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Managing Conflict Over Natural Resources in Greater Kordofan, Sudan IFPRI Discussion Paper 00711 August 2007 Managing Conflict Over Natural Resources in Greater Kordofan, Sudan: Some Recurrent Patterns and Governance Implications El Fatih Ali Siddig, Ministry of Finance and National Economy Khalid El-Harizi, International Fund for Agricultural Development and Bettina Prato, International Fund for Agricultural Development Development Strategy and Governance Division INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) was established in 1975. IFPRI is one of 15 agricultural research centers that receive principal funding from governments, private foundations, and international and regional organizations, most of which are members of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTORS AND PARTNERS IFPRI’s research, capacity strengthening, and communications work is made possible by its financial contributors and partners. IFPRI gratefully acknowledges generous unrestricted funding from Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, the Philippines, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the World Bank. IFPRI Discussion Paper 00711 August 2007 Managing Conflict Over Natural Resources in Greater Kordofan, Sudan: Some Recurrent Patterns and Governance Implications El Fatih Ali Siddig, Ministry of Finance and National Economy Khalid El-Harizi, International Fund for Agricultural Development and Bettina Prato, International Fund for Agricultural Development Development Strategy and Governance Division PUBLISHED BY INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 2033 K Street, NW Washington, DC 20006-1002 USA Tel.: +1-202-862-5600 Fax: +1-202-467-4439 Email: [email protected] www.ifpri.org Notices: 1 Effective January 2007, the Discussion Paper series within each division and the Director General’s Office of IFPRI were merged into one IFPRI-wide Discussion Paper series. The new series begins with number 00689, reflecting the prior publication of 688 discussion papers within the dispersed series. The earlier series are available on IFPRI’s website at www.ifpri.org/pubs/otherpubs.htm#dp. 2 IFPRI Discussion Papers contain preliminary material and research results. They have not been subject to formal external reviews managed by IFPRI’s Publications Review Committee but have been reviewed by at least one internal and/or external reviewer. They are circulated in order to stimulate discussion and critical comment. Copyright 2007 International Food Policy Research Institute. All rights reserved. Sections of this material may be reproduced for personal and not-for-profit use without the express written permission of but with acknowledgment to IFPRI. To reproduce the material contained herein for profit or commercial use requires express written permission. To obtain permission, contact the Communications Division at [email protected]. Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................... v 1. Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1 2. Defining the Question: Natural Resource-Based Conflict and the State ....................... 6 3. Greater Kordofan: General Characteristics and Prevailing Livelihood Systems......... 11 4. Conflicts Over Natural Resources in Kordofan: Some Recurrent Patterns ................. 14 5. Some Environmental and Socioeconomic Implication of NR Conflict in Kordofan .. 23 6. Policies and Institutions Concerning Natural Resource and Conflict Management in Kordofan ................................................................................................................. 26 7. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 46 Appendix A: Case Studies ................................................................................................ 58 Appendix B: Glossary of Relevant Sudanese Terms........................................................ 89 Appendix C: Persons Met ................................................................................................. 91 Appendix D: Overview of Recommendations.................................................................. 94 References......................................................................................................................... 96 iii List of Tables 1. Distribution of case studies among categories of conflict ........................................... 22 A.1 Case Studies ............................................................................................................... 58 D.1 Overview of Recommendations................................................................................. 94 iv ABSTRACT Despite the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, which brought to an end 20 years of civil war in the Sudan, this country continues to experience smaller-scale conflicts, particularly around access to and control of natural resources. Some observers lay the blame for this on ethnopolitical or tribal divisions. However, this paper argues that there are a variety of factors at play behind these conflicts, notably the combination of resource scarcity with a crisis of governance that is particularly evident in transitional areas like the Kordofan region. To gain a sense of the range of conflicts around natural resources in Kordofan, the authors reviewed existing records such as government archives; conducted interviews with politicians, federal and state government officials, farmers, pastoralists, and Native Administration leaders; and investigated findings in the field. Interviews also served to examine people’s knowledge about government natural resource policies and their perceptions of the roles played by government and the Native Administration in conflict management and resolution. The paper presents 20 cases of stalemate competition or open conflict over natural resources in Kordofan. The cases center on (1) conflicts between farmers and herders over stock routes, gum arabic forests, gardens, watering points, and the use of dars (tribal homelands); (2) conflicts between herders and small farmers and government agents or large private investors over mechanized farming areas, oil infrastructure, and other private investments. In their analysis of natural resource governance in Sudan, the authors find that natural resources policies have often been weak foundations for sustainable resource use, and in some cases they have actually contributed to conflict. In addition, the volatile path of government devolution efforts concerning natural resources has undermined governance of these resources. While conflicts between farmers and herders were managed relatively successful in the past through customary land tenure systems, this is less and less the case today as a result of larger herds, reduced water and pasture, instability and prejudices stirred up by the war, and a proliferation of arms among herders. In addition, patron–client politics, weak natural resource management and development policies, and top-down government institutions have encouraged ethnic polarization and social divisions. The authors find that measures are needed to reform the process of natural resource management, making land use planning more comprehensive, building on local livelihood systems, and increasing public spending on infrastructure. In addition, sustainable property rights on farmland and on mobile resources should be redefined, and informal conflict management mechanisms restored to the extent that this is possible. Keywords: Conflict management, Natural resource management, Small farmers, Land use, Livelihoods, Public spending, infrastructure, Property rights, Governance, Sustainability, Sudan, East Africa v iii 1. INTRODUCTION Conflict around natural resources has become a key preoccupation of development theorists and practitioners particularly since the end of the Cold War, which ushered in an era of growing instability in the developing world, notably in Africa (Kaplan 2000). Unlike conventional interstate conflicts or the proxy wars of the bipolar era, recent conflicts of this sort have been marked by a fragmentation of state- centered political economies and mechanisms for natural resource management, challenging some key presuppositions of development work. In addition, they have typically taken place not among armies fighting on behalf of national interests under the control of cohesive state administrations, but rather among military and paramilitary groups fighting for narrow interests without formal legitimate mandates. In this respect, these conflicts often bear witness to the limits of a Weberian understanding of the process of state building in many postcolonial countries. More specifically, they put in question the universal validity of a process whereby power over the means of violence is concentrated into sovereign hands for political and economic purposes formally legitimized through notions of public interest or national development. Besides exacerbating the lack of military hegemony of state administrations in many countries, recent resource-based conflicts (or RBCs) in Africa seem to point to the inability of these administrations to perform certain economic functions conventionally associated with statehood. According to mainstream Western narratives
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