and was indeed thriving. (Mok, Ka Ho & Kar Ming Yu, 2011,pp,

229-248) and English speaking. For Singapore to attract some of this market share was smart and indeed forthright. Its developmental period has been much shorter than that of its neighbour Hong Kong, but perhaps it has prospered much faster through clever marketing or coercive negotiations.

“The example of Singapore in developing an education hub, through the incorporation of foreign top universities and research expertise, and deep collaboration between local and foreign universities or faculties to ensure revitalization of the local university system and synergy between the university and

local industry, is worthy of closer examination.” (Ada Lai & Rupert Maclean, 2011,p83)

Singapore went about marketing itself as a hub, and having one of the world’s best airports and thriving economic ports was a strong advantage that immediately distinguished it from Hong Kong, as it was still recovering from the English occupation. As Wong alludes to:

“ Singapore went after the top universities and was very focused on collaborations from the beginning. Over time the policies introduced formed a clear strategy and demonstrating a conviction that a creative design-led approach was the only way for

local industry and manufacturing to grow.” (Wong et al,2007)

132 However, when we compare Singapore’s success with Hong Kong’s we can see there have been many unique and different methods in the process of establishing international universities. In order to build a knowledge-based economy, Singapore identified the need to expand local universities by upgrading them while also incorporating the help of top foreign research universities. Singaporean universities were also able to offer the reach of South East Asia and beyond. While Hong Kong may have had the upper hand in the beginning stakes, Singapore had the quality and assurances of many factors. Thus Hong Kong wasn't necessarily a certainty for foreign universities, as stated by Lai and Maclean:

“However, as suggested by Olds (2007) and Healey (2008), prestigious public foreign universities may not be particularly driven to co-operate with foreign universities unless sufficient incentives are provided in terms of research grants or unique market access. As a relative latecomer, how and whether top world-class universities should be invited to play a role in creating an education hub in Hong

Kong is something that requires careful deliberation.” (Ada Lai & Rupert Maclean, 2011,p 83)

After conducting the interviews and investigating Singapore’s design education system, the design industry, designers working in industry, and the individual schools themselves, we can see there is evidence that Western design education has indeed been a significant influence on Singapore’s design culture. The Singapore education system was founded much later than the system in Hong Kong however, in a very short time it has been profoundly impacted by western influences. This is very apparent across the design education sector. It is also evident that this impact has been felt throughout the local culture, as Singaporeans now appreciate and attend more art and design events, and this has been reflected in indicators such as the establishment of a ‘Design Center’ in the heart of Singapore that is dedicated to celebrating local design and exposing young designers to new ideas. (designsingapore.org)

Singapore’s greater awareness of its critical interconnected relationships within the global community is apparent. Globalisation is clearly important, and has presented

133 significant impacts on future growth for all sectors, not just education. As Prem Kumar suggests (2013):

“Learning through a broad spectrum of environments and dimensions becomes much more complex and discontinuous with the advent of the internet and through the increased accessibility of information with continuous enhancements to technology. This also offers us opportunities to build networks, broaden our understanding of ourselves and our identity in the social world that we share with

others of different backgrounds.” (Prem Kumar, 2013, pg.85)

The awareness of the global context has spread throughout the education system more widely, and over time the impact has been felt across the wider community. The School of the Arts (SOTA) is a good example of how the Western approach to creative thinking has affected the way educators think in Singapore. Although still in its relative infancy, SOTA was set up to nurture the local arts, but based on the findings in this research we can expect the school to provide further evidence of this overall trend in the future. In the context of Singapore’s Asia-centric culture, that the artist is nurtured in addition to being able to complete his or her local education is a definitive sign of the influence of western twinning’s (J.Gwee, 2011, p6)

This could bring us closer together or just as easily divide us. It would be helpful for educational leaders therefore, to be cognisant of and more aware of the differences, not only in the East and West approaches to education and learning but also from within and across local, regional and national boundaries. Such understanding would enable us to deepen our learning, improve practice and refine policies continuously.” (Prem Kumar, 2013, pg.85)

From the industry perspective, I acknowledged and established the conversation around the many government-backed programs and events. However, it must be stated that although there are many new events, societies and amazing new museums and design centers, the actual industry people I spoke to still feel somewhat displaced from the scene. I

134 found this rather surprising; however, they all gave their reasons. I also felt that perhaps they all do work in a very demanding industry now, where the region is so competitive, that some of them are working long hours and don't really get to enjoy the design culture. I believe this is why some new societies started, like the now-regularly published materials from ‘The Design Society” who brought us the book ‘Independence: The History of Graphic Design in Singapore Since the 1960’s’. This was likely brought about to nurture the next batch of Singaporean designers and studios, with the group being formed in 2009. Their mission statement clearly indicates their vision is strong, as was stated in a recent online article celebrating Singapore design:

“Unlike an earlier generation who fought to establish design as a commercially viable and respectable profession through the Designers Association Singapore, this new society is made up of younger designers who take that’s as a given. Instead they want to build upon it and push design discourse in Singapore towards what role it can play

in its culture and society.” (J.Zhang, 7/08/14, designobserver.com)

These are issues that the new “millennium generation” of design studios are facing now, after trailblazing their own path over the last decade. To keep the spirit of independence alive and nurture the next batch of Singapore designers and studios, a group of them formed The Design Society in 2009. The objectives outlined on the The Design Society site, is dedicated to the goal of raising the general standard of design in Singapore.

“We focus on Applied Graphic Design and its contributions to Singapore visual culture and society. We hope to connect with and inspire local designers and to engage the public through greater understanding and appreciation for good design.” (designsociety.org)

Unlike an earlier generation who fought to establish design as a commercially viable and respectable profession through the Designers Association Singapore, this new society is made up of younger designers who take that as a given. Instead they want to build upon it and push design discourse in Singapore towards what role it can play in its culture and society. The result is that artists in Singapore turn to collectors from countries around the

135 world in countries such as the United States, Europe or Southeast Asia. Some artist’s try to adapt to the local environment by not limiting themselves to local audiences, and by continuing to make art that reflects their creative values. Similarly, digital media artists also practise their art beyond the parameters of the government proposals. Even if the development of the local creative arts industry does not provide specific support for their areas of artistic practice, these artists would still practise art by connecting with supporters outside of Singapore.

Objectives wise, The Design Society is dedicated to the goal of raising the general standard of design in Singapore. Focused around Graphic Design, its contributions to Singapore visual culture and society are growing, and perhaps slowly the industry is somewhat getting more serious. The hope to connect with and inspire local designers is a constant, and for engaging public programs, through greater understanding and appreciation for good design the better life will be in Singapore design communities. One of the main visions or mission statements is also related to documentation. One reason why I believe this society will benefit the design community immensely is that their belief in archiving past design projects, and the appreciation of local design history must begin with a keen effort to catalogue significant works and gather a crew of local authors to document and create editorial on Singapore’s past design gurus. As they state on their site,

“ We will start off with a digital archive, collecting and compiling culturally relevant, historical and important works. In time, we believe sufficient content can be amassed to start a Museum of Modern Design as a depository and activity hub for seminars,

exhibitions and workshops. Promote & Educate”. (designsociety.org)

This already gives the Singapore design community a safer feeling in one paragraph, they continue on.

“We seek to address the current lack of discourse on the state of Singapore design through the publication of a periodical and the creation of a more comprehensive website. It is envisaged that our focus will include academic writings, interviews,

136 research and the collection of information and artworks.” (designsociety.org)

They state they will “hold conferences, talks, seminars, road shows” and relevant activities that can help, yet, to engage with more designers it seems they still have a long way to go. It is nice to say these things, but clearly—no, rather simply—they are a great step in the right direction, but perhaps they are not talking to designers, or their materials are not communicating the messages local designers want to hear. The fact that they want to invite

“the general public in our bid to better local design.” (designsociety.org) says a lot in the way their communication methods are still young and their audience, while design oriented, is not very focused as yet. But as I found out, that is understandable as we are still in a rather young design period for both industry and locals to absorb the community.

Industry designers

“Specifically, we need an environment that encourages creativity, intellectual curiosity and risk-taking. We must inject more flexibility and diversity in the education

system to develop Singapore’s human capital “ (Jack T. Lee, 2003 pg168)

The growth of international agencies, the creative industry, the growth of many different design groups and the celebration of graphic design with a book,

“The government’s cultural policy in response to globalisation leads to a sophisticated process of localisation in the local art movement. From the economic viewpoint, globalisation in the context of the creative industry in Singapore has resulted in a cultural policy developed by the state to achieve success in the global economy. The creative industry policy shows the participation of the state in bringing Westernisation and globalisation into the local context. Information technology is used as an economic vehicle to transform Singapore into a global media hub. During Singapore’s globalisation process, the state is playing an important role in bringing in multinational companies to the local industry. The government has also established the direction for development by providing funds to stimulate the growth of the local

137 creative industry. The government is initiating a cultural policy that solely emphasizes

the economic..” (Peichi Chung, 2008)

As Designer 1 states when discussing the twinning effect and how it is now being felt in the industry : Designer 1 “Its getting lesser, the distinction is getting closer, the scale is Skills – same software etc. Conceptualisation – almost the same, internet exposure is greater, so ideas are more exposed to matters, Schools are more exposed, so kids are seeing more and more what is needed to get into school and get a job. Almost hard to see the gap. Singapore has becoming like London. Leading designer events, leading architects live here, 20 years ago we had to go to the U.K! Now, you can work here in Singapore for leading agency.”

When interviewing the local designers a definitive strong line towards the standards of local design was evident when comparing that with the foreign talent and how the quality gap has become closer. This was evident on many levels—not just for new graduates. It was talked about across the board and was reflected by many of my interviewees when talking about awards from overseas such as the international design awards from Tokyo Type Directors Club, New York Art Directors Club, The One Show, and the Design & Art Direction (D&AD) :

“Many of the initiatives launched by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in the last few years aim to cultivate traits such as creativity, morality, and critical thinking. For higher Education, MOE’s main policy initiative at the moment is to create diverse pathways to Support the aspirations of young Singaporeans rather than present university education as the singular path to success (ESC,2010; MOE,2012). Polytechnics, vocational institutes, and fine arts

schools receive significant promotion. ”( Jack T. Lee, 2014)

It’s about nurturing and guiding the next generation into the new wave. Clearly the signs are strong, with so many plans to cultivate the local industry and to add to that the time invested into the Singapore identity. It is looking very promising.

138

“Intrinsic to Singapore’s meteoric rise as a nation has been its meticulous cultivation of human capital to compensate for the lack of natural resources

and space. Manpower planning has been at the core of this cultivation (Chan 2002; Ho and Ge 2011).” (Jack T. Lee 2014)

When addressing resources in Singapore, which is perhaps one of the most well-educated countries in learning, where and how to set up relationships on with a country instilled in rich resources in its specific area of need. Indeed, it tends to look overseas on all levels, and when restructuring an educational system, I its not surprising that Singapore looks abroad. Proven throughout my research from the founding fathers to the ‘Colombo Scheme’ are definitive foundations that cannot be underestimated. More importantly, these have given international agencies and foreign talent a foundation to grow from. Hence the majority of agencies and studios has continued growing for many years, and without doubt, has maintained Singapore’s strong design impact within the region. As addressed earlier, we are still seeing good reasons for these relationships. One of these was seen as recently as May and June this year; The Colombo Plan is still having strong effects in both Singapore and Australia. The Western influence in some way now provides full circle investment for a few Asia Pacific countries, as with the ‘twinning’ university relationships set up from Australian and Singapore design universities during the 1990s. Now it seems the push from President Tony Tan and Australia’s Foreign Affairs Minister Julie Bishop is telling us of the reintroduction of The Colombo Plan to the region, coming back to Singapore with a new emphasis on Australian students studying in Singapore.

Also with success stories from The Colombo Scheme such as those discussed in the ‘Founding Fathers’ section, Mr Loh Khee Yew was a clear pioneer of design education in Singapore. On reflection, perhaps it is a good time to re-introduce the program, and for the next generation to step up. From this we can identify a pattern in government policy when we see old relationships turn up again in the form of The Colombo Plan. It really is a case of ‘back to the future’—this whole program as discussed earlier in previous chapters was set up again. However, while the objectives of the original Colombo Plan were the reverse of today’s objectives, some notes of the earlier aims still resonate today. It has encouraged

139 Asians and Australians to mix in ways that had not been possible before; that is, in both teaching and learning environments.

Colombo Again

The New Colombo Plan is an extension of the original idea, however, now the meeting grounds are proposed to include more regional areas and states in Australia, where students can embrace languages and cultures at an unusual depth. With this new generation’s future interests at the forefront of the new scholarship program, the emergence of Australian leaders as happened in reverse this time round, and as we shall see in the second half of the twentieth century.

“Australia will have deeper and broader people-to-people links with Asian nations …’, and ‘Australia will have stronger, deeper and broader cultural links with Asian nations’. The first has never presented a problem. Carrying forward the latter aim, however, has been an aspiration expressed by all post-war governments – strong on

rhetoric, oft repeated, but with low achievement rates.” (Auriol Weigold, 2013,pg18)

That Australia has engaged in this plan again with its Asian neighbours including Singapore suggests that the scheme works for both parties and strengthens relationships on many levels. As the Australian foreign minister states:

“Our country will benefit enormously from having young ambassadors from Australia who have an understanding of and an insight into the region that only comes from

living and studying and working there.” (Hon Julie Bishop MP, May 2014.)

For Australian students this is a great opportunity. The Colombo Plan will provide students with opportunities to expand their professional networks in the Asian region. By establishing these networks now, The New Colombo Plan aims to strengthen the knowledge of the Asia- Pacific region and forges bridges for ongoing collaborations, of knowledge and sharing projects to help each other out for future projects.

140 Culture and ethics

For the long term, governments and design bodies like the National Design Center (which bears the tag line “Enabling Singapore to use design for economic growth, and to make lives better”) suggests the local culture frames its rhetoric with money always in mind. It must teach the surrounding industry of designers and educators the basic ethics that will eventually change in time. With the culture of copy and paste an ever-present issue in the design education sector, ethical practices must be established early on. It is a society’s responsibility to establish its morals and ethics towards this issue. We do ask a lot of our educational institutions, but in design, integrity towards your ideas and creativity must be paramount. It takes time, however, and local culture is sometimes hard to change.

Numerous cultural ‘habit’ stories that would shock many design professionals emerged in my interview sessions, but these stories would not surprise many locals. As I discussed earlier in the introduction to this research and in regard to the local mentality, the term kiasuism (a concocted noun of the adjective “kiasu”) is, “an obsessive desire for value for money—hailed as a national fixation in Singapore” (Janice T.S. Ho C.E. Ang Joanne Loh Irene Ng,

1998,vol13) has been dubbed the “negative complement of competitiveness” (Janice T.S. Ho C.E.

Ang Joanne Loh Irene Ng, 1998,vol13). Competition breeds a sense of drive and commitment, while kiasuism stems from greed, and promotes envy and selfishness. Where competition encourages calculated risk-taking, kiasuism calls for conformity. Translated from Chinese, it means “scared to lose”; akin to being very anxious not to miss an opportunity, almost grasping, selfish attitude. (Janice T.S. Ho C.E. Ang Joanne Loh Irene Ng, 1998,vol13). ‘Designer 6’ went into a perfect example of how student, school and industry still practice and nurture the inner “kiasu”:

Designer 6 “…The student ignored a design deliverable list for his final major project, he went about doing his project his way, and still handed it in his way. However he also submitted his project to the D&AD’S at the same time, in the studio category student of year award. He received his grades back from the local school and they gave the student an F. Not surprising really when you don’t follow a list given to you.”

141 What happens next is perhaps not so surprising in local design education systems. Not too long after receiving his ‘F’ grading, the student learned that he had in fact won the D&AD student of the year award—an internationally renowned design event that comes with job offers, internships and of course a ‘Pencil’. Having a D&AD yellow pencil on your desk and CV is a huge honour. What happens now? Who wins? Remember, the student did fail his final major project. Does he now repeat and resubmit his final, following the list required by the school? Many questions could be raised, but perhaps were not as the marketing team had been notified of the international award by the D&AD liaison. Their leading student, who had won the top student award was being flown over for the award ceremony. And perhaps its not to hard to believe when you understand how the local creative industry works, as lee and Yue point out;

“Singapore’s creative industry sector is quite differently structured from those in the United Kingdom and the United States, as its growth has specifically been the target of state-led initiatives, with an eye to reaping economic benefits from these policies (Lee, 2004; Yue, 2006).

However, this is just one cultural lesson from the Singapore design education sector. We must take into consideration the small time frame in which the industry educational and industry have grown at such a rapid rate, and it is examples that like this where we see cultural habits creep into ethical issues that in other countries would be looked down upon. Singapore has come a long way in a short period of time and it is important to place such events in perspective. Within the past 20 years Singapore has developed internationally- recognised agencies and has also attracted design awards for graphic design and art direction from locally-based studios. Not too many westernised or Western countries can say that. It’s remarkable to think that an industry like the one that exists today did not exist 15 years ago! On reflection we also must look at how the West has set up the development of its creative industries, and who has the major investment overall.

“As in the United States and United Kingdom, however, corporate firms do play an important role in defining the direction of the development of creative industries. While the Australian model is also a government-supported one, the creative industry in Australia differs from Singapore’s in emphasising local artistic contribution

142 and indigenous cultural production (Cunningham, 2002), rather than foreign involvement.

“ (Peichi Chung, 2008, pp33-45)

Knowing that international accreditation generates local support and how much locals desire international recognition Singapore now has six design universities armed with recognised ‘twinning’ schools from around the world. These include Singapore Institute of Management (SIM) (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology); LaSalle College of the Arts (Goldsmiths College, University of London); Singapore University of Technology (SUTD) (Massachusetts Institute of Technology); School of the Arts (SOTA) (International Baccalaureate); Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (Loughborogh University); Purchase College, State University of New York; (SUNY) University of Central Lancashire (UClan); NUS, Temasek Polytechnic (Glasgow School of Art (GSOA). Most have set up degrees and higher education programs in graphic design. However, at the end of the day, these arrangements require the local culture to embrace change, and sometimes, that takes more than just 20 years. As you can see in Singapore—you can change landscape, you can change architecture, but it is challenging to change the culture overnight.

One interview was with a student who now holds an excellent position in an international agency. This designer was very enthusiastic to share some of his friends’ stories. It was satisfying as an educator to see a former student excelling in a field that only a few years ago he did not see as a real job. After all, he could probably have got more money working for his family’s hawker stall. One story was about his new colleague, the top student of the year at the D&ADS. The local school went on not only to change his grade from an ‘F’, but also to get top honors in his graduation group. He was subsequently deployed as the school’s new ‘poster student’. After the event, the student was hired by a large international agency where the achievement and its unique circumstances can be discussed tongue-in- cheek - and perhaps this individually will be rewarded for ‘thinking differently’.

It was also somewhat surprising that, when this former student got into telling this story, it revealed how today’s design education system has perhaps become a huge marketing opportunity in some spheres. It’s a billboard, a face, a photo of an award—and this is coming from one of the aforementioned design schools with a strong reputation. Frankly,

143 this researcher wasn’t surprised about what happened, given the small marketplace and high demand for a faster education process. Design schools are marketing now with more continuity, with a more regularly aggressive nature and pattern. Another significant factor that had come up in all interviews was the ‘name’ of the school. One is prompted to ask oneself if it really is that important. Is it the name of the school that matters, or the quality of the course itself? We are discussing a market that has grown leaps in bounds in a short time frame, and authentic reputations take time to grow and be nurtured. We could argue that ‘foreign’ designers tend to care a lot about where our degree will take us, and why we are spending time at this particular tertiary educational institution. However, some of the evidence gathered in this research suggests this isn’t necessarily as critical to the local Singaporean student. Students desire international recognition; however. the most important factor seems to be how fast the course can finish, highlighted by one of past student stating:

Designer 10 “I called the local schools, the local schools PR were actually very rude; when I called Raffles they were very nice. They asked me to come down. Walked me through the school campus, what type of courses they had. Instead of 3 years for a diploma it was 2 years, faster diploma, less holidays, faster completion then local schools Temasek & SIA LaSalle. Raffles won me over because of the faster course time frame, and the friendly marketing people. Local schools are cheaper, no doubt, however Raffles is a faster time, more expensive, but shorter time in doing the course makes up for it.”

In light of the aforementioned D&AD award situation, stories like this highlight the impact on local student perceptions. Yet, it also reveals opportunism on the part of the schools. We might argue that in the end the international impact from a design award demonstrates just where western ideals sit locally. With such a massive regional marketplace and with marketing methods shifting rapidly and the social media factor being at its peak, these issues will become more prevalent. As the DA&D incident wasn’t perceived as a problem, we are forced to question the relationship between educational ethics and design in the context of local design schools.

144 Conclusion

In undertaking this research I have endeavoured to understand and acknowledge the cultural factors of western education’s impact on Singapore. From this I have found many examples that are or have been pivotal in influencing local designers, design and educational sectors.

However, before coming to such conclusions, problems arose as initially this study was focused on examining the impact of western education on an overall basis. Students who had studied locally and whom travelled overseas, I argue are a group that would demonstrate and identify stronger evidence on their attitudes to western ideals and culture and how lifestyle can impact on a students ideals, studies and life influences. This wasn't looked at directly from the point of a ‘local impact’, however, it was to investigate the students who studied in Melbourne, Sydney and return home to Singapore. This also enabled me to ask if this study could be of use to others cities in the region by encouraging graduates to consider how to dissect the impact of their return to their home-towns. As I pointed out in the chapter ‘The Fore Fathers’, Mr Loh did return home when he participated in the Colombo Scheme. This scheme has been brought back for a reason and that's another piece of evidence of why its importance can’t be underestimated.

I wanted also to investigate and document the design work itself and to not only curate but to analyse the changes where western design values made an impact to show the influential institutions and their students. This is related to the point of how just ‘two important art shows’ could signify the design scene’s evolution, and also illustrate that time of change, and influence the next phase of the design curriculum development in the region. Singapore tends to set such trends based on its infrastructure and power faster than most other countries in the South-East Asia region.

As I point out throughout this paper, there are many reasons why this has been mainly documented by economists, and not designers. The reasons are substantiated from the local style of business first, and product and division secondly. For example, even a university such as UNSW had an opportunity to stake its claim and form a presence in Singapore. However, it’s also the reason why Asian students are still so important to design

145 education as culture, and why education, design in particular, is still adapting to the integration of their lifestyle and community.

In the local cultural changes underway in Singapore around design and design education its very apparent. Moreover, as previously mentioned, with programs like The Colombo Scheme being resurrected it is very apparent this is being supported with sufficient government involvement.

The research objectives

Objective 1: To show that ‘twinning’ graphic design education institutes in Singapore have made an impact on the local culture.

In my introduction, I quote from Professor Wang’s address from Icograda 2011 on how the world of design is changing, and what we should be sensitive to in regards to local cultures. He highlights the importance of mutual respect between cultures by stating that for the role of cultural communication to be a success, we must put certain steps in place. He strives to inspire and direct the local design community in a forward motion. It's a confirmation from within the design industry that it recognises the need to grow and advance design education across the region before the value of local cultures is denied or subsumed by globalism. Establishing this as an imperative, he urges local regions to recognise and instigate the changes needed. He writes from experience and reflects on issues that are clearly already upon the design education community,

146 balancing globalization and regional identity, unification and diversification. The potential for understanding the interactions between native culture and the trend of globalization justifies the role of cultural communications. Before cultural communications can be successful we must achieve mutual respect between cultures aggressively forcing a culture on people can only put them off. “ (Professor Wang Min, 2011, pg.142)

In chapters five and six I addressed how education has slowly impacted the design industry, and in turn, how industry has also been impacted by both local and international students. Through the interviews conducted, I obtained strong evidence that the industry is increasingly aware of the significant change in design portfolios emerging from graduating schools. In the ‘The Gap’ chapter, there is a defining interview where prominent local creative Jackson Tan clearly asserts there has been a significant change over recent years in the quality of folios both from overseas and local design students. Where there was once a clear distinction between an overseas educated Singaporean compared to that from a local institution. He states that with the greater range of local choices between international twinning institutions the gap is much smaller than before the international twinning relationships were formed. As I point out, this impact is measured in industry by an assessment of skill base in this instance and also by an interpretation of design standards and the increasing globalization of the design community. Its clear the impact of twinning between local and international institutions has caused what was previously an obvious ‘gap’ to slowly diminish.

Other perspectives related to change across the local design culture were also identified. Designer 5, for example, had a fairly rounded opinion of the gap in relation to the qualities of the schooling system locally.

Designer 5 “Yes, I do think there is a slight difference. Local institutions will certainly have some limitations as to how creative a designer can be as the entire education

147 from kindergarten till tertiary is quite regimented. And it could hinder a designer from reaching full potential, as he or she would probably do something that is safe and accepted than thinking out and beyond the box. I would think western influenced schools would allow the students to explore freely because there are no predetermined factors like the need to conform to the Asian culture and not to be different from others. Also the style of teaching allows more interaction between teachers and students rather than students follow the rules that the teachers has set.”

I argue these are critical observations as they support the points about culture that Professor Wang’s address highlighted - that an appreciation of local design cultures needs to be fostered over time and in a sensitive way. This notion was also observed by the Prime Minister in 1997, Mr Goh Chok Tong, in his address to the Seventh International Conference on Thinking, entitled ‘Shaping our future ’Thinking schools, Learning nation, stated in regard to the country’s students:

“Their imagination, their ability to seek out new technologies and ideas, and to apply them in everything they do will be the key source of economic growth. Their

collective capacity to learn will determine the well-being of a nation.” (Cheong, Loong, 1999, p.73)

These two very important speeches from established figures in higher education and government were defining for the industry, and bookend the beginning and end of the period this research examines. Mr Goh Chok Tong was a force for forward thinking in the globalizing economy of the Singaporean nation he was also sensitive to the need for rewards and the well being of locals. Fast forward to the 2011 address from Professor Wang and we see that although significant change has happened, design education will still be important in generating positive changes. Despite the fact that we are all still learning about cultural awareness in the Asian region, design education has grown significantly over recent decades and in Singapore it has exerted significant influence on the industry and indeed the local culture. As such Singapore’s model is somewhat a leader for others in the region.

148 Objective 2: To show that Western design education institutes have changed the perception of graphic design in Singaporean culture.

As was identified in in The Gap (chapter 6):

There are many factors influencing the changes. The local industry was impact more directly at first. It might be argued that the effects of education balance out with industry overall in terms of the influence of western ideals and practices on local design culture. However, it is still evolving as is pointed out in the following observation,

Researcher 1, “However, while it may be thriving, Singapore still has a long way to go with the design industry and its culture working together.”

As stated in my introduction, I found government generated white papers that were influential in fostering creativity in education in Singapore. This significantly informed my focus on ‘twinning’s’. I selected the 2000 - 2010 period as it was in this decade that there had been significant investment from the government. Within the design industry, this is evident by the number of events and design societies that evolved from the period - for example: Design Singapore, The Design Society and the National Design Center. Perhaps the most significant shift in the teaching and assessing of higher-order thinking in Singaporean classrooms was encapsulated in the vision of ‘Thinking Schools’ launched by the Ministry of Education in 1997. Underpinning this vision is a move away from conventional assessment to authentic assessment.

Unlike conventional paper-and-pencil tests that focus on knowledge reproduction and low-level cognitive processing skills within artificial, contrived contexts, authentic assessment tasks underscore knowledge construction, complex thinking, elaborated

communication, collaboration and problem solving within authentic contexts. (Kim.h.Koh, Charlene Tan, Pak tee Ng, 2012).

149 At the level of individuals who have made important and lasting contributions that have changed perceptions about design in Singapore, Brother Joseph McNally and Lim Hak Tai, are both strong pioneering artists and educators. As discussed extensively in earlier chapters they founded two extremely important colleges in Singapore that have had a fundamentally significant impact of local design and art scene. Although McNally is more obviously of a western background, both men are foreigners to Singapore but made it their home instigating critical changes through their educational beliefs and practices.

In chapter 2, I identified the direct impact they had on local schools. McNally in particular, personally harnessed emerging creativity and promoted change in the local culture. Being aware that a good education could change people’s lives, he fostered a then new belief that local talent could flourish with quality education and appropriate nurturing systems.

Lim, the founder of the “Nanyang style” and the founding principal of the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts was an artist-educator, who, for 25 years until his death in 1963, dedicated his services to the school and students. Without his passion and persistence as a local expression goes, there quite simply would not be a NAFA. Both pioneers left legacies in their respective forms of expression. The fact that the educational institutions they founded are still thriving and evolving to this day is indicative of how graphic design has been encouraged and nurtured over the decades. It might also be argued it points to the level of respect they achieved and the impact both men had on contemporary Singapore’s design culture.

How government treated these initial local institutions can be compared with the examples of institutions from overseas and subsequent twinnings. The government investment and focus on ‘foreign educational knowledge’ was pointed out by (Gwee, 2011),

matter of conjecture (JGwee, 2011, pg1-14).

That the government actively addressed the need for an arts school like SOTA is rather interesting. Olds states (2007), one of the aims of his research was to examine the motivations and the objectives for Singapore in opening up its territory to new forms of

150 foreign educational knowledge, institutional structures, practices and technologies as they related to graphic design. The introduction of specific programs and industry practices, have over time, enabled Singapore to promote itself as an ‘oasis of talent, a knowledge hub, and to enable itself to become an ideas exchange incubator for inspiration. (Kris Olds,2007,pp 959-975)

I believe Olds makes the key points in highlighting the impact of foreign investment and twinning exerting their power in the region followed by the Singapore government reacting with heavy reciprocal investment. This was not an entirely a new phenomenon. As early as 1999 in Singapore, we see the I.T boom was a major player and the Government reacted positively to it. In May 1999 Singapore launched a new statutory board called the Information Technology and Telecommunications Authority of Singapore (ITTA) by merging the National Computer Board with the Telecommunications Authority of Singapore. The formation of the ITTA, was intended to help Singapore to become a knowledge-based economy (To, L. L.2000, pp 78-86). This highlights (1) the Ministry Of Education’s recognition of the critical importance of social and educational change; (2) the measures that had been introduced to establish funding; accompanied by (3) efforts in regard to positioning Singapore in markets with foresight into the ASEAN trade agreements.

Unfortunately, it also highlights a lack of knowledge and experience in establishing and maintaining a creative field, as when we investigate the local government we find a different emphasis.

“… despite these new ideas, for the best part of 50 years, since the Peoples Action Party (PAP) have been in power, Singapore had cultivated its education system with a focus on developing individuals skilled in mathematics and the technical subjects.” (Hill, M., & Lian, K. F. (2013).)

Once again, even though the local government wanted to change and invest in the IT boom, local culture and interests were focused on different avenues at the expense of creative industries. As Chong.T pointed out:

“Material and social welfare, earning a living, and economic survival have always been Singapore’s mostly immigrant community’s primary concerns, and the arts

have never been seen as ‘ basic need”. (Chong, T. (2010,pp131-149.)

151 Not withstanding such investments informed or not, the local culture has been a driver for industry to change, thrive and evolve. This research clearly establishes that when we investigate the creative educational ‘twinning’s’ that we see a stable and influential market that has prospered over the years focussed on in this study and beyond.

There was a significant need for change as Singapore’s art and design culture was not always valued in the past by designers or consumers when compared with that of other nations in the region. The change was initiated by stimulus in the form of new government white papers such as “Shaping our future: Thinking Schools, Learning Nation”, and the emergence of new government committees, all of which handed down ideas that were communicated by strong minded individuals who saw the future and made steps to make sure Singapore would survive the next phase of its economic development. The impact of these changes is ongoing. Within a 20-year period, the magnitude of foreign twinnings and investment has been pivotal to the local economy. With consumers becoming increasingly accepting of globalised products, Singaporeans have both embraced and leveraged a ‘melting pot’ of cultural and economic benefits afforded through the many different dialects and religions present in the society. Additionally, through more globalised design education and investment in twinnings, other nations in the region have observed and learnt from this tiny nation’s educational stronghold. With design education now firmly implanted in the Singapore culture, it is important that the local government focuses on policies to nurture both the local and foreign talent it has developed and that continues to make an impact not only locally, but also internationally. Although Singapore design doesn’t really have a distinct signature as such, the foundations for these elements are well and truly present, and its potential grows daily.

152 Editor 1 “Singapore has, however, become an international city and in recent years has added so many foreigners to the population that design has to, in my opinion, be neutral in most cases. Having said that, there are some amusing or graphically strong ideas using elements of local culture. I think this comes from a growing confidence within Singapore society. The good news is that the design community is thriving and we have many talented people working here.”

The final word should go to one of Singapore’s leading lights, former Prime Minister Mr Goh Chok Tong, for his awareness of Singapore’s future. His openness to the creative industry and what it could bring to the national economy was instrumental in setting in place the infrastructure that was needed. His vision and planning that were established almost 20 years ago remain active and influential today, and this further reflects how design and design education has grown so rapidly in Singapore in a short time. Because of this rapid transformation the local culture needs time to absorb what is happening and this needs to involve maintaining the policies and the drive to sustain design through innovative design education that addresses the current and future needs of the society. At the Seventh International Conference on Thinking on 2 June 1997, the Singapore Prime Minister, Mr Goh Chok Tong, titled his opening address ‘Shaping our future: Thinking Schools, Learning Nation’. The opening lines of his address are as follows:

capacity to learn will determine the well-being of a nation.” (Cheong, Agnes Chang Shook & David Hung Wei Loong, 2006, pg. 83)

As a result of the white papers, the investment in time and funding the design industry and the schools, Singapore is now well positioned to prosper and build on its strong foundations. However, the people and culture of the country are arguably the most significant factors that will be responsible for the progress. It must be said that, as much as

153 there is a strong backing locally in Singapore, it is also important to take note of current trends in the global market and, in particular, of reports from design icons such as Jonathan Ives who observed recently that:

“Design education is tragic”, and [that] he struggles to hire young staff as schools are

failing to teach them how to make products.” (designsymbiosisblog.wordpress.com)

Emerging industry forces that have already moved into the interactive online sector, (PChung,

2008,p.35) with huge financial educational ventures will be critical in get the required settings and policies correct. Similarly, the next wave of cultural change will be equally significant to the Singapore design education sector. As has been observed globally, even with all the experience and knowledge around design and design practice in the West, the most recent review of ‘Restarting Britain, design education and growth’ (Design Commission, 2000, pp14-60) evidences that, even with a strong and long-standing reputation in the educational industry, it is critical to investigate, nurture and evolve new methodology. Fortunately, as we have seen, Singapore’s design educational industry will likely prosper from its founding fathers’ great beginnings. But it will need to embrace new ideas and theory about design practices that are appropriate for an increasingly complex contemporary world. We can see that the next 20 years will be critical, as the impact of decades of globalisation normalises.

“The process of globalisation has affected Singapore in the way its people live and work. Singaporeans are impacted by the changes and challenges, which arise in striking a balance of economic growth versus social development, changing socio- cultural and economic trends, an aging population versus the need for new immigrants, among others. There are other equally important driving forces that are constantly affecting and shaping our reality such as technology, media, economics and the environment. Learning and living in a globalised world would entail us exploring ways by which we can be more open to diversity, in understanding global issues and sustainable development, be effectual global citizens and life-wide and life-

long learners.” (Prem Kumar, 2013,pg.85)

154 Globalisation brings benefits; however, we also have a world of new challenges. The challenges now lay in making education relevant to sustaining rapidly-transforming social, cultural, economic and ecological challenges while meeting society’s increasing demand for faster, high quality design education - if that is indeed possible, or actually desirable. Singapore may have the capacity to do all of this - it is certain that it now has an opportunity to take what it has learned from the twinning process over the past 20 years and apply the best practice processes it has acquired to develop a new wave of educational pathways for design. Indeed, it is Singapore’s time to forge its reputation in the field on its own. Inevitably however, the reputations of design education providers—good or bad, will decide a lot in this unique educational marketplace.

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