The Alienated American Individual in Robert Heinlein's Strange

UNIVERSITY OF ALGIERS II

The American Counterculture under the Light of Science Fiction: The Alienated American Individual in Robert Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land

Dissertation submitted to the Department of English in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Master Degree in: Langue et Littérature Anglaise.

Submitted by: Supervised by:

Wafaa BOUROUBI Mr. Mohamed ROUABHIA

Academic Year: 2018-2019

Board of Examiners:

Ms. Leila DAHMAN ...... Chair

Mr. Ahmed Ihcene GACEMI ...... Examiner

Mr. Mohamed ROUABHIA ...... Supervisor

Declaration

I hereby declare that the substance of this dissertation is entirely the result of my investigation and that reference or acknowledgment is made, whenever necessary, to the work of other researchers.

I am duly informed that any person practicing will be subject to disciplinary sanctions issued by university authorities under the rules and regulations in force.

Date: ......

Name: ......

Signed: ......

Acknowledgments

First, I would like to proclaim that this work would not have been accomplished without the professional assistance of my supervisor, Mr. Mohamed Rouabhia, who provided his helping hand whenever I was in need for it. He thoroughly guided me throughout the entire research-making process, as he was generous for sharing his knowledge, as well as providing numerous sources that I could not reach. So, I declare my sincere gratitude for that matter.

Also, I would like to declare special thanks to some teachers who managed to leave a very unique and positive influence in me; Miss Amina Bezzazi, Mrs. Nawel Azoui, and Professor Foued Djemai (may God bless his soul as he rests in peace). I dearly appreciate the efforts made by such amazing teachers. In fact, the list is yet long, and it saddens me that I cannot mention all the teachers whom I was their student in the past five years, as I am deeply grateful for their teachings.

Lastly, I must also thank my dear family members and friends; my family members for their mental and financial support, and for tolerating me and the noise I made trying to read my work out loud, and my friends for encouraging me and elevating my self-esteem, as well as believing in me in times when I felt worthless. I am truthfully glad and thankful for them being a part of my life.

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Dedication

To the eggs who want to grok and grow.

Abstract

This research paper aims at analyzing the treatment of the theme of alienation in Robert Anson Heinlein’s science fictional masterpiece Stranger in a Strange Land (1961). It is an illustration of the close link between science fiction as a genre and the moral and existential controversies in the American society, and in particular, in the era of the fifties and the sixties, during which, the United States of America witnessed the emergence of some influential countercultural movements. This paper relies upon Existentialism, a theory which believes that man is the center of the universe, and on Liberal Humanism, an approach which argues that the human is a free individual. Based on that theory and approach, and in the light of the study of the protagonist, Mike, and the outcome of the clash between his Martian upbringing and the conservative ideology of his fellow humans after he returns Earth, the paper investigates in how the non-conformist American individual feels alienated and strange in their own society. This demonstrates that science fiction is a literary vehicle which portrays the contemporary reality and concerns of the society in which the writer lived. Ultimately, the research comes with an assumption that science fiction, with its fantasy world, can parallel reality in a very accurate way.

Keywords: Stranger in a Strange Land, alienation, American individual, Science Fiction, Existentialism, Liberal Humanism.

Table of Contents

Board of Examiners ...... i

Declaration ...... ii

Acknowledgments ...... iii

Dedication ...... iv

Abstract ...... v

Table of Contents ...... vi

Introduction ...... 1

Chapter 1: Backgound and Theoretical Framework: Counterculture, Existentialism and Science Fiction

1.1. Counterculture in the 50’s and the 60’s:

1.1.1. The Beat Generation ...... 6

1.1.2. The Rise of the Hippie Movement ...... 8

1.2. The Theme of Alienation as a Main Aspect:

1.2.1. Human Nature in Relation to Alienation ...... 10

1.2.2. Rebellion Against Conformity and the Sense of Alienation ...... 13

1.2.2.1 The Sense of Alienation...... 14

1.3. Existentialism and Liberal Humanist Criticism:

1.3.1. Existentialism ...... 15

1.3.2. Liberal Humanist Approach ...... 18

1.4. The Emergence of Science Fiction:

1.4.1. The Beginning of Science Fiction Literature ...... 19

1.4.2. The Flowering of the American Science Fiction ...... 21

Chapter 2: Stranger: A Reality Portraying Novel

2.1. Science Fiction and the American Culture:

2.1.1. The American Style Used in Writing Science Fiction ...... 26

2.2. Heinlein’s Speculative Fiction Portraying the Present:

2.2.1. Robert Heinlein’s Style in Writing Stranger ...... 31

Chapter 3: Mike: The Alien-Like Human in a Conventonal Society

3.1. Michael’s Human and Martian Features:

3.1.1. The Prevalent Themes of Dissimilarity ...... 41

3.2. Michael’s Cult VS. The Conservative Religious Discourse:

3.2.1 The Church of All Worlds and the Fosterites ...... 47

3.1.2.1. Michael’s Messiah Figure ...... 50

3.3 The Reaction to Michael’s Disruption:

3.3.1 The Death of Michael ...... 54

3.3.2 Michael in the Afterlife ...... 57

Conclusion ...... 60

Bibliography ...... 62

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Introduction

Because of its speculative characteristics, science fiction is often known for its unattainable fantasy which is impossible to happen in reality. Indeed, as any literary genre, science fiction is based on imagination. However, science fiction is, somehow, overlooked as a genre when it comes to the extent of the depiction of reality. It is thought to be a sort of fiction that is only meant for entertainment because of its strange nature that is mostly based on celestial stories, as its setting and plot are usually far different from physical world. However, science fiction can often be a tool to mirror reality, even though it keeps its eccentric features. This is why I have chosen to discuss about the issue in one of Robert Anson Heinlein’s the most prominent science fiction novels ever written, Stranger in a Strange Land (1961).

The novel tells the story of a Human-Martian individual who lives in an environment that seems alien to him. We are introduced to Valentine Michael Smith, the half Human and half Martian, who is brought to planet Earth (specifically to the United States of America) knowing absolutely nothing about the place he is in. He is stranger who shows up in the novel to be as a Messiah, bringing his own strange philosophies to people whom he is not familiar with, and by whom he is accepted and rejected. Therefore, this study is going to concentrate on analyzing the individual in terms of alienation, yet on the basis of Science Fiction.

The present research entitled “The American Culture under the Light of Science Fiction: The Alienated American Individual in Robert Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land” illuminates the treatment of one of the issues that humans, as individuals, face through time due to various reasons which is alienation. The key themes and concepts that are going to be investigated in this research paper are alienation and individualism which are based upon a study case of the United States in the fifties and the sixties.

Because I am fond of science fiction, as well as American literature, I found myself involved in the study of this literary work. It is true that studying this novel was, to some extent, challenging for I found it quite ambiguous at first, yet after several readings, I could finally construct a valid topic to discuss, and I managed to

extract its core themes and concepts. Also, I have chosen this Hugo Award winning novel not because it is, as critics would agree on it “the most famous science fiction novel ever written,” but because, after going in depth in it, I have gotten engaged in trying to understand what is going on in the novel. That is to say, the plot of the story is intriguing and intellectually challenging; indeed, it captivated me for it did not seem as a usual science fiction work.

This study a science fictional novel is made in the attempt to prove that, just like any other form of literature, science fiction is a unique means to depict reality. To answer the research question that this work focuses on, I would say that, unfortunately, many would think that Science fiction is just a set of fantastic stories which are disconnected from reality; having no strong base on reality. For this reason, the aim of this research is to demonstrate that science fiction, with all of its strange elements and themes such as plot and setting, is a portraying instrument which exposes realities. In other words, I have chosen specifically one of Robert Heinlein’s greatest novels, despite its controversial themes, with the intention to associate a major issue: alienation, with the study of the human as an individual to provide evidence that science fiction should not be seen as an inferior literary genre because it can be considered as an artistically descent form of literature that is not to be disregarded in terms of its authentic potentials in demonstrating reality.

This research paper is grounded upon a Liberal Humanist approach, and on the Existentialist philosophy. The reason behind choosing the Liberal Humanist approach is because it assists in highlighting the main ideas in the novel and the main theme of alienation; because Liberal Humanism emphasizes the study of the human; it focuses on his liberties as an individual. Therefore, I attempted to use such criticism so as to link what I deduced from the novel as themes to the key concepts of Liberal Humanism, which are individual liberties, and human nature, all in relation to alienation. Furthermore, the use of Existentialist philosophical theory is basically set in order to provide more coherence and more rationale which are needed for a valid justification to the approach. Moreover, Existentialism is concerned with the human’s individuality as it praises it. Therefore, it explains the major concern of this paper

which is alienation. I implemented the Liberal Humanist approach and Existentialism as devices by which I tried to elucidate the human nature in relation to the human’s natural freedom and his sense of alienation, by means of a critical character in the novel, Valentine Michael Smith.

Through Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land, there is an attempt to elicit the core elements of the philosophy of Existentialism and the major aspects of Liberal Humanism so as to analyze, for example, the theme of religion seen in the novel. On this basis, the theological phrase, for example, ‘Thou art God’ which prevails in Heinlein’s work, can be looked into from the perspective of Liberal Humanism, and Existentialism. Since the main character, Michael, is seen as divine and has godly characteristics and is considered as a god, at the same time, he offers the people who welcomed him around to become their own gods, and teaches them to become fearless of death. Therefore, the process of investigating in this case consists of highlighting the existential philosophies, as well as the liberal humanist assumptions about how man is being given a high position that is godly, and how he is a liberal individual.

Regarding science fiction, as a genre, it is said to be ambiguous, and because of this ambiguity, it does not tell much about reality. In his essay, “The Logical Fallacy of Generalization from Fictional Evidence”, American AI researcher, Eliezer Yudkowsky states that, “there are specific distortions in fiction. A story is never a rational attempt at analysis, not even with the most diligent science fiction writers, because stories do not use probability distributions.” Regarding the novel, Stranger in a Strange Land considers mostly the religious concepts in the given "strange land" in which the character, Michael, is to some extent, shown as alienated; alienated for being an outsider, and unaccepted for his Martian conception. Religion is one of the themes that are criticized heavily; especially that it is one of the pillars any society stands upon. Still, through the novel, it is put into question, whether it is what should be followed, and whom to elect to say what to follow. Not only religion is what overwhelms this novel, it is also somehow the source of all sub themes such as sex and social conventions. The latter have also a great deal of criticism for how Heinlein his radical liberalism in portraying sexual freedom. However, as Elizabeth Ann Hull in her

“Justifying the Ways of Man to God” claims that the fact that (in the story) a world ruled by one dominant entity (and at the same time an environment that gathers all kinds of beliefs and principles of the world, including religious beliefs) is an already founded area where this challenging character comes to, and as a result of his very different characteristics from the people with whom he shares the skin only, he founds his own church (Church of All Worlds) for the sake of people's satisfaction that is based according to his Martian ideologies; yet, it is there where the events of the story become perplexed (32). Nevertheless, taking the previous criticism into consideration, I attempt, in this paper, to go beyond discussing the themes as they initially seem; i.e. I try to focus on one theme; alienation, at the same time, I relate it to a given context (the counterculture of the fifties and the sixties), all combined under science fiction. Hence, my contribution to this work lies upon treating a social issue: alienation, yet in a science fictional novel: Stranger in a Strange Land, trying to exhibit the extent to which science fiction can be said to be portraying and influencing reality.

This paper is divided into three main chapters. The chapters are carefully linked together, so as to provide an organized and coherent work. The first chapter deals with the background in which the novel was written and published and the theoretical framework which is based on Existentialism, Liberal Humanism, alienation as the main theme, and a brief history of the American Science fiction. Basically, the first chapter introduces all the elements mentioned in order to clarify the context before linking it to the text. The context speaks of the emergence of two main countercultural movements, the Beat Generation and the Hippie Movement, in the fifties and the sixties. All this is associated with the theory, the theme of alienation, and with science fiction, since it is the genre of the novel.

The second chapter is founded upon a detailed presentation of the uniqueness of the American science fiction and how it emerged from being just visual art to become published in a form of short stories and novels, also Heinlein’s science fiction. The chapter is dedicated to go in depth in exploring science fiction as a genre and how it is used by American writers; and Heinlein in particular, so as to portray reality. In this chapter, I attempt to link science fiction with reality after I have introduced the context

that deals with the countercultural movements of the fifties and sixties. Also, I embarked on analyzing the novel, yet without going in details, because the focus is meant for Science fiction as a genre.

Finally, the third chapter is devoted for the analysis of the novel. I attempt to link the first chapter and the second chapter together, with the purpose of providing a thorough examination of the whole work. Therefore, I have chosen to inspect the main character, Valentine Michael Smith, because the novel revolves around it and because it is what makes the story going. This chapter is meant to connect all the themes of religion, tradition and sex and concepts such as water-sharing and grokking together, as well as it should fulfill linking the text to the context. The latter will be introduced first, in order for understanding the conditions and situations behind writing the novel.

Chapter One: Background and Theoretical Framework: Counterculture, Existentialism and Science Fiction

Counterculture is a set of sub-cultural artistic and social movements, whose values and customs are distinguished by their breaking from mainstream society, as they oppose its traditional norms. And, it is the case for the American society. Here, we will look into two of the main movements that occurred in the fifties and the sixties in the United States, the Beat Generation and the Hippie Movement. Accordingly, the fifties knew a threat of communism and consumerism as they were some of the consequences of the Vietnam War in the mid fifties. It was also an era of conformity; American families would unquestionably follow the conservative American traditions. Still, people started to become exhausted from the routine and the habitual lifestyle and wanted to change the traditional life into a life that does not restrain their freedom. In this chapter, we will examine the background of the counterculture in the fifties and the sixties, and see how American science fiction emerged as a genre, and all this is in relation to the theory of Existentialism and Liberal Humanist approach under the theme of alienation

1.1. Counterculture in the 50’s and 60’s:

The fifties and the sixties were remarkable periods of time which the United States of America witnessed. They were times of counterculture. Such countercultures were, to a large extent, influential with the intention of changing the culture of society which their pioneers considered as traditional and conventional. The Beat Generation and Hippie Movement can be said to be two of the major countercultural movements whose voice against mainstream America exerted influence.

1.1.1. The Beat Generation:

The Beat Generation Movement began in the mid forties. It burgeoned as an iconic artistic movement whose pioneers were a group of artists and writers such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William Burroughs. Kerouac was an American author who wrote an autobiographic novel, On the Road, published in 1957. His work was special and was considered as the novel which defined the Beat Generation and other countercultural generations such as the Hippies. American writer, philosopher and poet, Ginsberg was mainly in opposition to materialism which prevailed in the

Western world at that time. He is best known for his poem “Howl” in which he argued that conformity was damaging the United States. Burroughs was a visual artist and a writer. His novel Naked Lunch, published in 1959, was based on his own experiences with drugs; he exclusively speaks about his drug addiction. These authors shared the same opinions. For instance, they favored sexual liberation and opposed sexual repression, because they believed that sex is also a portion of their lives as individuals which should not be restrained; sexual repression rendered them frustrated. As well as they openly dealt with topics such as drugs.

The term ‘Beat Generation” was first introduced by Kerouac. The word ‘beat’ meant ‘beaten down’ or ‘tired’ which were terms used among the American community in the mid fifties. Basically, the term meant that the Beat Generation was tired from the traditional American lifestyle. The Beat Generation was based on the bulk of works of the authors mentioned, which influenced many aspects of American culture including politics, especially in the Post-War era. Throughout the fifties and towards the sixties, the Beats were protesting against the standard Western life which seemed to restrict their liberties. Their aim was to break free from the mainstream society. According to the Beats, the human being is not conditioned to fit in already shaped forms, neither is he determined to follow a certain set of conventions, but is rather supposed to have the freedom to experience and explore some aspects which were often frowned upon. In other words, the Beats’ eyes were on exposing the taboos of the American society, from drugs to sex to censorship. To some extent, The Beats succeeded in influencing the people’s paradigms; by exposing the taboos and showing their aversion, people started to reconsider the traditions.

Nonetheless, the Beats’ rejection of the stereotypical views of their society made them look like a group of nihilists and anti-intellectuals, for the reason that their beliefs were opposed to those of the American society. It is true that Beats were a group of artists, poets, authors and so on; yet, their intellectual capacities did not stop those who favored the conventional and broadly spread common culture and basically the academic community from criticizing them. Works such as Burroughs’ novel Naked Lunch and Ginsberg’s poem “Howl” were banned from the American houses.

The censorship was due to the authors’ use of obscene language, homosexuality and controversial themes which were highly unacceptable at that time; the Beats advocated freedom of speech; yet, such themes seemed too improper to be written about. However, the Beats’ relatively short and critical time on the spotlight of literature and culture in general was enough time for them to make a durable impact on the structure of modern American society. Perhaps the Beats did not accomplish their mission fully, but thanks to them, later on, censorship in literature started to disappear.

The American society and culture were transformed, to a large extent, by the Beats and the Hippies. Not only was the Beat Generation the path which new sub- cultures such as the Hippies, the Punks and other cultures followed. It was also a period when literature, the movie industry and the music of the American culture shifted from a conformist environment to a totally different style. Perhaps the Beats had existed long before the protest against the war occurred; yet, they somehow became engaged in the anti-war movement which appeared as a reaction to the aggression and cruelty of wars in general. Later, the Hippies joined the wave as they were growing gradually to become more than just social movements, but as a new lifestyle and a new sub-culture.

1.1.2. The Hippie Movement:

$In the midst of the Beat Generation there appeared the Hippie Movement. During the sixties, the term ‘hipster’ was used by those who were familiar with the Beats to refer to an individual and a member of an unconventional counterculture, who had also a particularly strong sense of alienation. A hipster was also referred to as a Hippie, a Bohemian, a Flower Child, etc.

This countercultural movement did not heave in sight precisely due to the Beat Generation, but rather it took a slightly different path from the one of the Beats’. The Hippies started in the mid sixties as a youth movement with American college campus students who opposed the United States’ involvement in the Vietnam War in particular, and the consumerist culture of the American society as a whole. The Hippies considered the war as unjust. However, their protest against the war did not

indicate that they were interested in politics, but rather, they were advocating nonviolence and sought for loving one another. The Hippies perceived their society’s set of rules as mainstream and too restricted. One cannot simply contradict the fact that the Beats were a core factor that granted the Hippies the road to protest. Herein, the liberation they sought for caused a major fracture between them and society which made them feel alienated. As unfit as they were seen, the Hippies strived for group belongingness and togetherness, in order to lessen the distress.

The Hippies’ desire was to be accepted as they were by their society. Still, their strong and strange desire for liberation and their unusual look put them on the margin. Despite the fact that the Hippies did not seek enforcement, their obsessive aspiration for freedom prevented them from being recognized by their society. They demanded to be accepted and to be allowed to appear to the surface. Dr. John Robert Howard states in his “The Flowering of the Hippie Movement”:

Unlike political revolutionaries, they attempted no seizure of power. Rather, they asked for the freedom to “do their thing,” that is, to create their own social system they assumed, implicitly, that what they created would be so joyous, so dazzling, so “groovy” that the “straight”1 would abandon his own “uptight” life and come over to

their side. (Howard 45).

Here, it appears that the Hippies had a strong belief that the people who shared some of their inclinations would join them. People’s fellowship was important to establish a larger group of people, mainly teenagers and young adults. Nevertheless, they did not fail in establishing a community. Their calling for love, peace and liberation did not stop at that point. Homosexuality, drugs and many other aspects which the Hippies advocated seemed so absurd and strange to the society that they underwent rejection and alienation. Also, experimentation with psychedelic drugs such as LSD2, Mescaline and DMT3, in addition to sex liberation and exploration began to appear. As a consequence for being rejected, the Hippies found a refuge in nature.

1 A person who does not participate in the Hippie subculture. 2 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, a hallucinogenic drug. 3 N, N-Dimethyltryptamine, a natural hallucinogenic drug.

In order to escape from the routine and to experience fantasy, the Hippies created their own culture. Obviously, it was refused by the majority for what it called for. As a result of this denial, the Hippies found themselves estranged and alienated from their own society. Perhaps what distinguishes the Hippies from the Beats is their public presence and their grouping. The Hippies emerged and withdrew in communes, whereas the Beats were smaller groups and unlike the Hippies, they worked silently and their withdrawal from society was partly solitary and individual. This puts forward the issue of alienation that the American individual experienced.

1.2. The Theme of Alienation as a Main Aspect:

Alienation is the outcome of people’s rejection to the traditional situation of a certain society, as it occurs in a form of reactions and infringements to those traditions, and may cause alteration in the society’s conditions, its lifestyle, and its culture. On this basis, alienation, as the major theme of this research paper, is to be linked to human nature since it concerns the human as an individual.

1.2.1. Human Nature in Relation to Alienation:

The conception of human nature arose first from the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He refers to the self as ‘agent’ and to the free man as ‘free agent’ who is a person who acts freely and without the constraints of higher powers, and whose actions are self-governed. Still, Rousseau insists that one must not confuse what is natural in the state of savagery to what is natural in the state of civility (Bertram 2010). Thus, for him, the nature of Man is founded upon a good, educated and cultivated self. The human nature is not to be considered as fixed; it grows and changes with time, as it is designed by means of a worldly education first, and alters under situations that occur in life second.

Since Man has always been placed among a certain group of people, a certain community, and a certain society, he is continuously influenced by his surroundings. That is to say, Man builds up his own identity by behaving according to the practices he learns through education which he shares with his people through social

interactions. Likewise, the regulations and laws that Man should respect as a citizen should come from the principles of his nature, and that includes his choices, freedom and free will. Still, to have a say in that, a Man’s self needs to be “well-designed” because it would eventually result in a harmonious atmosphere. Also, Rousseau relates obeying laws to slavery, and stresses that no individual is to command another individual. He states, “Every man having born free and master of himself, no one else may under any pretext whatever subject without his consent. To assert that the son of a slave is born a slave is to assert that he is not born a man.” (Rousseau 55). Still, the reason why we consider Rousseau’s view in human nature is because it serves in highlighting the relationship between the individual as a free agent and society that is organized by customs which, to some extent, restrict the individual’s freedom. Therefore, it is connected to human nature and human liberties.

Human nature is a sophisticated set of traits, including feelings, emotions, thinking, behavior, and so on, that Man naturally has. Its bulk is to focus on the essence of the human and what makes him a human. The human nature is what distinguishes us from the rest of creatures. Rousseau embeds this notion of human nature in his philosophy, and he does not, as some of philosophers, refute its existence. Perhaps his assumptions about the human nature are, to a certain extent, too optimistic; yet, he succeeds in associating this concept of human nature with the human as a free individual agent. The human’s life is subject to danger, all the time but this should not be an obstacle which prevent him from flourishing and moving forward. That is to say, since the human is free, and since he enjoys the free will of choice, he might choose poorly, as he might choose wisely, either ways, he is free, yet within the limits of human nature.

Rousseau’s view for alienation is, to some extent, important. He links alienation to social contract between authority and people. That is to say, what makes a person alienated from his people is the fact that he does not abide by the social contract which is set by the community and followed by the rest of the people. Perhaps Rousseau’s notion of alienation is, somehow, of a positive connotation because, for him, alienation is one’s willingly chosen remoteness from the domination of laws and regulations. He

believes that man is naturally free; hence, by following the contract, the individual would place himself under the control of the rules, and that does not serve his liberty. Furthermore, in his The Uncommitted: Alienated Youth in American Society, Kenneth Keniston, an American social psychologist, refers to the alienated people as those “who reject what they see as the dominant values, roles and institutions of their society ... In other words, alienation implies a conflict between the individual and society, against the background of the contradictory character of the system of social culture itself.” (Keniston 13). In other words, alienation is the result of the social weighty pressure which, with time, results in one’s estrangement from society.

On this principle, we attempt to link what is assessed above to Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land, through one of the most questionable character in the novel, Valentine Michael Smith. Mike, despite being a descendent of human ancestry, explores for the first time the human spirituality, politics, and sexual appeals. In other words, he discovers the human nature. As pointed out previously, Heinlein’s science fictional novel embodies the spirit of the countercultural movements spoke about before, which are based upon human liberation. This being said, one of the human liberation aspects that the novel and the literary context in which the novel took place calls for is sex glorification. A clear collision between the feature of sex and religion can be seen through the novel. Heinlein’s satire in his work stresses what he considers as flaws in the traditional way of thinking. He questions the conventional institutions that people, specifically the youth, have always accepted. Through his brilliant creativity, he touches the taboos of that time, as he intrigues the readers and makes them, somehow, more welcoming to what has always been strange.

1.2.2. Rebellion Against Conformity and the Sense of Alienation:

The traditional mindset of the fifties was a main reason behind the rebellion of countercultural movements such as the Beats and the Hippies. By the end of World War II, they decided it was high time for change. They were bothered by the American norms, so they portrayed their defiance through writing and direct opposition like protesting. The adherence to the traditional standards was seen by some non-

conformists as an interruption in the individual’s material and intellectual liberty and freedom.

Indeed, the energy of the youth was needed to be liberated. Furthermore, as Ann Charters explains this point;

By the end of the 1950s the country was experiencing of widespread radical dissent, partly as a response to the tumultuous historical events of the Cold War, with the United States’ bloody efforts to curtail the global expansion of Communism, and

partly as a reaction against self-complacent conformity at home. (Charters 2010).

The Reaction of the Beats, the Hippies and anti-war non-conformists as a whole to conservative America implied that a change was going to be made. Certainly, they were faced by society as well as the media, and they were rejected. Both the Beats and the Hippies were considered as deviant. Inasmuch as their behavior opposed the social standards, it was a sufficient reason for conservative people of higher authorities to push them away from their society. Their unsteady frustration caused by the limitations from their personal freedom was mirrored in a form of an intense sense of alienation. Starting from this point, and considering Heinlein’s Stranger, it is essential to examine the relation between the novel, which was written and published in the midst of the countercultural hit of the fifties and the sixties, and the events bespoken about previously. Heinlein started writing the novel years before the Hippie Movement appeared to the forefront. However, there is an interrelationship between the author’s philosophies depicted in his work, and the context that influenced, somehow, Heinlein. This does not deny the fact that Heinlein’s ideas were, more or less, empowered by the Beats’ ideologies.

Assuming that the above statement is correct, Heinlein’s Stranger can be said to embed the principles of the Beat Generation, in general and the Hippie phenomenon, in particular. The reason why the Beats reacted the way they did in the first place was mostly because of the materialistic nature that the people became used to, especially after the Cold War, and the Christian mindset that seemed to lessen their liberties. Subsequently, they yearned for a change; a change of the individual’s lifestyle. Therefore, their reaction was responded to by the rest of the society with a firm

rejection. At this point, and given that they were rejected, the Beats felt alienated from a milieu from which they emerged as artists with intellectual potential.

1.2.2.1. The Sense of Alienation:

Various definitions can be given to the notion of alienation. Still, we consider the ones that have a close connection to the social and cultural estrangement which, effectively, have to do with alienation. However, first, to understand this concept of varied interpretations, it is required to trace back its evolution, briefly. Before the concept had been identified as the individual’s relationship with his community and one’s natural rights, with a prominent figure such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, alienation was given a religious sense; it meant going astray from God’s light. It was also understood as the estrangement of man’s spirit from God due to committing sins. Later on, Romanticism came into sight, and the thinkers of that era implied that alienation was merely the individual’s distancing from others. In order not to create a confusion to the reader and in order to stay faithful to the aim of this research, one is ought to clarify the terms that are close in meaning to one another, which are loneliness, isolation, and the focused on theme, alienation.

Even though alienation is often connected to isolation and loneliness, the terms are in fact different. One’s exclusion from their own society causes fragments in social relations, and therefore, it causes loneliness. Still, to be lonely does not necessarily mean to be alienated and estranged from others. Rather, it means to be distant from one’s surroundings and their activities. Social isolation may be the outcome of loneliness. Still, this does not link isolation directly to alienation, for the reason that being isolated from the others can occur by choice as it can occur by circumstances, and it does not reach the point where someone is completely estranged from his milieu. Alienation is the result of the social pressures which, with time, result in one’s estrangement from society. The co-editors of Man Alone: Alienation in Modern Society point out:

“Indeed, alienation may result from the social pressure of groups, crowd or mass as David Riesman suggests in The Lonely Crowd 4. By the same token alienation should not be confused with “social disorganization”, since, ... estrangement may also result in highly organized bureaucracies. Alienation is often associated with loneliness; but again, not all lonely people are alienated.” (Josephson & Josephson 10).

This being said, the concept of alienation may differ; thus far, it is essential that we emphasize the fact that it is related to the relationship between individuals and society. Notwithstanding that alienation may cause a disorder in society, and between people and their freedom of choice. Through this research, we see that the conventions that the American society holds seem to cause a disruption in people’s liberties, and this, somehow, scratches the human nature that is based on free will. From that point of view, one can link the concept of alienation as identified above to the philosophy of

Existentialism and the theory of Liberal Humanism.

1.3. Existentialism and the Liberal Humanist Criticism:

Because Existentialism is associated with some key assumptions of Liberal Humanist approach, it is important to mention the uniqueness of man’s existence which comes together with freedom sourced from human nature. Man’s existence equals his recognition which should make sense to him, and by that, it gives meaningfulness to his life as a free individual.

1.3.1. Existentialism:

The philosophy of Existentialism was founded on the basis that humans as individuals matter most than any superior power. It emphasizes on the existence of the individual, on his freedom and on his choice. Although the notion (yet not the term) of Existentialism existed first in works of philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche and Fyodor Dostoevsky, it became well-known as a philosophy in the twentieth century by existentialist figures such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Franz Kafka, Ernest Hemingway, etc. The existentialists’ beliefs are based on a main assumption that man is not to be told how to live.

4 A sociological analysis written in 1950 by David Riesman, Nathan Glazer, and Reuel Denney. It is considered as a landmark study of the American character structure.

This philosophy rejects the idea that man is controlled by a higher authority, be it divine or not. Sartre views this notion that human is not necessarily controlled by any superior power and he believes that “existence exceeds existence.” (Galens 222). This sheds light on that man is not judged by the claims of others on him, nor are his essence and identity understood and examined solely by paralleling them to another man’s. Thus, actions of a man are not believed to be caused, by any means, by another man. Here, we consider the existentialist idea of freedom of man; that he is free to choose his action and responsible for them. Since Existentialism goes hand in hand with the notion of freedom and free choice, it highly advocates this conception, together with the idea of responsibility, for that they are among the main themes that Existentialism focuses on. The actions which every individual makes are entailed by the freedom he has. Still, this freedom is also associated with responsibility. The fact that a human is free and responsible of his actions is what makes him different from other creatures. The Scottish theologian and philosopher, John Macquarrie, asserts: “It is the exercise of freedom and the ability to shape the future that distinguishes man from all the other beings that we know on earth. It is through free and responsible decisions that man becomes authentically himself.” (Macquarrie 16).

Therefore, the free will which humans embrace is what defines their acts and it is what shapes their own lives. According to Sartre and other existentialist thinkers, man is only what makes of himself; he is responsible for his personal actions and wills. Man is believed to be born in order to give a structure to himself through experiencing and practicing freedom. Since freedom is an aspect in human nature, it is to be discovered through actions which only their maker is responsible for, man. Existentialism praises the notion of human freedom and it gives it a high position. Freedom should not be argued because it is a fact and a vital part in all humans. It is thought to be an aspect that human thrives because of, and eliminating it would lead to evil. It is what defines man’s existence, and since man did not create himself, his liberty would show him the way to experiencing life and by doing so, he is therefore making decisions and being responsible for them.

Existentialism can be said to emerge as a reaction to the previous social occurrences such as alienation. First, people started being alienated from God, then, because of the social struggles, they became alienated from society. Nevertheless, the existentialist philosophy says that it is natural for man to be a separate entity from society. Existentialists consider the notion of belongingness as a misapprehension; since man is free, he is, as a result of his decisions, condemned to be alienated from his environment. Camus’ L’étranger (The Stranger), for instance, holds the notion of alienation and estrangement where the protagonist finds himself an outcast and cannot seem to belong anywhere because of the social order. Sartre claims that when man denies the outcomes of his actions resulted from freedom, and when he lacks responsibility, there happens alienation. Nonetheless, alienation is merely the supremacy which other individual, or a group of people force on the others, willingly or unwillingly. This means that man can be alienated from society, which is the least of evils; however, he is not necessarily alienated from himself. His beliefs, liberties and principles define who he is; hence, he is and exists to embrace and grow these convictions and be influential, as long as he does not interfere in others’ freedoms.

And so, we see the existential philosophies discussed above, alienation and individual liberty in Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land. We see the estrangement of Valentine Michael Smith, the humanlike Martian, and his alienation from people from Earth. The novel embodies such notions which we discover through the plot and through some other significant characters. Moreover, through Heinlein’s science fictional literary work, it is noticed that the theme of alienation goes beyond the usual definition of alienation – that one is alienated from his society for going against the social norms. The theme also carries a conceptual image seen in the novel. Despite the fact that Mike is literarily and figuratively estranged and alienated from the others who do not share his convictions, his liberal spirit which is rooted from his nature is a factor that makes confusion in the story.

1.3.2. The Liberal Humanist Approach:

Liberal Humanism is a Western literary criticism that was established between the thirties and the fifties, so as to focus on man and to recognize his value as a human being and as an individual. It is also concerned in man’s liberties and rights which, according to this theory, are the reason of his satisfaction in life. Liberal Humanist criticism studies the human nature of man, and it finds meaning in the text itself.

This approach holds some significant assumptions which are known as the Ten Tenets. We take into consideration the most important ones which are related to the human nature thought. Liberal Humanism regards literature as good when it carries out timelessness, successfully. It speaks to what is unchanged and persistent in human nature. It considers the human nature as unchanging. According to the liberal humanists, the human history goes through the same emotional experiences and the same situations over and over again. Also, the human being is unique because of his individuality and essence that he was born with; yet, it can be changed and developed, but it cannot be transformed. Additionally, the purpose of producing art such as literature is to disseminate the human values and to enhance life for its betterment. Liberal Humanism holds important principles. Some of which are one, human orientation. Which means that man is the center of the universe and he all what matters; everything should be valued by him. Another principle is liberty. Deciding one’s fate depends on his liberty; thus, he is to be free.

Also, Liberal Humanism is based on logic. The human’s mind and set of thoughts lead and is not lead. Tolerance is another principle in the approach. Isaiah Berlin, a British-Russian philosopher states in his essay,

The criterion of oppression is the part that I believe to be played by other human beings, directly or indirectly, with or without the intention of doing so, in frustrating my wishes. By being free in this sense I mean not being interfered with by others. The wider the area of non-interference the wider my freedom ... Every plea for civil liberties and individual fights, every protest against exploitation and humiliation, against the encroachment of public authority or the mass hypnosis of costume or organized propaganda, springs from this individualistic, and much disputed,

conception of man. (Berlin 121-123).

Since man’s thoughts are valued, every individual’s thoughts and ideas are to be valued. And last but not least, the approach considers naturalism. The human is believed to have a strong relationship with nature; it is where his ideas are inspired. For this reason, the approach of Liberal Humanism connects human to nature; and hence, to human nature, as discussed above.

Liberal theorists believe that man is born free, and shall remain free, as he possesses the will and the freedom to choose to improve himself. This concept is also known for its combination of many thoughts and philosophies so as to provide man the freedom he strives for. The liberties which this approach advocates are common factors in Liberal Humanism and are also considered as rights; a right for liberty to live freely, liberty to think freely, liberty to embrace religion freely, etc. By doing so, the individual would assert his dominance as a sole human being among society and would be recognized.

However, since we are interested in a science fictional novel, we are ought to present a brief history of science fiction, and highlight the blooming of American science fiction, particularly. By doing so, we are connecting science fiction as the genre to the concepts and the context already discussed above.

1.4. The Emergence of Science Fiction:

Science fiction can be observed to be in old works which go back to ancient history and follow the trail until it was recognized as a literary genre. In the United States, before science fiction was given a textual form, it started as a form of visual art found in cheap magazines, then was given more attention when talented American writers such as Robert Heinlein, Isaac Asimov and Arthur Clarke transformed their creativity into words as they became the leaders of science fiction; it was on their account that science fiction was shaped as a popular form of literary genre.

1.4.1. The Beginning of Science Fiction Literature:

Before science fiction became a well-known genre in the nineteenth century, there had been questions about the creation of humans, how they were being ruled, and what

they were exactly as species. By the nineteenth century, there was a clear prosperity that marked the history of humanity. With the Industrialization, people were witnessing new technologies which led to great achievements; the human capacity was being proved immense. However, tracing back the history of science fiction is not that simple, for that it is complicated and can hardly be highlighted. And so, we attempt to point out the most important landmarks of science fiction literature by acknowledging the first sparks that were an inspiration for writing science fiction.

Science fiction did not start as an established genre at first; there had been very ancient narratives which contained strange aspects which later were adopted by science fiction. Ancient narratives such as the ones of the Greek Mythology which tell the strange stories and journeys of heroic figures such as Odysseus or even Plato’s Atlantis story can be said to have the feature of strangeness found in science fiction. Also, we can see another spot of the beginning of science fictional literature in Mary Wollstonecraft Shelly’s Frankenstein (1818) for instance, in H. G. Wells’ The War of the Worlds (1898) or in Edgar Allan Poe’s works in general. Despite the fact that Shelly and Poe’s works are not exactly considered as science fiction, but rather Gothic texts, one can say that such works raised some questions in terms of what is beyond the human being’s environment, and whether humans are the only creatures on this planet.

Another example of an early spot of science fiction literature can be found in the French author, Jules Verne’s nineteenth century novel, Voyage au centre de la Terre (1864), (in English, Journey to the Center of the Earth). In most of his works, Verne infers the technological development of his time and extends that information through a futuristic view. Science fiction started simple and less sophisticated than it is nowadays; especially that it went beyond mere textual adventures told by heroes, as it developed to a large extent thanks to the movie industry. However, we take into consideration the Western science fiction literature, and more specifically the American science fiction as we give attention to its development as a genre.

In order to facilitate tracing back how science fiction grew as a literary genre in the United States, it is important to explain and understand what it is first. Science fiction proposes a set of ideas which are based on theories about alternative lifestyles; it speculates new worlds and new ways of life achieved by the technological enhancements. The lifestyles that science fiction suggests come from a futuristic view of the world which makes science fiction genre unique. Science fiction is associated with what it is called speculative fiction. The latter includes unrealistic and fantastic elements within its scope; elements that do not exist in real life, and cannot be physically obtained.

1.4.2 The Flowering of the American Science Fiction:

Initially, speculative fiction took the place of science fiction; before science fiction was given the name, speculative fiction was the trend. Also, speculative fiction was mostly attributed to Robert Heinlein because the writer was known for expressing his independence from the traditional way of writing and thinking in his outstanding works such as Double Star (1956), Starship Troopers (1959), and The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress (1966). Indeed, science fiction as an established genre was popularized during his professional life, the sixties. Science fiction was not recognized as a genre in the United States until the era of the twentieth century. Still, one cannot deny the fact that some works of prior authors from the nineteenth century were actually writing science fiction, and tackling some of its major themes such as testing new technologies.

One novel can be said to have stressed on the themes of science fiction is the American author, Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Birthmark (1843). The short story might seem classic literature, since the writer is known to use the traditional style of writing as he seems to be attached to the past. Briefly, the novel tells the story of a scientist who becomes obsessed with removing his wife’s physical defect on her face, which is a birthmark. Although he succeeds in removing it, the wife eventually dies at the table of surgery. Thus, the story can be classified as science fiction because, not only it

focuses on Hawthorne’s typical dramatic style, but it also emphasizes on the scientific and technological side which is found mostly in science fiction.

In the United States, and more specifically in the twenties, science fiction stories were written in Pulp Magazines5 before they were published in a form of books. More than a decade later, the prominent American science fiction author, John Wood Campbell became the editor of Astounding Science Fiction magazine. Being one of the firsts to lead the science fiction genre in the United States, he helped shaping the careers of other well-known science fiction writers, some of those writers were the Big Three, Robert Heinlein, Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke and others. During Campbell’s time as a major figure in science fiction literature, American science fiction blossomed between the late thirties and the mid forties. It was an era known as the Golden Age of Science Fiction. Basically, the science fiction stories written in the magazine had the intention of exploring the future of science, and suggesting original ideas of new technologies. Years later, there was a clear emergence of a new subgenre in science fiction known as Space Opera. Space Opera deals with space warfare and plot. The subgenre appeared in the fifties; that period of time knew space activities (the first artificial satellite sent to the orbit), and those activities continued until today, and greatly developed; an excellent example can be illustrated is the NASA operating Apollo mission in 1969 by sending the first man, Neil A. Armstrong, to land on the moon,. Hence, the genre began to become more popular among the audience, and people of the science fiction community were excited to see the fantasies of the Golden Age happening. All of this occurred thanks to its pioneers who were skilled enough and did not fail in playing a huge role in arising science fiction genre.

However, in the twenties, and before the Astounding Science Fiction magazine was published, the iconic science fiction Amazing Stories magazine was launched by Hugo Gernsback in 1926. In fact, it was the first magazine in the United States of America dedicated to science fiction stories only. Undeniably, the magazine was the

5 Cheap fiction magazines published between the 1800’s to the 50’s which contained stories of fantasy, science fiction, adventures, etc.

first inspiration source to delineate the subgenre of Pulp Fiction. Gernsback initiated the magazine so as to combine entertainment and leisure with education. He believed that science fiction could effectively be educational and fun at the same time, and by that, the audience would learn and enjoy reading the magazine. He asserted that “not only do these amazing tales make tremendously interesting reading – they are also always instructive.” Despite the fact that the audience’s interest in the magazine had slightly diminished after Gernsback was no longer the owner of the magazine, he had an impact on science fiction. Thanks to him, the publishing industry of science fiction grew as it generated more and more works made by authors who are still praised until at the present day. The field of science fiction was gradually but clearly burgeoning as it developed a strong and immense fandom. At first, Amazing Stories contained reprints of old works of national and international science fiction authors from different times such as the ones of Verne, Wells, and Poe. Three years after the magazine was launched, Gernsback left it to be led by William Sloane, the author of the famous science fiction-horror novel, To Walk the Night (1937).

Under his supervision, Amazing Stories magazine started being challenged by the already mentioned science fiction magazine, Astounding Science Fiction. Before Campbell took the lead in the editing, the magazine was first published by Pulp Fiction writer, William Clayton, and edited by Harry Bates who is mostly known for his science fiction story Farewell to the Master (1940), which was, together with most of the works mentioned, adapted by the movie industry and turned into a well-known film (The Day the Earth Stood Still). Years later, in the mid sixties, Damon Knight, a science fiction author and critic founded a worldwide organization for science fiction writers, and he gave it the name of Science Fiction Writers of America, Inc. The organization is still present and active until nowadays and is led by the puppeteer, Mary Robinette Kowal. Gernsback being the first to bring science fiction to life, the finest science fiction works were and are still given the Hugo Award – an annual literary award of science fiction and fantasy named after him – and his Amazing Stories magazine was nominated three times in the seventies for best science fiction magazine.

American science fiction’s range enlarged. It went from a single form of speculative fiction, to a whole genre with subgenres. Its types then varied from hard science fiction to soft science fiction and from realistic science fiction to unrealistic science fiction. And so, because he was an aeronautical engineer, Heinlein – together with other science fiction writers, who were also engineers and physicists such as Asimov and Clarke – was known to be affiliated to hard science fiction. The latter, usually, sheds lights on technology examination, its effects on the environment or setting, and mysticism, as it gives less attention to the characters; nevertheless, this does not dismiss the importance of the characters in the stories, but rather, the focus is mostly on the technologies and new environment that the authors create. Again, hard science fiction authors tend to generate a set of new technologies inspired by the technologies of their time. By that, they are inclined to have a futuristic view; they imagine possible worlds which are prevailed by either a dystopian or utopian futures. On the other hand, soft science fiction does not give that much attention to technology development. However, it is a theme that is found in hard science fiction. The American science fiction author, Ursula K. Le Guin’s The Left Hand of Darkness (1969), or even Shelly’s Frankenstein can be considered as soft science fiction, because again, this type of science fiction, just like the other type, questions and speculates the future. Owing to the creativity and writing skills of the writers, science fiction is somewhat more realistic than it appears to be. Through the fantastic events, and through the supernatural creatures that are obviously unreal, it can be investigated that, in fact, science fiction keeps the readers close to reality, yet under the lights of unreal fantasy and fiction. Hence, this association of science fiction with reality is an aspect that is to some extent neglected because it is confused to mere fiction, and nothing more. Science fiction is undoubtedly a source of entertainment; nevertheless, one cannot simply deny the fact that science fiction can portray reality, yet with a strange touch.

At length, even though science fiction was not a recognized genre at first, but rather a style, it saw a beam of light in the United States later, and was revived. The growth of science fiction did not cease at literature’s range, it took another path, the

Movie Industry. Hollywood and 20th Century Fox gave and are still giving science fiction a great deal of focus in movies such as Star Wars, The War of the World, The Time Machine, and many other films which are based on the writings of most of the mentioned writers above. American science fiction, slowly but successfully, went beyond mere entertainment as it was not centered only around new science, superheroes or strange creatures in space. The unrealistic and fantastic features of American science fiction are, to a certain extent, a depiction of reality hidden between the lines, and this is what is wished to be proven in this research.

To encapsulate the whole chapter, the Beats and the Hippies were mostly frustrated by the conventional American society, mainly after the Second World War and the Vietnam War that shaped the 1954’s. The war had a huge impact on the American society after it was defeated economically and militarily. The war was costly. America was no longer as invincible as it had always been known. By the end of the mid sixties, and despite the fact that most American people were in favor of the American policy in Vietnam, a liberal minority such as the Beats and the Hippies, spoke up and gave their opinion regarding the matter; they expressed their opposition to the United States’ involvement in the war, and they showed that through manifestations and through art. Taking the context into consideration, we have linked it to science fiction as well as we have highlighted the history of science fiction. Therefore, now that the context is discussed and the philosophy of Existentialism, the approach of Liberal Humanism, and the theme of alienations are clarified, we can associate the principles of each criticism to the ones of the Beats and the Hippies according to the Heinlein‘s science fiction, in general, and Stranger in a Stranger Land, in particular.

Chapter Two: Stranger: A Reality Portraying Novel

Probably more than it seems to be, science fiction is undeniably an eminent representation of the American culture. The uniqueness of the American literary artifact embedded in science fiction can be said to be the vital element that shapes American science fiction. Since the heyday magazine era that the United States knew, we can say that the American science fiction genre rose progressively, as it surpassed being simple literature with elements of fantasy intended for the entertainment of the youth to become an amusing prose from which human culture can be interpreted and deduced. Due to its insight, American science fiction’s relationship with human culture and human reality is evident. Since the genre draws attention to the scientific and technological development, it implicitly questions the future technologies in relation to their affect on humans which can result in possible changes to the individual’s thinking, and therefore, to a whole society’s worldview. Also, American science fiction writers have always questioned and, to some extent, challenged the social values which appeared to be too traditional and conventional. So in this case, we take into consideration one of the most skilled American science fiction writers, Robert Anson Heinlein, who, somehow, revolutionized his libertarian philosophies and made use of the American science fiction characteristics mentioned, through his masterpiece, Stranger in a Strange Land, which seems to “antagonize” and confront the mainstream America of the sixties.

2.1. Science Fiction and the American Culture:

It is undeniable that the American literature mirrors its society and culture. American science fiction, in particular, follows that tradition, as it reflects reality and gives it a futuristic lifelike image, too. Perhaps science fiction was not given enough attention when it started as a genre; given that it was appealing, essentially, to juveniles.

2.1.1. The American Style Used in Writing Science Fiction:

Through Heinlein’s Stranger, we see that science fiction is an inseparable part of American literature, as science fiction influences American literature and vice versa. And it is as important as the other literary genres for the reason that it can say a lot

about reality, which we can assume by observing the human’s inclinations towards science, technology, speculations about the future, fascination, and social conformity against liberation, which we will see in this study case.

American science fiction altered its form which was initially based on mere Pulp Fiction for the youth’s amusement, and became an analytically distinct literary genre. American science fiction writers have changed their writing style, yet not their subject matter. That is to say, by keeping the fantastic and strange features that science fiction is distinguished with, science fiction writers have changed their attitude by displaying the conditions of their society and manifesting human predicament using the literary aspects such as setting, plot, and characters. In other words, science fiction writers have had a tendency to use science fiction so as to exploit social change related to the present into the future. Accordingly, Robert Heinlein seemed to manage in showing and combining the strangeness of science fiction with the social occurrences of his time. In his essay, “Science Fiction: Its Nature, Faults and Virtues”, Heinlein gives a definition to science fiction in relation to its aptitude for portraying reality, so he describes it as “realistic speculation about possible future events based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world, post and present, and one through understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method.” (Heinlein 270).

According to Heinlein, science fiction should be given its attention that it deserves for the reason that it is more than just an escapist genre meant for temporal leisure. Indeed, science fiction was needed to grow and change its formula in order to survive. Stories about extraterrestrial creatures from space, gigantic space rocket ships, and weird planets in outer space would no longer be trendy, and people, among who were the youth, would lose interest. Therefore science fiction writers were required to deliver their creativity to the adult world while keeping hold of these strange features of science fiction. Also, the Yugoslav critic, Darko Survin developed a concept which he called the Cognitive Estrangement. The latter is a critical approach devoted for science fiction – it emphasizes on analyzing science fiction – in which Survin explains that science fiction, with all of its characteristics, puts forward some new paradigms to see the human society. According to his concept, science and fiction go hand in hand,

despite the clear contradiction in the terms. Still, according to Survin, there is no such thing as “reality fiction” but rather, “realistic fiction” and science fiction can be classified in the second category, for it delivers a literature which seems real although it is fictional. He comes in between those who claim that science fiction is a mere escapist and unrealistic literature which comes as a distraction of the serious, and those who believe that science fiction is an allegorical portrait of reality which is based on the human’s explorations and observations. And so, Survin says that it is neither an escapist attempt from reality, nor a description of it, because for him good science fiction should not fail in entertaining the reader, as it should not fail in depicting what is difficult to perceive. Therefore, it is rather “a developed oxymoron, a realistic irreality.”

Heinlein delivered his genius masterwork of the sixties, Stranger in a Strange Land, as he took his fiction for juveniles to a level that surpassed the usual. He challenged the American traditional culture of his time by means of his unique literature. Showing up as a counterculture master, Heinlein integrated social issues that were current in a critical period of time, the sixties, so as to tackle the phenomena which were, and still are, controversial. Heinlein was not the only American science fiction writer to render what was going on in society. It was however, a pattern of the American science fiction which the authors pioneering the genre used. The reason why science fiction is popular by the American authors is because it is an adequate and plausible way to reveal the evils and goods of reality, yet behind the distinctive elements of science fiction such as strangeness, anticipation and speculation, that make of it realistic fiction more than mere fantasy. That is to say, science fiction is not just art based on imagination; it is a reflection of reality.

American science fiction writers give ‘fantasy’ a definition that is different from what it is usually known as. In American science fiction, fantasy is not a set of imaginary thoughts which cannot possibly be achieved, science fiction, therefore, is fiction based on imaginary thoughts which are possible to happen. In other words, science fiction is not fantasy in the meaning of mere unattainable imaginations; on the contrary, it gives sense and a logical parallel to reality. Nevertheless, this does not

mean that the American science fiction writers condemn what fantasy is, but they rather give it a different definition which serves their aim in writing science fiction. Science fiction is typically reshaped by an American pattern so as to enable the writers to write freely because more than any other form of fiction, science fiction embodies verisimilitude as it is not restrained by the burden of the literary rules in relation to themes; it is real, accurate and faithful to its own rules. John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath (1936), for instance, can be said to be a fictional work that can be put in the category of imaginary but possible fiction for its realistic nature. Moreover, American science fiction associates fantasy to realistic fiction; that is to say, since fantasy is not exactly reality, it is, however, with its exotic and strange elements, related to the real world, and that link appears after digging into the symbolic aspects which American science fiction writers employ.

Just as any other literary genre, science fiction, despite its distinct qualities of futurism, exoticism and fantasy, delineates life and reality, as life and reality are sometimes considered by some as a reflection of fiction. To explain more, fiction, as a form of art, can influence the people’s points of view, and that would affect on their lifestyles. Fiction can be seen as a vehicle for change. In fact, a good amount of research and studies have been made on this matter; that fiction can influence people’s lives and can shape cultures. Because fiction teaches lessons, it can therefore stimulate and inspire the readers’ minds. It is also the case of many thinkers across history where we see that fiction inspired those thinkers to furnish their ideologies which had a massive impact on worldviews (Wise, 0:14 - 4:29). Hence, engaging in reading fiction can motivate our mindsets as well as our attitudes. The Irish poet, Oscar Wilde, links reality to art, as he says that “nature mirrors art.” The case of science fiction is often the same. Also, Jules Verne claims that “anything one man can imagine, other men can make real,” i.e., it is somewhat possible for a human creation consisted as art and literature to be made into the real. The real could be the result of the human speculations and imaginations. However, science fiction holds a bigger responsibility for it needs more than mere imaginations which anyone can contribute with. Science fiction, therefore, requires great knowledge, greater imagination and excellent

speculation. American science fiction believes in change and in the fact that the human being needs to change in order to survive. In many of the American science fiction masterworks, including the ones of Heinlein, one is not strange nor a stranger, despite the fact being called so due to certain reasons, as long as he is part of a world he is contributing in building, unless he abandons his intellect and intelligence and adopts a sheeplike behavior and follows blindly.

The mainstream is the issue number one which science Fiction is obsessed with The mainstream has always been a part of the American culture, which is why science fiction writers were, somehow, pushed to deal with such matter; it was necessary to unveil what people could not see, and expose the danger of staticity which would not lead anywhere ahead, but only pushes backwards. For that reason, science fiction examines the infections and extremes of a given society and extracts its problems. Science fiction can be said to be an assertive form of literature that deals with topics which other forms of fiction cannot tackle. Heinlein challenges the mainstream as he explains how the so-called “stranger” is not really a stranger, and shows this sort of need for change in his novel, Stranger in a Strange Land.

Subsequently, the realistic speculation in the American science fiction which obviously extrapolates from the present to the future – from what is happening to what might happen in the future – is hardly believed to be real because some would consider the future as unreal or beyond reach. However, one can say that science fiction is, to a certain extent, prophetic; that is to say, through literature, science fiction writers endeavor to craft a parallel and lifelike portrait of reality using futuristic style which differs from some writer to others. Therefore, American science fiction has become an effective method of implying and showing the possibility of social and cultural change. Moreover, in the course of their science fictional writings, American authors have always believed in scientific progress and the man’s dominance over science; Man is the controller of science and he is its crafter. The writers of the genre, like Heinlein, with the intention of portraying reality in a fantastic fictional way, successfully, made science fiction an influential tool for entertainment and instruction.

2.2. Heinlein’s Speculative Fiction Portraying the Present:

Although Heinlein was not exactly a futurologist6, his anticipations and concerns about the future were more than just speculations about the future. They were, in fact, his voice that echoed his disagreement to some mainstream issues regarding the American culture and society in the fifties and sixties, and this appears in his Stranger in a Strange Land.

2.2.1. Robert Heinlein’s Style in Writing Stranger:

.The crucial speculations he suggested in a groundbreaking work such as Stranger in a Strange Land are portrayed mainly in the most significant round characters of the novel, Valentine Michael Smith and Jubal Harshaw. In addition, the plot and the setting of the story can be said to have a role to play in representing the futuristic thoughts of Heinlein. At this point, we shall embark in shedding light on the characters mentioned above.

First, both characters in the novel can be classified according to their ideologies and upbringing. Michael can be regarded as the alien non-conformist whose struggle is seen through the attempts he makes to fit into his people. The major ideologies that Michael maintains juxtapose the ones of the Hippies. The similarities between Michael and an American Hippie of the sixties are seen in the sense of alienation, the strong promotion for liberation, and individualism. Hence, Michael is featured in the novel as an advocate for the Hippies who, somehow, speaks on their behalf. Besides, Jubal Harshaw is regarded as an artist and a radical liberal individual, who strongly advocates individual liberties as he is also, alongside Michael, a non-conformist. Jubal’s ideologies can be paralleled with the ones of the Beat Generation. The connection between Jubal and an American Beatnik of the fifties is that they are both individuals who thrive for fulfilling their goal which is realizing their vision of humans as individuals should be free. Also, Michael and Jubal play a role as vehicles in the novel; they highlight the events and the plot of the story. Both characters seem to have

6 From ‘futurology’ which is based on scientific studies that predict the future developments in technology, science and society.

an impact on each other and on the people surrounding them, and this shed light on the fact that Michael and Jubal as non-conformists and individual-liberties advocates are an evidence of Heinlein’s exposition to the reality of the American traditional culture in the fifties and the sixties.

Valentine Michael Smith, or simply Mike, appears in the story as the only baby survivor of the first human expedition sent by a spaceship called, the Envoy, to planet Mars, after the decease of the entire crew, among whom were his parents (Dr. Ward and Dr. Mary Jane Lyle Smith). Mike later is rescued and raised by the native inhabitants of the planet, the Martians. Mike adapts very well with the adoptive nature, and acquires the Martian traits such as telepathy and telekinesis; he learns how to read minds and how to control items with his mind, as well as he adopts the Martian culture. However, the most interesting events would start to take place when Michael is found on planet Mars by a second crew of astronauts, who travel there in order to investigate the death of the first crew. Consequently, he is brought back to Earth, and it is at this point where his journey begins. Michael, now a grown up man, is clueless of his earthlings. He does not seem to ‘grok’7 his surroundings, although he observes that he looks like the people he is looking at; he looks like a human, for his physiology is humanlike, yet he does not think like one, for he grasps a very different way of thinking and understanding. Nonetheless, the physical comparison is not as critical as the other differences which he carries.

His Martian cultural training is totally unusual and different from the human culture and the norms of human society. For instance, on Mars, public nudity is completely ordinary and it is not even an issue, on the other hand, on Earth, it is unusual and highly frowned upon. Another example, Martians tend to end the lives of creatures of their kind if they sense “wrongness” in them and they do not consider that as murder; nonetheless, on Earth, killing people is a sin and a crime with severe consequences. The process of Michael’s learning of the human language, traditions, norm and culture takes place in most parts of novel. But, once he starts to understand

7 Coined by Robert Heinlein in his Stranger in a Strange Land (1961), and later added to Webster and Oxford dictionaries. The word means “to drink” and figuratively “to understand thoroughly.”

how the humans think and act, and once he studies their behavior towards each other, he starts displaying his Martian skills and culture, which, again, conflict with the ones of the humans, and that would create an issue. Michael is referred to as “an intelligent creature with the ancestry of a man, but he is more Martian than man . . . He thinks like a Martian, feels like a Martian. He’s been brought up by a race which has nothing in common with us . . . he is a man by ancestry, a Martian by environment.” (Stranger 7). The writer uses Michael’s unique background to compare and contrasts the traditional and conservative culture of the humans. This juxtaposition also sheds light on the conventional norms in America in the sixties which were being exposed by the emerging sub-cultures. Perhaps what is most intriguing about Mike is not exactly his fantastic Martian mannerism, but rather, his relationship with his fellow humans who seem close to him. Such keen relationship can be seen with another captivating character, Jubal Harshaw, who welcomes Michael to his house.

Jubal Harshaw is featured in the story as a doctor, a lawyer, an author and a philosopher who enjoys life and lives it at its fullest, as he is the wisest of the characters. Harshaw is a man who is outspoken and somehow uncontrollable. He occupies most of the story, probably more than the other characters. Indeed, most parts of the novel are dedicated to Harshaw, in which he displays his ideologies and advocation for individualism and individual liberty. Some critics would agree on that Jubal Harshaw is actually a substitute for Heinlein himself, owing to the reciprocal beliefs that the character and the writer embrace. Harshaw believes of the freedom of the individual, but at the same time he believes that people are only responsible for themselves; they should seek for their own happiness. Still, this does not mean that he does not believe in helping the others, because, as mentioned above, he helps Mike and provides a shelter for him which is his own house, or as he calls it, the “Freedom Hall.” (85). He also helps other characters; yet, only when he desires to and not when he is asked for help.

Harshaw advocates individual freedom, and for that reason, he does not seem to agree with the rules set by the government which limit the people’s liberty, “. . . he is so rugged and individualist that he would fight the whole Federation with just a pocket

knife if it suited him.” (42). In fact, it can be noticed that throughout the novel, Harshaw spends his time trying to reinforce the laws as he attempts many times to lawyer up on the government, so as to guarantee Michael’s liberties; since he is a lawyer, he takes the necessary procedures to protect Michael’s rights. Harshaw also appears as incapable of being distracted when it comes to the pursuit of freedom. It is all what he concentrates on. Nevertheless, his favoritism for freedom enlarges and becomes a serious matter; it eventually leads to establishing a new religion lead by Michael; since he believes in Mike, he encourages him to prove that his beliefs are based on the truth, “if you’ve got the truth you can demonstrate it. Talking doesn’t prove it. Show people.” (424). Furthermore, Harshaw’s relationship with Mike grows gradually; it can be paralleled to father-son relationship, and since Michael has absolutely no knowledge about human culture, Harshaw takes this opportunity to teach Michael the human activities, language and society, in general. And so does Michael; he teaches Harshaw the Martian culture in return, so it seems like a cultural exchange. Ultimately, the two characters influence one another; Michael teaches Harshaw about the Martian costumes and standards as he loosens Harshaw’s rigid attitudes. On the other hand, Harshaw teaches Michael the human lifestyle and inspires him to create his own cult as Mike interprets Harshaw’s words according to his Martian way of thinking. In other words, the environment that Harshaw provides in his house expedites Mike’s process of learning, as well as his progress. This is linked to the events occurring in the novel; hence, the plot of the novel for the reason that it puts together the text and the context of the story.

Perhaps what is most intriguing about the plot of the novel is not the fact that Michael is of Martian upbringing, but it is the foreshadowing that Heinlein makes in his novel in relation to culture conflict and Michael’s dilemma. To begin with, the story is set in the future, yet Heinlein does not concentrate on the technological development seen in most science fictional novels, he instead sheds the light on the cultural and moral structures of the American society in the future. He imagines a future for America which still represents the conservative and traditional way of living of the sixties, and that can be seen when observing Michael’s relationship with the

other characters in Jubal’s house, as well as him being confronted by other people who reject his worldview. Besides, the religious part in the novel hints to the writer’s view on religion, we can see that Heinlein gives religion a whole new perspective; it is believed to be a combination of his own thinking of religion merged in the Martian and human cultures in the novel. That is to say, his creation to the Church of All Worlds in the novel points at the fact that he seemed to be a devout believer in individual liberty, in which activities such as sharing everything with each other, including money and food, as well as offering their bodies for sexual interactions, are done freely and at no cost. However, such activities are done in an inner level of the Church and are secret. The Church is structured as so to provide an overflowing fullness of personal freedom and should not be restricted. The Church is established after Michael builds a developed and personal Martian understanding to what wrong and good are.

Therefore, the theme of religion plays a massive role in highlighting Heinlein’s view on it which is embedded in his novel and mirrored by the protagonist, Michael. It also draws attention to how religion is seen in the sixties, in a time and place that were prevailed by conformity and conservatism. Perhaps the plot sounds like a typical science fiction storyline because it tells the story of a human being raised on Mars and returned to Earth with superpowers that cannot be real, physically. However, although Mike is a human, he struggles to understand the human nature and their social mores which are strange to him. Still gradually, he shares his Martian beliefs in love, grokking and water sharing which are alien to the humans, too. Nevertheless, the story does not stop at the attractive fantasy that Heinlein delivers; it holds everything mentioned and more.

Likewise, time (the future), and space (The United States) are important elements in the novel which play an immense role in shaping the critical issues and themes that Heinlein embeds. In terms of time, the events occur in the future, when the Third World War had already taken place, and that is seen an instance where the second starship, the Champion, travelled to Mars, “A manned expedition would have been mounted had not World War III intervened. But war and delay resulted in a

stronger expedition than that of the lost of Envoy.” (5). However, Heinlein gives his story a futuristic atmosphere according to the speculations he made during the fifties in which he spent more than a decade writing his work. He includes some aspects such as space exploration which is, in fact, a satirical touch from Heinlein to emphasize the space rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union in the late fifties. The actual historical events say that the Soviet Union took the lead and was the first to be in space as it launched the satellite Sputnik, whereas the United States seemed to be left behind and it started doubting its technological superiority. Hence, in most of his science fictional works, Heinlein satirizes the events as he creates a contendership between the nations over planet Mars which, at that time, seemed very distant and somehow unreachable. Nevertheless, the technological speculations and development are not exactly what matter; what matters most, however, is how Heinlein constructs the setting of the novel by means of time and space in order to link the themes together. Despite the fact that the novel takes place in the future, Heinlein imagines a future that is still in hold of social, religious and cultural conservative mores of the United Stated. The latter embodied a traditional moral code in the fifties and the sixties which seemed to be irrefutable.

Somehow, we can consider the use of the future as a tool to reminisce the past; the future is a parallel of the past. Also, the fifties are often known for economic prosperity. The prosperous fifties were long awaited, especially after the drastic period of the Second World War and the Great Depression of the thirties. Therefore, there was a need for conformity for the reason that it provided a stable material life. However, the younger generations, like the Beats and the Hippies, came and they seemed to have different apprehensions from the ones of the older generations. That is to say, although the younger generations were not deprived from material wealth like their parents were, they sought to live differently, and as a result, they created sub- cultures which contradicted the traditional culture, and they were seen as non- conformists. We shed the light on the prior statements in order to explain why and how conformity is portrayed in Stranger in a Strange Land. In other words, the intention is

to provide relevant details, so as to elucidate the conflict between the conservative society and non-conformist character, Mike, and also to link the text to the context.

Taking space and place into consideration, we can look into two instances which are Bethesda Medical Center and Jubal Harshaw’s house. First, when Michael is brought to Earth, he is directly put in the Bethesda Medical Center, and “transferred into a hydraulic bed, and protected from outside contact.” (6). It is true that Michael seems weak in the first part of the novel because his body is not yet accustomed to the new environment, which is why he is brought to the Center. However, that is only the superficial intention, because the hidden intention behind keeping him in Bethesda is not only to take care of his health, but also to keep him as a laboratory mouse. Also, Michael’s presence in the hospital resembles the one of a prisoner in a cell. Indeed, Michael is not allowed to leave the hospital, the authorities would not release him and they would say that he needs medical supervision. Based on that assertion, the Center is seen as a symbol of confinement in which Michael’s liberties are retrained. Nonetheless, Jubal’s Freedom Hall is has a contrasting atmosphere in the novel. On the one hand, Bethesda Medical Center is seen as a prison, and on the other hand Jubal’s house is a space where his guests, including Mike, are to act freely, yet under his supervision. Hence, Jubal’s house can be looked at as a symbol of freedom.

Furthermore, one interpretation can say that Heinlein suggests a hopeful view of the future. Such optimism can be seen in various examples such as humans adapting to Mike’s Martian mores and the establishment of Mike’s Church. However, another interpretation can be taken from a viewpoint of an outsider, we would come to a conclusion that Heinlein, somehow, seems to expose the restraints of the conventional society of the fifties and the sixties. American science fiction and more specifically, Heinlein’s science fiction deals with concepts in relation to the future of a contemporary society, as well as its present. As said before, Stranger in a Strange Land is a representation of the suppressed social groups’ liberties, which lead to their reaction and their emergence to sub-cultures. As discussed in the previous chapter, the restraints that those social sub-groups such as the Beats and the Hippies rendered them

alien from their own society as a result of their “deviance” from the American conservative norms.

Heinlein projects this sense of alienation through his character, Valentine Michael Smith. As already alleged above and as the title suggests, Mike is a stranger who is brought to an even stranger land, yet he is a human among people of his kind. Although he is among his own people, his strange orientation is strongly rejected by the conservative people in the novel. This parallels the crucial juncture that occurred in the sixties when the Hippies protested against mainstream America which seemed to hinder their potentials as supposedly free individuals and restrain their liberties. As a result, they ended up being rejected by larger groups of their society; although, they did not let go of their non-conformist principles. Alternatively, Michael represents the countercultural sub-groups, whose analogous advocation for excessive sexual openness, for instance, is strongly disapproved; therefore, even though his unique and strange attitude is accepted and understood by Jubal Harshaw, he is still left alienated according to the events of the story. Despite his human origins, Mike is alienated because of his beliefs; here, Heinlein’s appeal to personal liberty can be clearly detected when we see that Mike manages, to a certain extent, to induce people to join his cult. For that reason, Heinlein seems to make the wise Jubal Harshaw, a sharp-eyed character, who makes the reader reconsider looking into many aspects that are being unintentionally neglected. To illustrate, Jubal says:

Mike must learn human customs. He must take off his shoes in a mosque, wear his hat in a synagogue, and cover his nakedness when taboo requires, or our shamans will burn him for deviationism. But, child [Jill], by the myriad aspects of Ahriman, don’t

brainwash him. Make sure he is cynical about it. (106).

And so, Jubal draws attention to how important it is to respect the customs of the society, for they are necessary to create a harmonious life; however, one should not accept them unquestionably. This implies that the countercultural sub-groups were skeptical about the traditions of the American conservative society of the sixties; that is why there was a clash of cultures in reality and in Heinlein’s novel. In other words, Heinlein’s fictional characters correspond to the Hippies and the Beats, and that can

assert that Heinlein can be considered as affiliated to such non-conformist countercultural responses because of the mutual ideologies.

Finally, Heinlein’s speculative fiction holds a lot of inclinations toward change which, on his account, the human thrives for, although not all people seek the same change. Despite the fact that Heinlein was criticized for being a jingoistic owing to his tendency to the military, he was, in fact, anti-authoritarian and pro-freedom. However, because of Heinlein’s philosophical worldview, He could not just be considered as a usual artistic figure and his ideas and philosophies were far from being mere entertainment; they were so powerful that they questioned the human’s deepest tendencies and were, to some extent, instructive. Heinlein did not follow any rules in the making of his works, nor was he beholden to anyone else’s ideas, he rather followed his own path, and provided a way for others to follow instead, and that was mirrored in his literary product, Stranger in a Strange Land. As a master in the field of science fiction, Robert Heinlein seems to have successfully managed to raise questions not too many American science fiction writers have before. His philosophies, which mostly descried the human’s liberty and his individuality, were etched in his writings and, effectively, influenced other writers of his generation, as well as it influenced the fandom readers.

Heinlein used science fiction as a genre to reveal and give voice to the counterculture of the sixties. One needs to clarify the relationship between him, the Dean of Science Fiction, and his long experience in producing masterworks in the field. Heinlein managed to be an influential figure of the counterculture of the sixties, and because he was a liberal, who strongly believed in freedom and individual liberties, he faced mainstream America of his time and used his exceptional skills of writing to demonstrate his opposition through science fiction, which is showed more specifically in his masterpiece Stranger in Strange Land. Despite the fact that he claimed that his works were only meant for nothing but entertainment, Heinlein seems to deem change; therefore, he made his characters in his novels and short stories be challenging, yet change-makers. At this point, we will get into depth in the explanation and analysis of the novel to see how Heinlein uses Stranger in a Strange Land so as to

demonstrate his opposition to the upheavals of the conventional America in the sixties and celebrates the emergence of sub-cultures at that time.

Chapter Three: Mike: The Alien-Like Human in a Conventional Society

There is no surprise why the original version of Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land was censored. It was posthumously published in 1991 after his death, thanks to his wife, Virginia Heinlein who renewed the copyright. The original version of the novel used in this research does not conceal any of the critical and sensitive topics that Heinlein desired to include in his novel. On the contrary, it discloses them fully. Such hot topics were and still are seen as taboos and that would naturally create some reactions against their exposition, especially in a conservative culture such as the United States in the sixties. Nevertheless, Heinlein’s uncut version of his story was revealed later, and as we have already seen previously, it conveys the story of a human-born Martian named Valentine Michael Smith. Michael’s naïveté and childlike vision of the human culture consent to dissect the culturally radicated stances on two instances of hardly receptive themes; religion and sex. Through Mike’s character, there is an exploration to the religious criticism and the sexual discourse since they underscore Heinlein’s attitude toward such matters, which are, again, considered as taboos.

3.1. Michael’s Human and Martian Features:

Obviously, the most apparent signs of divergence in Mike’s character are his superpowers and his Martian upbringing. Needless to say, his phenomenal capacities are not the subject matter as they are least essential to undertake. What is most essential, however, is his set of ideologies about sex, women, religion, and race.

3.1.1. The Prevalent Themes of Dissimilarity:

Heinlein crafts Mike’s personality structure so sophistically that it gives an impression that he is more than a simple fictional character with superpowers. He is, instead, made as a prototype of an American Flower Child of the sixties. Michael is used as an apparatus to re-evaluate the social aspects such as traditions, religion, and sex. He is also given an innocent appearance, in an attempt from the writer to reflect what he absorbs and groks around him in as smooth and flawless manner as possible. Under that scope, Mike, with all of his unique and strange characteristics, causes serious unrest to the environment he is brought in. Here, Mike’s unique personality traits are

of key importance in the novel; hence, we underline those points in order to show the factors behind the cultural clash that occurs in the novel.

In order not to be misled by the various debatable themes implemented in the novel, we should elaborate on the most controversial themes, which are sex and religion because they are the key symbols of Mike’s peculiarity. Mike can be seen as a demonstrating tool of Heinlein’s inner thoughts about sexual openness. Mike comes to Earth and introduces his Martian “water sharing” conceptual costume. The concept created by Heinlein serves as an everlasting oath of close bonding or brotherhood. Water is a scared element on Mars because it is rare and hardly found; therefore, it is hoarded and carefully used. Likewise, water is not as valuable on Earth as it is on Mars because it is easily obtained. Consequently, when Michael discovers that water is a reachable commodity, and groks its significance to earthlings, he embarks on his water sharing ritual; he offers to drink water with his brothers – both genders are referred to as brothers – so as to “grow closer” with them and he assures them his fierce loyalty. Water Sharing might be part of the Martian religious cult, yet it is still important to mention because Mike makes it equivalent to sex. However, before Mike came to Earth, he had no idea of what sex was. Martians “don’t even have sex” (7). Sex becomes important to Mike only he groks its worth to humans. He observes that, just as laughter, sex makes people happy. He understands that sex is a way of connection, and should take a higher place in the human culture because he senses goodness in it. Thus, sex becomes equivalent to drinking water, and drinking water becomes equivalent to spirituality. In other words, sex is a sacred spiritual activity that is ought to be practiced more often in order to get closer to one another and to get closer to God of mankind, and to the Old Ones8.

However, for Mike, sex should not be done through the human traditional way: marriage. On the contrary, it should be done in the Martian way; to be open to anyone at any time and place. In other words, sex is not to be prevented from anyone, because “sex should be a means of happiness.” (366). What is striking here is how Mike manages to implant his Martian ideologies about sex in the ones of Earth people. For

8 Mike’s Martian ancestors. 42

him, being offered water is a privilege, and he considers it as being given life. As stated above, water and sex are alike; hence, they are signs of an eternal intimate union which brings nothing but peace, affection, and love. When Gillian Boardman, Mike’s nurse, teaches him how to bathe, he feels warm fondness because he is offered sacred water, and although he still does not grok the human language entirely, he understands the word ‘water’ and defines it as a call for affection.

The words were in his human vocabulary and Smith did as ordered, emotion shaking him. This brother wanted him to place his whole body in the water of life! No such honor had ever come to him; to the best of his knowledge no one had ever been offered

such a privilege. (64).

Here, assuming that sex is a way of understanding God throughout the nature of humans, we can say that Mike’s conception about sex parallels the countercultural conceptions of sex in the sixties manifested by the Hippies. The Hippies expressed their opposition to confinement, and they wanted to spread peace through sexual ingenuousness. And so, Heinlein’s appeal to demonstrate the tendencies of the non- conformist movement seems to take place in his novel by means of an enigmatic character such as Michael. Michael appears as a free non-conformist individual, whose mores and standards are contradictory to the norms that people are accustomed to on planet Earth, which is an example of the traditional United States of America.

Sex, however, is one major controversial theme besides others which deal with individual liberty such as traditions. Clearly, traditions and conventions take a massive place in the novel as well. As a matter of fact, all the themes in the novel, from religion to tradition, are interrelated since they can be interpreted as obvious points of contrast between Mike and other characters. The theme of tradition is, somehow, a counterpart of the theme of sex because sex is embedded in the human tradition, and it depends on how they practice it. The reason why Mike’s strange ideologies are not accepted in the first place is because they interfere in the balanced order of the human standard of living. Thus, they are highly refuted and are considered as going astray from religion and losing common sense. In the midst of his learning of the human culture, Mike, instinctively, exhibits his Martian behavior and asserts that it is all

natural, and humans should not be indecisive when it comes to caring for one another and having sex when in need, for example. Even the slightest indications of human tradition such as wearing clothes, which is completely ordinary and common, are considered as an imprisonment of the individual’s freedom to Mike. He groks, however, that wearing clothes is not a Martian modesty, yet nudism is essential between his brothers only to express fondness, and not between strangers. “He’s still grokking clothes. He groks they’re wrongness that keeps people apart––gets in the way of letting love cause them to grow closer.” (349). Therefore, Mike sees clothes as an aspect based on random individual judgments, rather than objective distinction; that is to say, it does not serve personal liberty, it rather retrains it. Subsequently, with all of his differences combined, Mike represents the propensities of a Flower Child in relation to personal liberties and freedom.

Michael is undoubtedly a controversial character. He is, in some way, the echoed voice of Heinlein. Michael is shown as the alienated individual who struggles to express his concepts without being criticized. His baby-like image and childlike state of mind make him function as blank slate to expose what should be exposed; sexuality, religion, tradition, etc. This is why Mike’s alien culture and the human culture collide and do not seem to cope, although we can sense an optimistic tone about the matter in Heinlein’s novel. Nevertheless, when Michael integrates into the human society and starts to gain knowledge of human culture, he becomes more humanlike in terms of mannerism, as he learns how to laugh, since laughter does not exist in the Martian life, “Mike threw back his head and laughed––and went on laughing, uncontrollably.” (311). Still, people around him transform to Martians, too.

Mike, you made a joke.

I didn’t mean it as a joke . . . and I can’t see it’s funny. Jill, I haven’t even been god for you––you used to laugh. I haven’t learned to laugh; instead you’ve forgotten. Instead of

my becoming human . . . you’re becoming Martian. (64).

This explains his influence on the human kind, and as discussed in the previous chapter, it explains his influence on Jubal Harshaw, for instance. Mike’s influence and divergence shape his identity as individual as well as his selfhood.

3.1.2.1. Michael’s Selfhood:

The previous instances of the Mike’s dissimilarity from the others shape his unique character. Mike is extraordinary, not because of his superhero-like potentials, but because of the special aspects that he does not share with the earthlings, which are already mentioned. His individuality is, in fact, embedded in his thorough understanding of the human nature. His journey depends on discovering himself as an individual and on discovering his identity among people who are supposedly of his kind, which eventually end up with him being recognized as a “messiah” and as a preacher. At this point, the selfhood of Mike and his distinctiveness is what makes him a critical of the strange environment he is deported to. In other words, his ignorance of the human social system would challenge the human cultural, religious, and traditional norms. Mike’s selfhood is crafted by means of his curiosity. Since he is said to be innocent and compared to an angel, he, by raising questions to whatever draws his attention about human habits, is displaying his skepticism, as he affects on the other characters, and render them cynical about their own beliefs. Mike’s inquisitiveness is eventually fulfilled through acquiring enough knowledge about the humans and their customs; however, he does not relinquish his Martian way of thinking and way of living. On the contrary, he molds his Martian patters into the ones belonging to the humans and gives shape to a new set of thoughts, which is mostly Martian.

Moreover, what makes Michael exceptional is his extraordinary capacity of grokking people holistically. In the course of Mike’s quest for his place among humans, he develops a sort of a concept that goes in accordance with the Martian and the human conceptions of shape identification. The conception of shape identification can be associated with Mike’s grokking to man. He assumes that what identifies entities is not their shape, or at least, the shape does not provide a thorough identification to the entities. What identifies a shape, however, is the grokking of the entity; that is to say, the identity of a man – who definitely has a shape – cannot simply be understood by the observing the outer figure; no matter how long you ponder, the shape will not be enough to recognize the entity. In this case, Mike thinks that both a woman and a man are men; their shape does not matter; what matters is their grokking

and their intuitive understanding for one another, and for themselves, and that makes them men. In other words, as grokked by Mike, “Shape is not man. Man is grokking.” (142), he “knew that shape was never a prime determinant; it was necessary to go beyond shape to essence in order to grok.” (151). To put it in another way, Mike sees the essence of humans when he fully understands their nature, desires, tendencies, weaknesses and strengths. Again, Mike teaches humans how to grok as Martians do, so as to satisfy their natural needs and fulfill happiness and liberty. And this is what he learns through the process of the pursuit of belongingness; grokking together and growing closer.

As a final point, we assume that Michael’s physical traits are not, at all, different from the ones of the humans. He was born a human from human parents, yet only raised by Martians (who are not given specific characteristics, yet surely are not humans). Perhaps it would have been less of a trouble for him to assimilate with the humans, if he had looked completely different; that is to say, he is seen as an alien, not because of his looks, since he looks as a regular human being, but because of his Martian education and concept of living. The uniqueness of Michael’s personality and what differentiates him from the other characters gives emphasis to the forborne collective traits between Mike and the other characters that are reputedly natural to the humans. In other words, he is represented as a social rebel, who confronts the humans’ social and cultural system, in terms of traditions, customs and also religion.

3.2. Michael’s Cult VS. The Conservative Religious Discourse:

The crisis between Mike’s culture and the earthling’s culture is not confined customs, traditions or sex. It increases much more and grows to be highly intense when religion becomes subject to question. Perhaps religion is the most significant aspect in life that gathers people and connects them together according to their religious beliefs and affiliations. For that reason, Michael founds a church that is based on his Martian upbringing. However, his church is faced by a contrasting religious institution, the Fosterites, which is conservative.

3.2.2. The Church of All Worlds and the Fosterites:

When Mike starts to become a constituent part in the new environment, he integrates his Martian set of thoughts, which is mostly spiritual, and develops it in a form of a religious institution, named the Church of All Worlds, which holds his Martian cult, together with the human religious leanings. Still, the issue stands in the fact that the human’s religion is contradictory to Mike’s. On the one hand, the human’s religious discourse as implemented in the novel is conservative, but on the other hand, Mike’s cult is non-conformist, as he himself is. However Mike’s religion becomes the alternative counterpart, eventually, as it amplifies the cultural clash between the two sides, Mike’s side and the human’s side.

Mike’s view on religion is, with no doubt, strange and to a large extent complicated. Because of Mike’s Martian incapacity of lying, he is unable to organize his thoughts about human religion, and he cannot find a way that the humans understand to extract what is to be believed about each religion; Christianity, Islam, Judaism, or any other form of religion. Therefore, due to his little knowledge of the human languages, way of grokking, and behavior, he attempts to implant his Martian mind inside the human mind. He sees that his Martian ideologies are sufficient enough to provide a transcendental set of thoughts which the humans are genuinely in need for. In other words, he groks wrongness in the diversity of religions because, for Mike, they are confusing, and intricate. Mike believes that, as sex, religion should serve the human and not hold back his liberties. In order for a complete grokking and for a diligent embracement of religion, the latter should be as simple and as pleasurable as drinking and sharing water, and it should not be thorny. Consequently, Mike establishes his own cult so as to gather all religious beliefs into one cult, his cult, as he groks that doing so would grant happiness and inner satisfaction to his water brothers with whom he shares water. Here, Michael founds the Church of All Worlds in which he peaches his Martian spiritualities, yet only in Martian language. The Church contains of “Nests” that gather a group of water brothers. The brothers are therefore granted total freedom to do as they please, yet under Mike’s eye and protection. Mike’s instructions about the Martian cult are based on teaching the dedicated

followers how to acquire the supernatural skills he has, for the reason that those skills are embedded in the Martian way of grokking; thus, in order to grok, one needs to master such skills.

However, Mike’s establishment of the church can also be interpreted as a symbol of conformism. Since the church is meant for all mankind and all worlds, it, somehow, means that Michael’s has set one religious pattern that is needed to be followed by everyone. This resembles, to some extent, the case of the so-called liberals who seem to believe that their worldview is based on reason, and the others’ views are not; hence, their perceptive, in some way, corresponds to fascism. This may not be exactly the case of Mike’s founding of the church because Michael does not seem to be an authoritarian; yet, there are some indications that assert that the Church of All Worlds does not adhere to liberalism fully.

Heinlein first introduces the Church of All Worlds and gives it a fundamental concept which, since Stranger in a Strange Land was published, is still being studied and being taken as a religious reference. Its importance lies in the effective impact on the readers that Heinlein manages to convey, and in its theoretical aspects and practices taught by Michael.

Robert A. Heinlein wrote Stranger in a Strange Land over a thirteen-year old period and the novel is permeated with the ideas that he valuated and subscribed to (self- reliance, sexual freedom, the Elect who are superior to the masses, philosophical discussions of art and politics, and much more). Heinlein did not anticipate the rapturous reception that Stranger would receive . . . The turbulent 1960’s, in which secularization, individualism and a move away from traditional values (including

adherence to Christianity) accelerated, was fertile ground Heinlein’s novel. (Cusack 89).

The complexity of the religious image in the novel does not stop at the Church of All Worlds and its conceptions.

Indeed, Heinlein introduces another church; Bishop Digby’s Fosterite Church of the New Revelation. The Fosterite Church is founded upon financial bases of rich people who support the Church. One of its main practices is sex. Every member who serves the Church is sexually active, including the clergy men. The Fosterite Church is strict and, to some extent, authoritarian; it punishes whoever opposes it severely.

Heinlein uses a satirical tone to describe the Fosterite Church. He seems to expose the consumerist society of America by weighting on the excessive indulgences of the Fosterite religion, which consists of praising the sponsors of the Church, drinking and gambling. The satire used in the novel is to criticize, somehow, the American society of the fifties and the sixties which encouraged the organized religion, in particular. The Church seems to be contradictory to Mike’s Church of All Worlds, although both Churches encourage sexual conduct; “Foster had in common with every great religious leader of the planet two traits: he had an extremely magnetic personality, and sexually he did not fall near the human norm.” (289). Besides, as the previous quote suggests, Heinlein classifies groups into the superiors and the inferiors. In this case, and taking into consideration the religious aspect in the novel, we can observe that Mike’s Church represents the higher religious part, whereas the Fosterite Church takes the lower religious part. This explains the Dionysian and Apollonian notions characterized in the novel; the undisciplined Dionysian Fosterite Church and the harmonious Apollonian Church of All Worlds. Nevertheless, the concept of the two Churches that Heinlein develops becomes more perplexing at the point when Michael is present at the Fosterite Church. Despite of the divergence of the two Churches, he senses a sentiment of belongingness, although “No detail was Martian, all was wildly different, yet he grokked a growing-closer as real as water ceremony, in numbers and intensity that he had never met outside of his own nest.” (249). This suggests that Mike’s point of view about religion is somehow pure because he appears to solely seek for the goodness in any religion, even the Fosterites. To Mike, it is not important what religion one embraces, as long as it grants him self-contentment and happiness provided by water sharing, growing closer, and grokking the essence of one’s spiritual beliefs.

After all, the spiritual Martian mind that drives Michael serves as the corresponding religious aspect that the humans genuinely follow. Through Mike’s Martian conception about religion, he attempts to let out the essential nature that should be embedded in the humans as it is embedded in him, in relation to the spiritual and the religious inclinations of the humans. In other words, through observing Michael’s grokking of the human spiritualities which are molded in the Martian ones,

it can be assumed that all religious forms are not supposed to be so complex; on the contrary, love and closer bondings should be spread by religion, and this is Mike’s mission to accomplish, especially when he becomes recognized as a “messiah” and not only the Man from Mars.

3.1.2.1. Michael’s Messiah Figure:

After Michael has founded his own Martian style Church on Earth, his role in the story took a higher level. He is no longer the innocent child who finds the simplest human activities such as wearing clothes or tying shoe-laces challenging. He is, at this point in the novel, a mature but pure “man” whose Martian ideologies are taken into serious consideration by his brothers and followers. At this point, Mike is recognized as a Messiah and his Martian spiritual preaches become the religious discourse which his water brothers follow. Since Mike is given an image of a prophet, his grokking of the notion of God, the way he interprets it, and how he crafts it is developed into a Martian pattern he preaches to mankind.

First and foremost, one needs to draw attention to the title that Heinlein gives his Novel. The title Stranger in a Strange Land is an excerpt from the Bible. In the Exodus, “22 Zipporah gave birth to a son, and Moses named him Gershom9, saying, ‘I have become a stranger in a strange land.” 10 (Exodus 2: 22). And Michael is a stranger in a strange land. The verse refers to Moses’ journey when he fled from Egypt. However, what is important to mention is the reason behind Heinlein’s use of such biblical reference. It is to shed lights on the similarities between Michael’s character in the novel, and Moses, as a prophet sent by a higher authority (God), according to the Bible, and more specifically, the Old Testament. Like Moses took flight from Egypt, Michael is driven away from his homeland, Mars. And both Moses and Michael find themselves attempting to liberate their people; Moses liberates his people from tyranny and oppression, and Michael liberates his people from social constraints. On the one hand, Moses frees the enslaved Jews in Egypt, and on the other hand, Michael frees his

9 A Hebrew name which means the sojourner. It also refers to being a foreigner. 10 BibleGateway.com,www.biblegateway.com/versions/New-International-Versions-NIV-Bible/.

water brothers from the social norms of the conservative Western culture. Also, each one has miraculous capacities to undertake their mission. Both Moses and Michael aim at taking their people to the Promised Land where they can find peace. However, eventually, neither lives long to see what the seeds they planted grow.

In this premise, we see that Heinlein gave Michael a prophet-like image. The previous instances are only few examples from the novel where Michael is given an image of a prophet; he is also compared to Jesus Christ. Like Jesus, Michael attempts to provide his people with a different paradigm to consider life, and gives them the real meaning of what it is to be human. However, unlike Jesus and Moses who are Messengers charged with a mission from a higher divine power, Michael is not sent by God; he is considered as a “messiah” in the story, only because of his Martian upbringing that is unusual to humans. Moreover, the character’s name, Valentine Michael Smith, is a reference to Saint Valentine, the symbolic patron of love. Accordingly, Michael’s name is an indication of Saint Valentine’s beliefs, which are based on spreading love and peace. Also, Mike’s second name, Michael, is a reference to the Archangel Michael, who have defeated Satan after the latter revolts against God in Judeo-Christianity, as well as its meaning ‘who is like God’, in English. Therefore, to associate the mentioned allusions, Michael, the character, is referred to as the man who is sent to Earth in order to set a new era; he is given the image of the Christ. Lastly, Michael’s last name, Smith, is a symbol to his unique status among his brothers; he symbolizes every man. “. . . he is God––all that groks. Mike is a man like the rest of us. A superior man. . .” (390). Thus, although he is in a higher state than his people, every man is Michael, and Michael is godlike, only if they follow his teachings. In this case, and as a result of their beliefs, Jesus, Saint Valentine, and Michael end up executed and seen as martyrs.

Mike’s grokking notion is the main aspect that distinguishes him from the other characters The term ‘grok’ is not only a word Heinlein invented to introduce the Martian language in his Stranger in a Strange Land. It has a much complicated connotation. Michael, who is now sublimated to a Messiah, expresses this notion of grokking in his own Martian way. First, grokking is a sign of a deep understanding and

deeper empathy between Mike and his water brothers. As mentioned before, water- sharing is so significant in order for grokking. This is why grokking is compatible to growing-closer, which is performed through sharing water. In other words, grokking one another means assimilating two individuals into one; the purpose is absorbing the essence of the individual and merging with it, in order to be it and understand it. Also, grokking comes together with understanding the Martian language as thoroughly as possible, because to speak Martian means to grok in Martian and to think in Martian. To put it differently, ‘Grok’ means the following:

’fear’, it means ‘love,’ it means ‘hate’––proper hate, for by the Martian ‘map’ you cannot hate anything unless you grok it, understand it so thoroughly that you merge with it and it merges with you––then you can hate. . . ‘Grok’ means to understand so thoroughly that the observer becomes a part of the observed––to merge, blend, intermarry, lose identity in group experience. (213-214).

Therefore, grokking grants a very intimate union between two individuals; two water brothers, for instance, which brings them closer. However, grokking thoroughly in Martian is only Michael’s unique attribute; his water brothers find it challenging to grok; hitherto, by following Mike’s instructions, they try to grok as thoroughly as possible, yet it is still impossible for them “ to think in Martian (other than the way Mike learned it).” (213). At this point, Michael is exalted to a Messiah because of his uniqueness in grokking. Michael has an extraordinary capacity of understanding instinctively, whereas his brothers do not, since they are only humans and not Martians. This suggests that Michael is seen as a “godlike” man, and as a result for his atypical grokking conception, he is ennobled to a higher level: that of a Messiah.

Michael’s Martian peculiarity in grokking forms his preaches in the Church of All Worlds. According to his grokking of the world, he believes that every entity is God. In other words, to grok is to understand very painstakingly every element which surrounds a man. Also, since language is a very fundamental aspect for grokking, he understands that the word ‘God’ refers to divinity and the latter should be a part of every entity. Michael sees that God is in every individual, every body, every shape, and every figure. His omnitheism and pantheism – the belief that God is in every entity, and the belief that everything is God – is what allows him to grok wholly and

perfectly, whereas his water brothers cannot understand as he does. Michael, constantly, tells his brothers that they are God, as he refers to that as ‘Thou art God,’ (You are God), “Thou art God . . . That which groks. Ann is God. I am God. The happy grasses are God. . . Jill is God. All shaping and making and creating together––” (144). This expression overwhelms the whole novel. It suggests that the idea of God should be simple, and everyone is honored to be a god. For Mike, being a god means reaching the highest level of grokking; at least, that what Mike’s eye sees in his water bothers, specifically, and which his water brothers fail to grok. In a less complicated way, Michael’s notion of God is reaching simplicity in the midst of complexity. Again, Michael sees that the divergence in the human religions is nonsensical, for the reason that variance results in uncertainty. Therefore, he deems that his Martian cult grants certainty, by grokking every entity around. The aspects mentioned above are additional instances of Heinlein use of religious references.

To conclude, because of Michael’s grokking capacity set in his Church of All Worlds, he is given a defied embodiment of a Messiah. Although his water brothers do not seem to grasp the grokking idea fully, they regard him as a guide and a holy mentor with the purpose of reaching self-satisfaction, as he teaches them to. Michael and the prophets have some points in common and that is seen in the elevation of Mike from the Man of Mars to the Messiah. However, Mike’s mysticism and his Martian spiritual beliefs of grokking face some reactions from the people who reject his Martian upbringing, and this leads to the ending of the novel that finishes up with his “death.”

3.2. The Reaction to Michael’s Disruption:

The interactions which Michael becomes engaged in observed in the attempts he makes with the intention of changing society, and his people’s perspective of seeing life result, eventually, in his death. In this section, and based on the assertion above, we will consider analyzing Michael’s “death” by looking into what it symbolizes in the novel.

3.2.2. The Death of Michael:

Stranger in a Strange Land follows Michael’s journey from his birth until his death. From the events that go back when Mike is brought to Earth, he has been the center of attention and all the focus has been on him, since. However, his story as an alien observer of the humans’ lifestyle does not seem to be as problematical as when he starts interacting with the individuals in the midst of a society, whose conventions contradict with Michael’s Martian ideologies.

When we reach the fifth part of the novel, ‘His Happy Destiny’, we first assume that Heinlein hints to a happy ending for Michael. Nevertheless, it is not, as it appears later through reading the novel, so simple to be said that it is a fortunate dénouement. At the outset, after a long discussion between Jubal and Mike about the latter’s desire for meeting the people who seem to reject him, Jubal’s words had given Mike confidence11, ‘I grok the fullness, . . . Waiting is ended.” (424). However, Michael’s life on Earth comes to an end when he is confronted by an outrageous and furious group of people, policemen, news reporters and mobs, who greatly disgrace his Martian mindset, and who completely refuse the idea of changing their traditional society, which Michael attempted to make. The crowd is calling Michael’s name, and Michael seems to be ecstatic to meet his beloved people. Jubal senses that the dense crowd is plotting for some mischievous deed; however, Michael’s excitement to meet the crowd is higher than Jubal’s worries. The confrontation takes place in front of the Church of All Worlds. Michael is accused for being a “fake messiah” (427), an “antichrist” (428), and a “Blasphemer” (429). And so, Michael finally goes out and meets the crowd whom he considers as water brothers, nonetheless. At this point, Michael strips off his clothes; he makes his clothes vanish. By doing so, Michael draws attention to his body; his intention behind that act is for the crowd to understand that he is a human as they are, and he is their brother, and “a son of man.” (428). The clash becomes harshly intense. The crowd damns Michael as he is thrown rocks all over his body. Despite being attacked cruelly, Michael keeps smiling as he invites the

11 See page 34.

angry crowd to drink water and repent. In the midst of the assault, Michael declares that he his words should be listened to for he is telling the ultimate truth:

In fighting me, you fight yourself . . . for Thou art God . . . and I am God . . . and all that groks is god––there is no other. . . Hear the Truth. You need not hate, you need not fight, you need not fear. I offer you the water of life––and you may share it whenever

you so will . . . and walk in peace and love and happiness together. (429).

The crowd did not cease throwing rocks at his face, and shooting him with guns on his arms and all his body. Michael keeps smiling and declaring that he loves the crowd calling them his brothers, although his body is bleeding incessantly. Michael does not stop preaching them through the massacre he is in. Ultimately, the mobs set him and his Church on fire, and Michael takes his last breath uttering “Thou art God” (430) as he smiles, then he discorporates.

Michael’s death causes a traumatic impact on his water brothers, especially on Jubal, who considers Michael as his own son. Indeed, we see that Jubal is close to committing suicide, as he grieves his godson’s death, “My son, oh my son! Would that I had died for thee! He had so much to live for . . . he gave them the Truth. Or a piece of the Truth. And who is interested in the Truth?” (431). The quote indicates that when Michael’s body was in his possession, he had a desire to spread love and peace among his people and he also declared that when he was being murdered. The quote also points at the parallel between Michael and Jesus Christ. According to the Bible, Jesus, “the Son of Man,” (Matthew 10:45) died for the sins that his people committed, and Michael died for not being believed; he died because of lack of faith in him. However, Jubal realizes that Michael is not dead. It is true that Michael discorporated, yet he did not die. In fact, Michael’s essence is etched in the core of his water brothers. One of his water brothers asserts that “Mike is not dead. How can he be dead when no one can be killed? Nor can he ever be away from us who have already grokked him. Thou art God.” (431). Indeed, Michael’s teachings about grokking thrive. Michael is now absorbed within his followers, as his followers are absorbed by his soul. The body that Michael was in is merely a mold and an instrument for grokking, and this idea can be attached with idea of shape identification discussed in the previous parts of the

research.12 We can also link the idea of Mike’s revival in the hearts of his followers with a verse in the Bible when Jesus is said to live again after he dies, “For this end Christ died and lived again that He might be Lord both of the dead and the living.” (Romans 14:9). The verse designates the notion of life after death and the revival; yet, we will look into this notion in the next part. On this basis, Michael’s death corresponds to martyrdom. Since Michael parallels a Messiah, his death represents his revival in the afterlife.

Moreover, even though Michael’s body is severely damaged, it remains still as Michael’s soul leaves it. Still, in order to grok Michael more thoroughly, his water brothers should eat what is left of his body. Indeed, cannibalism is a Martian concept which takes an important and an immense part in the grokking tradition. Michael had taught his brothers about cannibalism in his Martian culture. Martians are cannibals; nevertheless, cannibalism does not correspond to murder. The latter is a human concept that does not exist in the Martian culture. In other words, cannibalism is not murder. It is; however, a ritual to grok; after one Martian dies, his brothers eat his flesh to grok him. Martians have the grokking ability to die when they decide to; that is to say, when they grok everything in Mars, they are consulted to be eaten by their own will. The Martians’ death is “as easily as you close your eyes––no violence, no illness, not even an overdose of sleeping pills.” (127). The statement explains the feature of simplicity in the Martian culture which Michael indicates in his religion; the simplicity of understanding the notion of God. Cannibalism is the paralleled representation for the human’s tradition of burying and burning the dead. Cannibalism refers to grokking thoroughly, and that cannot be achieved if the dead are buried or burnt; they cannot be grokked by their brothers and consequently they disappear from their essence. And for that reason, Michael’s brothers eat him instead of burying him. He, thus, dies as a Martian. Perhaps Michael experiences the human sin of murder when he was killed, instead of deciding for himself when to die; nevertheless, his brothers give him the chance to be eaten and die as his Martian ancestors died. In the midst of the cannibal

12 See page 45.

ceremony, Michael’s water brothers forget about their bitter sadness; the more they eat his body parts, the more they rejoice and grow closer, and grok together,

Jubal found, to his surprise, that although he was overflowing with emotion, it was a calm happiness that did not bring tears. What a quaint and gawky puppy his son had been when he saw him . . . so eager to please, so naïve to in his little mistakes––. (434).

Now that Michael is thoroughly grokked, his brothers are granted his Martian abilities and state of mind. He is a part of them, as they are a part of him; by means of the granted Martian superpowers, they can communicate with Michael, and vice versa. Although Michael can be reached by mind only, he is, somehow, still alive. In the last pages of the novel, we see that Michael is still present, as well as he interacts with his brothers through dialogues. Michael’s presence points at the life after death notion. He is now revived in the afterlife.

3.2.3. Michael in the Afterlife:

Once more, we draw attention to the title of the last part of the novel, ‘His Happy Destiny.’ Throughout the title, we can deduce that Michael’s death is, in fact, a hopeful new beginning. His death symbolizes his revival in the aftermath. If we take the way Michael dies into consideration, we will realize, again, that Michael resembles Jesus Christ.

To elaborate, Michael does not die as a regular man; he discorporates, and Jesus, for he is the Son of God according to the Bible, is lifted to His Father; to illustrate, “And I, if I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all men to myself.” (John 12:32). This parallels the Biblical reference that Jesus is alive as he is in the afterlife; hence, this resembles, to a large extent, Michael’s death which hints that Michael is alive in the afterlife. Moreover, we can only read through the last few pages of the novel that Michael is still present, and that can be interpreted that Mike is in the afterlife. Although the pages are a few, it remains a strong hint that denotes Michael’s almost everlasting existence.

As a matter of fact, Michael’s revival is an allegory for the reincarnation of Archangel Michael as it is directly referred in the last lines of the novel. In other words, the novel includes an open ending where we can see Michael communicating with his followers who died before him. Still, what is essential to mention is that despite Michael’s death and disappearance from life, he still desires to save humanity and to change its traditions in which he groks wrongness, “. . .Mike pushed back his halo and got to work. He could see a lot of changes he wanted to make––.” (438). That is to say, Michael’s mission on Earth stopped at his death, which is again, the case of most prophets and messiahs; however, his presence in the afterlife suggests an optimistic sense that his Martian ideologies did not die with him, they remain eternal through his brothers; and through Jubal Harshaw, who writes a book based on Valentine Michael Smith’s life, which he entitles it, ‘A Martian Named Smith.’13

As a final point, Michael’s assimilation with a strange society causes him his life. Not only is he alienated from society for his strange Martian culture, he is also completely rejected and rendered dead. Michael is confronted and, eventually, murdered because he is seen as social rebel and an imposter. However, his death only keeps him distant from the unwelcoming society but it does not eradicate his Martian ideologies. His ideas do not die with him, and we can see that through Jubal’s book which is inspired by Michael’s journey on Earth. We can say that the intention behind including Jubal’s book is to emphasize on the fact that Michael is, indeed, still between his brothers and his dignified Martian concepts are to be spread universally.

The prevailing themes of religion, sex, tradition, etc, show that through Valentine Michael Smith’s Martian characteristics, he, as a free individual, symbolizes the non-conformist individuals of the sixties. Indeed, Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land is given the title of ‘the Bible of the Hippies.’ The set of taboos in this novel serves as an entertaining read, and at the same time, a set of preaches which the Hippies sincerely advocated because of the sense of alienation they related to when they read Michael’s story. Nevertheless, on the account of Heinlein, the novel’s ending

13 Metafiction of the original title for the novel which Heinlein changed later to Stranger in a Strange Land.

is open to the readers’ imagination, and it is not meant to provide answers, but to raise questions about every aspect of life. Still, the gap that Heinlein left at the end of the novel can be seen as sign of breaking from the traditions, and that is almost certain why the sub-cultural groups like the Hippies and the Beatniks considered the novel as the Gospel which they always carried with them.

Conclusion

This paper had examined the issue of alienation that an American individual who advocates human liberties seems to face in Heinlein’s science fictional masterpiece, Stranger in a Stranger Land. It sheds light on the Journey of Valentine Michael Smith, the humanlike Martian on Earth. This research aims at revealing how far science fiction can depict the reality of the American alienated individuals in the fifties and the sixties, who gave voice to their advocacy for individual freedom. In the attempt of giving an answer to the research question, there was a need to employ some approaches and theories, as well as studying one central character, Michael.

The research is divided to three chapters, and each chapter is linked to the main theme of alienation, to the Liberal Humanist Approach and to Existentialism. As the title of the first chapter suggests “Background and Theoretical Framework: Counterculture, Existentialism and Science Fiction”, the focus is therefore on the context behind which the novel was written. It had explored the countercultural movements of the sixties (the Beat Generation and the Hippie Movements), had given a concise history of the emergence science fiction literature and on the development of the American science fiction as a genre, it had introduced the key theme of alienation that is discussed in the whole research paper, and finally, it had linked all the elements mentioned to Liberal Humanism and to Existentialism for they should have assisted in the explanation of individualism and liberties which are related to the human; and therefore, to the theme of alienation.

The second chapter entitled “Stranger: A Reality Portraying Novel” aimed first at explaining the American style in writing science fiction. It also had showed Robert Heinlein’s style in terms of his use in writing of science fiction, and more specifically Stranger in a Strange Land. As the title of this chapter suggests, the purpose was to observe through Heinlein’s science fictional novel the extent that science fiction reaches in giving a lifelike image of reality and how much influence can science fiction have on reality. The chapter had detailed the uniqueness of American science fiction in relation to its reliability in portraying reality.

The third chapter is given the title of “Mike: The Alien-Like Human in a Conventional Society.” A great deal of analysis is found in this chapter. In fact, it had gathered both previous chapters together, in the attempt to make a logical link for the whole research paper, and to unify the work. Fundamentally, this chapter had concentrated on Valentine Michael Smith, who is considered as the non-conformist and alienated American individual in a strange environment to him. Therefore, in linking the first chapter which had mainly dealt with the context and the second chapter which had looked more into the text, the result ended up in connecting the text to the context. Moreover, by tracing the journey of the main character in the novel, we will have followed the story from the initial situation to the resolution.

To sum up, Stranger in a Strange Land is mostly narrated from a lens of an objective outsider who is Valentine Michael Smith. Therefore, Heinlein seems to expose the status quo of the United States in the fifties and the sixties through Michael. This can be the reason behind considering the novel as the “Gospel of the Hippies” for it appeals to the cultural sub-groups who suffered from an intense sense of alienation in the midst of their conservative society and who found the novel influential as it seemed to reveal their contempt. The fifties and the sixties were times of questioning of America’s traditional mores. With the rise of the Beats and the Hippies, there seemed to be a rejection of the conventional society; thus, a reaction was needed to be unleashed. Implicitly, Heinlein appears to criticize the American culture of his time. As a matter of fact, the novel was so influential in its time that the people who read it and were fond of it extracted its main concepts, mostly the religious ones, and founded a new religion and church based on the concepts of the Church of All Worlds. The church is real and can be found in Santa Cruz, California, and is given the name of Neo-Pagan Church. Hence, this research paper deduces that science fiction is, indeed, a literary tool that portrays reality, yet in a form of fantastic literature which cannot be found in other genre of literature; this highlights the uniqueness of science fiction in depicting and influencing reality.

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Parkin-Speer, Dian. “ Extrapolation.” Robert A. Heinlein: The Novelist as Preacher 20.3 (1979): 214 – 222.

Westfahl, Gary. "The Popular Tradition of Science Fiction Criticism, 1926 - 1980." Science Fiction Studies, a History of Science Fiction Criticism 26.2 (1999): 187 – 212. Web. .

Williams, Frank S. "Alienation of Youth as Reflected in the Hippie Movement.” Alienation and the Hippie Movement (n.d.): 251 – 263.

Zhang, Younghong. "International Journal of Humanities and Social Science." On the Beat Generation 3.17 (2013).

Websites:

Appleyard, Bryan. “Why Futurologists Are Always Wrong – and Why We Should Be Sceptical of Techno-Utopians” 10 April 2014. 30 September 2019, .

Bertram, Christopher. “Jean Jacques Rousseau”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), 27 September 2010, 15 May 2019, .

Dickinson, Daniel. “What is One to Make of Robert A. Heinlein?” 1986. 13 January 2019 .

Hunt, Joan S. “Stranger in a Strange Land.” 9 December 2019 16 November 2006. .

New American Standard Bible. “Knowing Jesus.” 1995. 2 August 2019 .

New International Versions. 5 August 2019. .

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. “The Social Contract and Discourses [1761].” 1923. 10 January 2019 .

Samuelson, David. “The Martian Named Smith: Critical perspectives on Robert A. Heinlein’s Stranger in a Strange Land.” 22 March 2002. 20 January 2019 .

Suvin, David. “Estrangement and Cognition.” 24 November 2014. 4 Juin 2019 .

Walton, Jon. “Smug the Messiah: Robert A. Heinlein's Stranger in a Strange Land”. 10 December 2010. 12 July 2019 .

Yudkowsky, Eliezer. “The Logical Fallacy of Generalization from Fictional Evidence.” 17 November 2009. 05 October 2019 .

Youtube Videos:

NHC Education Program. Science Fiction and Contemporary American Culture.” Youtube.com, 27 Mar. 2019, .

NHC Education Program. “Youth Movements of the 60’s.” Youtube.com, 30 Apr. 2019, .

Wise, Jessica. TED-Ed, “How Fiction Can Change Reality.” Youtube.com, 23 Aug. 2012, .

Audio Lecture:

Wolfe, Gary K. “How Great Science Fiction Works”. The Great Courses. Narrated by Wolfe, Gary K. Audible, 2016. Audio Lecture.