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Art, Ichthyology, Charles Darwin and the Northern Territory of Australia

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Art, Ichthyology, Charles Darwin and the Northern Territory of Australia The Beagle, Records of the Museums and Art Galleries of the Northern Territory, 2006 22: 91–97 Art, ichthyology, Charles Darwin and the Northern Territory of Australia TIM M. BERRA Research Associate, Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory, GPO Box 4646, Darwin NT 0801, AUSTRALIA and Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Mansfield, Ohio 44906, USA [email protected] ABSTRACT This paper reflects on the antiquity and continuation of depictions of fishes dating back 24 000 years as highlighted by some specific illustrations. The earliest Aboriginal depictions of fishes date to about 8000 years ago. An Aboriginal x-ray bark painting of a barramundi, Lates calcarifer (Centropomidae), by Jimmy Njiminumna is juxtaposed with a modern scientific illustration of a barramundi skeleton by Christopher May. A recent commissioned x-ray painting of a nurseryfish,Kurtus gulliveri (Kurtidae), from the Adelaide River by Joshua Bangarr represents the first known Aboriginal drawing of this species. Some fishes named in honour of Charles Darwin and the Port of Darwin are discussed. A drawing from 1878 of a jawfish,Opistognathus darwiniensis (Opisthognathidae), described from Darwin Harbour and a 1911 drawing of the gudgeon, Mogurnda mogurnda (Eleotridae), described from Port Essington in 1844, are presented. KEYWORDS: Aboriginal art, barramundi, Charles Darwin, Port of Darwin, Lates calcarifer, Kurtus gulliveri, Mogurnda mogurnda, Opistognathus darwiniensis, prehistoric art, scientific illustration, skeleton. INTRODuCTION and Central Europe represents the apogée of Palaeolithic art and Lascaux Cave (France) is its most notable example Symbolic engravings appeared in the archaeological (Ruspoli 1987; White 2003). Depictions of salmon, trout, repertoire of anatomically modern Homo sapiens in the pike, sole and eel, although rare on rock walls, were more Middle Stone Age of southern Africa 77 000 years ago commonly etched on small artifacts of reindeer antler and (Henshilwood et al. 2002). About 40 000 years ago, at bone (mobiliary art) from Middle-Magdalenian sites about the beginning of the upper Paleolithic in Europe, an 14 000 years ago (Ruspoli 1987; Moyle and Moyle 1991). explosion of image-making coincided with a major cultural The style and materials used by artists is a reflection transformation that included musical instruments, new of the culture from which the artist comes. This includes kinds of tools and weapons, fired ceramics, weaving, and an indigenous taxonomy and totemic system used by the long-distance trade (White 2003). Traditionally, the oldest people of that culture. Similarly, scientific illustrators are cave paintings in the world were radiocarbon dated from guided by principles and conventions (e.g., Weitzman 2003) about 32 000 years ago in Chauvet Cave of the Ardèche and aided by available technology such as camera lucidae, region of France (Clottes et al. 1996, Clottes 2003; Wong stereoscopic microscopes and computer graphics. Moyle 2005). Recent developments in radiocarbon dating and Moyle (1991) introduced a series of 80 papers detailing methodology indicate that the spectacular menagerie of many forms of fish imagery in art in Environmental Ice Age animals drawn in ochre in the galleries of Chauvet Biology of Fishes from 1991–1995. Whitehead (1991) Cave can now be said to date from about 36 000 years described what he termed “scientific surrealism” which BP in real terms as compared to about 32 000 years BP involves the combination of incongruous images as in a in radiocarbon terms (Mellars 2006a). Klingender (1971) dream. This surely reached its peak with the fish art of comprehensively reviewed animals in art. Ray Troll (2004). People have been depicting fishes for millennia. The oldest known fish representation is a salmon sculpted ABORIGINAL ICHTHYOLOGY AND in the roof of the ‘Shelter of the Fish’ at Les Eyzies, SCIENTIFIC ILLuSTRATION in the Dordogne River region of France about 24 000 years ago (Ruspoli 1987). A pike is engraved along the An emerging consensus points to the arrival of humans back of a horse at Pech-Merle in the Lot River region of in Australia shortly after 60 000 years ago (Roberts and France. This site is 20 000 years old (Ruspoli 1987). The Jones 2001), although some authorities consider this date Magdalenian culture (18 000–11 000 years ago) of Western speculative and contested, and prefer a more conservative 91 T. M. Berra estimate of 45 000 BP (Mellars 2006b). The oldest known basically iconic, that is, it reflects the naturalistic features Aboriginal campsites may date back to an upper limit of particular species. Iconicity is defined as the formal of 60 000 years ago in Kakadu National Park at the foot resemblance between the painted form and the object of the western escarpment of the Arnhem Land plateau or species represented. The artists say that the depicted (Roberts et al. 1990). used pieces of haematite and red organs “look like” the organs they represent as opposed to ochre-impregnated grindstone from the Kakadu area geometric, cross-hatched or parallel line infill x-ray motifs suggest pigment use 50 000 years ago (Chaloupka 1993). that symbolise some organs or body regions (Taylor 1987). Some of the earliest representations of fishes were made The organs (or species) are meant to be obvious to other by Aboriginal rock artists during the Estuarine Period Kunwinjku or even Europeans familiar with the species 8000–1500 years ago (Chaloupka 1993). White (2003) under discussion. considered the Estuarine Period as 6000–1500 years ago. Figure 1 is a representative x-ray painting of a Mulvaney and Kamminga (1999) discussed alternative barramundi from the collection of the Museum and schemes for dating and classifying different motifs, but Art Gallery of the Northern Territory (hereafter NTM) they also noted areas of concordance among the various (ABART-0660). The natural pigments on bark painting approaches. Sixteen fish taxa from fresh, brackish, and was done by the late Jimmy Njiminjuma of Maningrida marine waters have been identified by Chaloupka (1993) in 1979 and is entitled Namarngol the Barramundi. The in the rock art of the Arnhem Land Plateau (Table 1). A vertebral column with neural and haemal spines is shown similar list of 11 species is given by Taylor (1987). The as white dashes and chevron-shaped marks along the greatest concentration of fish images is found in shelters length of the middle of the body. The crescent-shaped near the lower reaches of the East Alligator River. The white structure below the spinal column represents the most commonly represented species (barramundi, fork- swim bladder atop the brown stomach. A long wavy tailed catfish and mullet) were of economic importance intestine leaves the ventral surface of the stomach and to the local people, and they are rendered with substantial exits the body posteriorly. The lateral line is correctly accuracy (Taylor 1987; Chaloupka 1993). Commonly shown extending onto the rounded caudal fin. This feature illustrated freshwater species from the middle reaches of is characteristic of the family Centropomidae. Sensory northern rivers include archerfish, sooty grunter, long tom, pores are also represented on the head. The long spiny saratoga and eel-tailed catfish. dorsal fin joins the rounded soft dorsal fin posteriorly, X-ray paintings are so called because they are and the concave head slope is accurately depicted. This naturalistic depictions that show skeletal or iconically indicates a high degree of realism based upon observation motivated motifs to represent internal organs such as and familiarity with the species, and the naturalistic x-ray the spinal column, heart and digestive tract (Taylor infill is typical of items restricted to the pragmatic realm 1987; Mulvaney and Kamminga 1999). Taylor (1987), in of food (Taylor 1987). Other examples of Njiminjuma’s his analysis of both mundane and esoteric ceremonial art are discussed by Taylor (1987: plates 4.14, 8.20), and encoded meanings in Kunwinjku bark paintings from a Njiminjuma Rainbow Serpent is reproduced in Isaacs western Arnhem Land, showed how their x-ray art is (1980: 63). Table 1. Fishes depicted in Arnhem Land rock art, updated from Chaloupka (1993), and their corresponding Aboriginal name, widely understood by Western Arnhem Land peoples. Paintings of these fishes are illustrated in Chaloupka’sJourney in Time. The phylogenetic arrangement of families follows Nelson (1994) and Berra (2001). Family Species Common Name Aboriginal Name Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus leucas Bull shark Pristidae Pristis microdon Freshwater sawfish Dasyatidae Dasyatis fluviorum Estuary stingray Osteoglossidae Scleropages jardinii Gulf saratoga Guluibirr Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides Oxeye herring Garlalba Clupeidae Nematolosa erebi Bony bream Nabardebarde Plotosidae Anodontiglanis dahli Toothless catfish Nagurl Plotosidae Neosilurus ater Black catfish Binijdjarrang Plotosidae Neosilurus sp. Eel-tailed catfish Ganbaldjdja Ariidae Ariopsis leptaspis Fork-tailed catfish Almakkawarri Mugilidae Liza alata Diamond mullet Madjabarr Belonidae Strongylura kreffti Freshwater longtom Burrugulung Centropomidae Lates calcarifer Barramundi Namarngorl Toxotidae Toxotes chatareus Common archerfish Njarlgan Toxotidae Toxotes lorentzi Primitive archerfish Terapontidae Hephaestus fuliginosus Sooty grunter Nagenjhmi (male) Galarrk (female) 92 Art, ichthyology, Charles Darwin and the Northern Territory Fig. 1. X-ray painting, natural pigments
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