Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies

Volume 17 Article 9

January 2004

A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Religiosity

Mathew N. Schmalz

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Recommended Citation Schmalz, Mathew N. (2004) "A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity," Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies: Vol. 17, Article 9. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1318

The Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies is a publication of the Society for Hindu-Christian Studies. The digital version is made available by Digital Commons @ Butler University. For questions about the Journal or the Society, please contact [email protected]. For more information about Digital Commons @ Butler University, please contact [email protected]. Schmalz: A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity

1'1' ~ I, 1\ Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity

Mathew N. Schmalz "College of the Holy Cross

IN his now classic novel Untouchable, who' is portrayed often in terms of Mulk Raj Anand portrays the life of a stereotypical images of the Untouchable as sweeper named Bakha. 1 Bakha works dark and physically powerful. Perhaps for cleaning latrines at the Cantonment, imitates Anand as well, Untouchable experience was the British "tommies" in his attire, and a cipher that did not easily lend itself to negotiates the' differing spaces in which his understanding. Untouchability is defined. After an incident Within the academic study of South during which Bakha inadvertently touches a Asia, no issue remains more contested than

caste Hindu in the street, Bakha wanders the issue of caste and Untouchability. Most I I through town. During his wanderings, he recently, of course, the Western emphasis ,I first meets a Christian missionary who upon hierarchy in the study of has speaks almost incomprehensibly about been brought under withering academic fire. Jesus. Bakha then listens to a speech by For example, ina searing review essay in 'I Mahatma Gandhi and while he fmds the the American Ethnologist, Arjun Appadurai Mahatma's vision compelling, his mind takes to task a whole corpus of scholarship turns to reflecting upon how flush toilets that draws its inspiration from Louis might be the real answer "to his plight. As Dumont's homo hierarchicus. 2 Appadurai Anand portrays him, Bakha the sweeper is argues, that instead of representing a new neither Hindu nor can he somehow become approach to the study of South Asia, a Christian, for as an Untouchable he DumonCs work and its derivatives represent remains trapped in a wholly other spatial instead a swan song for Orientalist domain. In his introduction to Untouchable, approaches in which India civilization is E. M. Forrester observes that only a understood to be the ultimate counter-type to Kshatriya like Anand could write about the West. Of course, there is no question Untouchability, since an Untouchable would that much of Western scD.olarship on India , be too overcome with rage, while a foreigner uses caste as an essentialising marker of could not begin to understand the depths of Indianness in ways that are much more Untouchable degradation. But more often ' closely related to Western problematics than than not, Bakha emerges asa distant figure to Indian ones,. Nonetheless, to ignore the

Mathew N Schmalz received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago in History ofReligions. He is presently an Edward Bennett Williams Fellow in the Department ofReligious Studies at the College of the Holy Cross where he has also served as Director ofAsian Studies. He has published in the areas of in North India, American Catholicism, and Modern Religious Movements.

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th existence of caste and most particularly the of the 19 century and his etlmographic experience of Untouchables themselves is to observations were later published in both overcompensate for the undeniable French and English. Dubois focuses his fetishization of hierarchy in much Western remarks on the restrictions placed upon the scholarship on South Asia. In this Tamil Parayer (Paraiyer) caste, from whose bibliographic essay, I wish to overview and name he suggests the European word place into dialogue a range of works on "pariah" is derived. Dubois does not delve Untouchability that take the religious vision into any detail with regard to Parayer of Untouchables serioJlsly. As the historian practices and instead puts f01ih a rather John Webster has remarked, caste is aggressive argument that Parayer and other generally independent of religiosity, for both Untouchable castes suffer conditions far Hindu and Christian members of worse than slaves in the Western world. Untouchable castes are often treated as Dubois serially diagrams the various equally inferior. 3 It is within this context that restrictions attendant upon Parayer members the term "Dalit," meaning "oppressed" or and moves to relate these strictures to those "broken," takes its form. What unifies the faced by other Untouchable castes of wide range of work on Dalit experience and cobblers and leatherworkers. Dubois religiosity is an acknowledgement of caste surmises that the "degraded classes" must as a construct that is not bound to a single have originally been composed of "all religious community or institution. disreputable individuals of different classes of society, who, on account of various General Works on Untouchability offenses, had forfeited their right to associate with respectable men.,,7 Once In his study, The Pastor to , John separated from society, these "disreputable A Webster sympathetically presents individuals" formed a class apart. In interactions between Protestant pastors and Dubois's view; these original character traits Dalit parishioners as a means for fostering continue in the Untouchable castes he renewed pastoral approaches to ministry.4 observed who, since they have no stake in By contrast, James Freeman's account of the society, give themselves over to numerous life of the Indian Untouchable Muli cannot ' "vices. ,,8 resist judging Untouchable life and Dubois observes that Untouchables particularly the machinations ofMuli - from , seem resigned to theIr state, and this is a whom Freeman goes to great lengths to point made in: another early and significant distance himself.5 What both these works treatment of Untouchable life, The Chamars indicate is that underlying many academic by George Briggs. Briggs was also a treatments of Dalit life there is an alternation missionary, and although this perspective between judgment and solidarity: most certainly colors his presentation, his Oscillation between }lleSe two poles of ethnographic observations of the Chamar perspective has also shaped the range of caste of leatherworkers in Uttar Pradesh are historical works on Untouchability as a still unmatched in their breadth. Like whole. Dubois, Briggs emphasizes the restrictions applied to Chamar life such as denial of access to communal water sources and Early Works 9 The first extensive ethnographic treatment confinement to colonies outside of villages. of Untouchables and Untouchable life can But Briggs also describes in great detail be found in Abbe Dubois's, Hindu Manners, elements of what could be called Chamar Customs and Ceremonies.6 Dubois was a religious life. F or example, Briggs talks missionary who lived in the Madras about the significance of the exorcist (ojha) Presidency and the Deccan in the first part who would divine various afflictions and

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol17/iss1/9 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1318 2 Schmalz: A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity 57

who would also be one of the principle moved from stances of hierarchical mediators between Chamras and the higher judgment to a scholarly commitment to castes for whom he would often nerform advancing Dalit concerns. services. Briggs also introduces the significant figures in the Chamar religious Dalit Hindu Religiosity imagination, such as the niguni poets Raidas, Shivnarayan and Kabir. But in even The relationship between Untouchables and stronger terms than Dubois, Briggs portrays is complex, especially given the Untouchables as gullible, superstitious, and quite obvious fact that Hinduism itself is a intemperate. bitterly contested construct. There are a variety of historical treatments of Hierarchy, Politics and Conversion Untouchable religiosity, most notably More recent works on Untouchability have Saurabh Dube's discussion of Ghasidas and moved away from the judgmental posture the Satnamis in Untouchable Pasts. 15 But assumed by Dubois and Briggs. Bernard . ethnography remains the method that is Cohen conducted a study of a Chamar often most sensitive not only to the community in Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the permutations of Untouchable life but also to 1950s that discussed how Untouchables how scholarship discursively constructs negotiated the hierarchical standards of the Untouchability itself society surrounding them - challenging them and sometimes appropriating them. IO In a Parasuram and the Ramnamis controversial work, Michael Moffat One of the most sensitive and discussed how a South Indian community of ethnographically rich discussions of Untouchables replicated hierarchical" Untouchable life- can be found in Ramdas distinctions.ll Moffat argued that his data Lamb's Rapt in the Name: The Ramnamis, suggested an underlying consensus Ramnam and Untouchable Religion in surrounding hierarchy in Indian society. Central India. 16 An American academic in Robert Deliege has vigorously contested addition to being Ramnami himself, Lamb is Moffat's treatment of Untouchability by able to ~strike an effective balance between emphasizing the diversity and complexity of his insider and outsider status. The Untouchable lifeY Such a view would also Ramnamis were founded in the 19th century be taken by Andre Beteille who place1> his by a Chamar named Parasuram in discussion of Untouchable life within his Charasurua in the Chhattisgarh region. argument against the current reservation When a young man,Parasuram was afflicted systenl which sees little or no distinction by a disease many thought to be leprosy. between Scheduled and Backward Castes.13 Parasuram's home was visited by a holyman Within Beteille's work in particular, there is named Ramdev who instructed him that all> an implicit concem with how scholarship on his desires would be fulfilled by reading the Untouchability can advance Dalit political Ramcharitmanas and repeating the agenda. Such a concern also .animates Ramnam. When he awoke in the morning, historical treatments of Dalit Christian Parasuram saw words "Ram Ram" movements. Works by missionaries such as imprinted on his chest. 17 Bishop J. W. Pickett and John C. B. Webster Parasuram began to speak of his situate their reflections within a concern for experience and he attracted followers who how Christianity has or has not, and would join him to read the Ramcharitmanas, potentially can, aid the development of sing bhajans and repeat the Ramnam. At broader understandings of Dalitsolidarity.14 the time of Parasuram's death in 1920 the' As scholarship on Untouchability has grown Ramnam sama} had approximately 20,000 and developed itself, approaches have thus members and was continuing to grow.

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Because the Ramnamis were largely from Hindu notions of 'public service' (jana seva) Untouchable castes, they were often bitterly and the Indian refonners notion of resented by caste Hindus for their repetition 'humanism' (manava dharma).,,19 In of the divine name. But in the years since describing and subdividing Untouchable Parasuram's death, the Ramnamis have asceticism into "worldly" and "protesting" developed their own distinctive religious modes, Khare is able to diagram a complex life. In addition to their' devotion to the series of moves by which Chamars of Rarrmam and the Manas, the Ramnamis Lucknows effectively diversify and broaden practice the tattooing of the name Ram over the social field to create new spaces for self­ their bodies in a practice called "ankit." expression and agency. In his conclusion Additionally, they wear shawls marked by Khare moves to engage post-modern theory, the Ramnam and often sport crowns with particularly the work of Jacques Derrida. peacock feathers. When Lamb presents Khare draws upon Derrida's understanding biographical sketches of six Ramnamis, of "difference" to describe how Chamars what emerges is a richly layered notion of transfonn the ground of caste Hindu embodiment in which these Untouchables discourse through "differing" and represent and rework through their bodies a "deferring" devices of speech, writing and new system of values. What Lamb po litical action. 2o emphasizes is a sophisticated resistance to The post-modem turn in the study of caste Hindu understandings of purity, Untouchability has been subject to withering pollution, and religious exclusivity. While academic attack. In a searing essay writing Lamb does not explicitly treat iIi response ,to the scholarly approach taken understandings of embodiment in relation to by' some members of t11e subaltern the Ramnamis, perhaps his work's most collective, Rosalind O'Hanlon and Michael suggestive contribution is precisely to Westbrook argue that post-modem understanding the mUltiple resonances of approaches are self-referentially embodiment. Most clearly, the Ramnamis incoherent. 21 More to the point, O'Hanlon revalue the status and signifying potential of and Westbrook maintain that Derridan plays the Untouchable body - a body that is now of "difference" do nothing to advance inscribed by the divine Name. But what is solidarity or incisive political critique, also intriguing is how Ramdas . Lamb particularly within the global context of the implicitly sets his own embodiment as a subordinating and homogenizing forces of Ramnami sadhu as a hermeneutical bridge late capitalism. Khare's work is not post­ between his life as scholar and the religious modern in the strong sense, since he does community he seeks to study. rely upon sociological method and analysis as much as upon post-modern theorizing Pragmatism and Tactics about "alterity." In many ways, however, One of the most sophisticated theoretical Khare's work could be understood to treatments of Dalit religiosity is The respond to the charges leveled against post­ Untouchable as Himselfby Ravindra Khare. modern theorists by Marxist historians. Khare focuses upon the religious vision of Khare seeks to probe the Chamar's implicit the Chamars of Lucknow. 18 Combining understanding of "homo justus," in ethnographic description with theoretical opposition to the Dumontian construct of reflection, Khare diagrams what could be "homo hierarchicus" as the animating called the pragmatics of Untouchable feature of Indian civilization. But as Khare asceticism. For the Chamars of Lucknow, attempts to schematize competing Indian asceticism is characterized by an ecletic and and Westem conceptions of equality and pragmatic combination of "Hindu monism "individuation," it is clear from his (advaita), Buddhist 'vacuity,' the later ethnographic fieldwork that Chamar

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol17/iss1/9 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1318 4 Schmalz: A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity 59

pragmatism defies characterization into appears to bean essential and pervading discrete thematic or analytical frames. aspect of Hinduism and Indian culture as Gayatri Chakravarty Spivak argues that whole. But British colonialism exacerbated I,ll I subaltem history is always subject to caste differences, and Christianity, tied as it 22 appropriation or "cathexsis" of the elite. 'has been to what Massey characterizes as an I While Untouchables can never speak "as other-worldly medievalism, has not themselves" within the pages of an academic effectively responded to the persistence of work, descriptive strategies that lx/odel their caste in Indian society and various Indian shifting interventions and modes of Christian denominations. Massey envisions resistance at the very least prevent the a truly political that is

appropriation of Untouchable experience for grounded in a new sense of Dalit identity ! political or academic meta-narratives tha; and Christian praxis. In Toward Dalit are not their own. Hermeneutics he diagrams this political theology by arguing for the necessity of Dalit Christian Religiosity 'Dalits asserting their own agency.24 Massey attempts to retrieve a Biblically based Dalit Neither Ramdas Lamb nor Ravindra Khare theology, and he begins by focusing upon use the word "Dalit" to describe the the use of the word "dall," a Hebrew word Untouchables about whom they write. For that means "languid" or to be "10w."25 What the Ramnamisand the Chamars of Lucknow emerges is a Dalit theology that emphasizes the term evidently carries unwelcome the Judeo-Christian themes of exodus and connotations relating to the contested messianism. domain of Indian political discourse. Of The political tum in Indian Protestant course, Dalit is the preferred tenn for those consideration of palit identity becomes who identify themselves with Untouchable more explicit in Towards a Common Dalit or Scheduled caste political parties such as Ideology, a collection of essays edited by the Bahujan Samaj. But increasingly the Arvind Nirmal of the Department of Dalit tenn Dalit is used within Indian Christian Theology in the Gurukul Lutheran discourse that presents Christianity as the Theological College and Research 26 most powerful path of liberation from the Institute. While affirming liberationist strictures of caste. critiques of Indian society and Christianity, the most engaging essays attempt to move Dalit Protestant Theology Dalit theology beyond simplistic Marxist In recent decades Indian Protestantism has understandings of political economy and made the most aggressive effort to develop culture. For example, Sara! K. Chatterji what is envisioned as an indigenously Indian questions whether conventional Marxist form of liberation theology. Sponsored by understandings of relationship between base Indian Christian seminaries, a variety of and superstructure can account for the edited volumes have been published that persistence . of caste despite changing 27 explore the theological and political economic conditions. For ChatterJ"i, it is implications of Dalit Christian experience the wor~ of Gramschi, particularly in his and witness. James Massey, the head of the reflections on Hegelian notions of civil Delhi-based Indian Society for the society, that establishes the centrality of the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, has superstructure of culture, a superstructure been at the forefront of developing a Dalit that needs to be changed if "the base" is to Christian theological vision and praxis. In be transformed. But the essays in this Dalits in India Massey articulates his volume do not revel in theory for, as essays understanding of the ongms and by Anthony Raj and Abraham Ayrookuzhiel 2' development of caste. 0 For Massey, caste observe, Gandhism and the politics of the

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Indian Left have failed, leaving Dalits no and political, with whom many Dalits other option than aggressive, albeit non­ identify.32 Perhaps in implicit recognition of violence, resistance. 28 this lacuna, the Catholic Bishops Conference Protestant reflections on Dalit of India (CBCI) has become progressively experience often do not engage what could more active in promoting issues of Dalit conventionally be called "religiosity." concern, particularly an expansion of the Instead there is a focus upon ho\"\( the Dalit reservation system to include Dalit experience of oppression can be Christians. As David Mosse and G. Prakash conceptualized and engaged within the Reddy have observed, caste distinctions are context of a politically committed Christian still very much a part of Catholic 33 praxis. While these understandings of Dalit c. communities in South India. Perhaps for Christian praxis draw upon Biblical themes, this reason, caste and Untouchability often Marxist and neo-Marxist analyses of society receive rather conflicted treatments in Indian predominate in specific proposals for Catholic discourse. remedying the most oppressive parts of Dalit The late George Soares~Prabhu, a Jesuit experience. This becomes particularly clear and professor at the Pontifical Athenaeum in in the treatment of women, often called "the Pune, was one of the most ardent critics of Dalit of the Dalit." For example, in the inculturation movement. Writing to Indigenous People: Dalits Aruna Bede Griffiths and the other leaders of the Gnanadason argues against Western Catholic ashram movement, Soares-Prabhu understandings of development that,· far sets his critique within the context of from bringing liberation, have alienated and pervasive violence against Untouchables. dislocated Dalits from their traditional Observing that he has "yet to hear a frames of meaning.29 In this volume, Shankaracarya or head of an ashram however, many of the essayists lay the publicly condemn" these atrocities, Soares­ blame for caste firmly at the feet of Prabhu firmly states that "Brahmanical Brahmanical Hinduism.3o Hinduism" is thoroughly unrepentant about its complicity in the oppression of Dalits, Catholics and Caste Tribals and women.34 By adopting a rarified In comparison with Indian Protestant and Brahmanical form of Hinduism in its theology, Indian Catholic theology has not religious life, Catholic ashrams are aligning devoted as much attention to issues of themselves with some of the most .regressive specific concern to Dalits. Extending from forces within Indian society. Catholic the missionary work of Roberto De Nobili ashrams could be of service, Soares-Prabhu through tlj.e powerful writings of suggests, if they were "to communicate to Brahmabhadhav Upadhyaya to D. S. Hinduism something of the painful· Amalorpavadass and other post-Vatican II purification Christians , have undergone theologians, the primary emphasis has been because of the challenge of the reformation inculturation. While many South Indian and the fires of humanist and Marxist Catholics have resisted inculturation in the criticism. ,,35 But as the writings of Bede form of the Catholic ashram movement or Griffiths clearly demonstrate, the ashram the "Twelve Points of Adaptation" of the movement seems more concerned with Latin rite mass to Indian culture, Catholic fostering "anti-consummerist values" among Dalits have also been vociferous in opposing the "spoiled children of the West.,,36 Instead, what many of them understand to be what the "decaying society of India" needs accommodations to Brahman religiosity.31 In most is a truly Christian ashram that Indian Catholic discourse one rarely finds an renounces contemplation in the service of engagement of Kabir, Ravidas, Periyar, liberating 10ve.37 Hinduism thus needs to be Ambedkar and other figures, both religious redeemed, and this redemption cannot come

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol17/iss1/9 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1318 6 ..,

Schmalz: A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity I A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity 61 I 1'I' if 'I ~. from within caste-bound Brai~i1+anical toward a self-consciously Catholic Christian ,­ d, Hinduism that the ashrams embrace. Instead appropriation and reinterpretation of local it is the liberating love of God, revealed in customs. Within this progression Catholic the Risen Christ, that can both heal and Christian converts are able to distance purify India's rigid and oppressive social themselves from the practices and customs system. that relegate them to the lowest levels of the Iil his The Dharma of Jesus Soares- (, social hierarchy. Of course, this vision is I': I "I" , ' Prabhu envisions Dalits as part of the table perhaps as controversial as Soares-Prabhu' s I fellowship of Jesus which includes the liberationalist critiques, since it does imply a outcaste.38 He recalls how Peter refused Christian superiority, even though table fellowshIp to Gentile Christians in Kanjamala .does wish to draw attention to Antioch because of what Soares-Prabhu how C~ristian exclusivity has been a kind of describes as the Jewish "caste system.,,39 As counter-witness to the Gospel within Indian Soares-Prabhu glosses Paul's reaction to sociC1ty. It is against what Indians would Peter, he argues that it was not so much the call "communalistic" understandings of discrimination that became the issue per se, conversion that A. Pushparajan argues that but instead the conviction that any return to conversion actually does not reflect the work the Law and its elaborate standards of purity , of the Church itself, since all authentic , 4" would "dilute" the commitment to the conversion is the result of God's grace. 0 In redemptive power of Jesus. In comparing affirming the patriotism of Catholic the situation faced by the Church of Corinth Christians and their acceptance of the to that confronting Indian Catholicism constraints of living in Indian civil society, today, Soares-Prabhu argues that it is grace, Pushparajan perhaps inadvertently reveals not works, that allows admission to Christ's the deep ambivalence within Indian table. 4o For the excluded, whether Dalit or Catholicism to issues regarding Dalit African-American, the standard is not religion, cultme and assertions of agency. "cleanness," but "love.,,41 Soares-Prabhu's critiques would be Conclusion considered relatively radical within the immediate context of Indian Catholic One of the striking aspects of surveying discourse, although many Indian Protestant approaches to Hinduism, Christianity ,and theologians would find many points of , Dalit religiosity is that there is very little agreement. In contrast, other Indian dialogue between anthropology and Catholic theologians have envisioned theology, although both are concemed with Catholicism as~ aid to "Sanskritization," a "history" in the conventional sense. One term coined by the Indian sociologist T. N. laudable exception, however, remains Madan, ,to describe low caste imitation of Sathianathan Clarke's . Dalits and high caste customs for the purpose of Christianity: Subaltern Religion and hierarchical advancement. 'In arguing for Liberation Theology in India. 44 Clarke "Christianization as a Legitmate Altemative focuses upon Paraiyar communities in South to Sanskritizatioh," Augustine Kanjamala India and their symbols of the goddess and focuses upon how Dalits and Tribals have, the drum. For Clarke there is a "christic in limited ways, succeeded in raising their presence as appropriated by the drum," an status within the surrounding hierarchy by echo or a vibration that embodies the accepting Christianity.42 Kanjamala ceaseless character of the divine. 45 By using diagrams a five-stage model of indigenous Dalit symbols to articulate a "Christianization," beginning with an Dalit liberationist vision Clarke creates an altemation between Christian and opening for serious consideration 'of indigenous rituals and moving eventually ethnography as a crucial resource for

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theological reflection. Th\Qugh this Briggs' work was originally engagement perhaps the '\ reifie"d published in 1920. understandings of Hinduism and Christianity and their relationship to caste will finally 10. Bernard Cohen, "A Chamar give way to more nuanced understandings of Family in a North Indian the diversity of Dalit experience and Village: A Structural religious sensibilities - an approach that Contingent" in Bernard Cohen, draws it:t strength from a refusal to reduce An Anthropologist Among the and oppose Hinduism and Christianity as Historians (New Delhi: Oxford competing essentialized wholes. University Press, 1996), pp. 308-319. Notes 11. Michael Moffat, An "' 1. Mulk Raj Anand~ Untouchable Untouchable Community in (London: Penguin Books, South India: Structure and 1940). Consensus (Princeton, NJ: ":Princeton University Press, 2. Arjun Appadurai, "Is Homo 1979). Hierarchicus," American Ethnologist 13 (1986): 745-761. 12. Robert Dem~ge, "Replication and Consensus: Untouchability, 3. John Webster, "Who is a Caste and Ideology in India," Dalit"? in Dalits in Modern Man, n.s. 27 (1992): 155-173. India: Visions and Values, ed. S. M. Michael (New Delhi: 13. Andre Beteille, The Backward Vistaar Publications, 1999), pp. Classes and the New Social 68-79. Order (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1981). 4. John C. B. Webster, The Pastor to Dalits (New Delhi: ISPCK, 14. J. Wasoom Pickett, Christian 1995). Mass Movements in India (New York, 1933); Johne. B. 5. James Freeman, Untouchable: Webster, The Dalit Christians: An Untouchable Life History A History, (New Delhi: ISPCK, , (Stanford CA: Stanford 1994). University Press, 1979). 15. Saurabh D).lbe, Untouchable 6. Abbe J. A. Dubois, Hindu Pasts: Religion, Identity and Customs, Manners and Power among a Central Indian Ceremonies, trans. Henry K. Community, 1780-1950 (Albany Beauchamp (Oxford: . NY: SUNY Press, 1998). Clarendon Press, 1906). 16. Ramdas Lamb, Rapt in the 7. Ibid., p. 52. Name: The Ramnamis, Ramnam, and Untouchable 8. Ibid., p. 54. Religion in Central India (New York: SUNY Press, 2002). 9. George Briggs, The Chamars (Delhi: D. K. Agencies, 1995). 17. Ibid., p. 62.

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol17/iss1/9 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1318 8 "'I" Schmalz: A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity A Bibliographic Essay on Hindu and Christian Dalit Religiosity 63

Ayrookuzhie1, "The Ideological 18. Ravindra S. Khare, The Nature of Emerging Dalit Untouchable As Himself (New Consciousness," III Nirmal, York: Cambridge University Towards a Common Dalit Press, 1964) Ideology, pp. 81-96.

19. Ibid., p. 79. 29. Aruna Gnanadason, "Dalit Women: The Dalit of the Dalit," 20. Ibid., p. 147. in Indigenous People: Dalits, ed. James Massey (Delhi: 21. Rosalind O'Hanlon and Michael Cambridge Press, 1994), pp. Washburn, "After Orientalism: 168-178. Culture, Criticism and Politics III the Third World," 30. Ruth Manorama, "Dalit Comparative Studies in Society Women: The Downtrodden of and History 34, no. 1, (January the Downtrodden," in Massey, 1992): 141-167. , Indigenous People: Dahts, pp. 161-162. 22. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, "Introduction," m Selected 31. On Dalit resistance to Catholic Subaltern Studies, ed. Ranajit inculturation, see Mathew N. Guha and Gayatri Chakrovarty Schmalz, "Ad Experimentum: Spivak (New York: Oxford Theology, Anthropology and University Press, 1998), p. II. the Paradoxes of Indian 23.. James Massey, Dalits in India Catholic Inculturation," (New Delhi: Manohar, 1995). Theology and the Social I Sciences, ed. Michael Barnes I, ,',,,'

24. James Massey, Towards Daht (Maryknoll NY: Orbis Books, " Hermeneutics (Delhi: ISPCK, 2001), pp. 161-180. 1994).

I" II: 32. For a discussion of a Catholic 'I! !I' 25. Ibid., p. 3. Dalit interpretation of Kabir, see Mathew N. Schmalz, "Images 26. Arvind P. Nirmal, ed., Towards of the Body in the Life and

a 0 Common Dalit Ideology Death of a North Indian (Madras: Gurukul Lutheran Catholic Catechist," History of Theological College and Religions 39 (N~vember 1999): Research Institute, n.d.) 177-201.

27. Saral K. Chatterji, "Some 33. David Mosse, "South Indian Aspects of Dalit Theology," in Christians, Purity/Impurity and Nirmal, Towards a Common t11e Caste System: Death Ritual Dalit Ideology, pp. 1-18 m a Tamil Roman Catholic Community," Journal of the 28. Anthony Raj, "Disobedience: A Royal Anthropological Institute Legitimate Act for Dalit 2, no. 3 (1996): 461-483; G. Liberation," in Nirmal, Towards Prakash Reddy, "Caste and a Common Daht Ideology, pp. Christianity: A Study of Shudra 39-51; A. M. Abraham Caste Converts in Rural Andhra

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64 Mathew N. Schmalz ( 1

Pradesh," in Religion and 45. Ibid., p. 202. Society in South India, ed.. V. Sudarsen (Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corp., 1987), pp. 10- 32. For Further Reading

34. George Soares-Prabhu, S. J., "A General Works on Untouchability Letter from George Soares­ Prabhu to Vandana Mataji," in . Robert Deliege, The Untouchables of Christian Ashrams A India, trans. Nora Scott Movement with a Future? (New (Oxford: Berg, 2000). Delhi: ISPCK, 1993), p; 154. Mark Juergensmeyer, Religion as a Social Vision (Berkeley: 35. Ibid., p. 154. University of California Press, 1982). 36. Ibid., p. 154. Michael J. Mahar, ed. The Untouchables in Contempora7Y 37. Ibid., p. 155. India (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1972). 38. George Soares-Prabhu, S. J., Oliver Mendelsohn and Marika The Dharma of Jesus, ed. Vicziany, The Untouchables: Francis Xavier D'Sa, S. J. Subordination, Poverty and the (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, State in Modern India 2003). (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). Vijay Prashad, Untouchable Freedom: A 39. Ibid., p. 128. Social History of a Dalit Community (New Delhi: Oxford 40. Ibid., p. 128. University Press, 2000).

41. Ibid., p. 129. Untouchability and Christianity

42. Augustine Kanjumala, S.VD., Robert Deliege, "Untouchability and "Christianization as a Catholicism: The Case of the ,Legitimate Alternative to Paraiyars in South India," Sanskritization," Indian Comparative Studies of South Missiological Review 6 Asia, Africa. and the Middle (October 1984): 307-321. East 18 (1998): 30-34. Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and 43. A. Pushparajan, "Are Christian Christianity (London: Curzon Conversions Communalistic?" Press, 1980). Indian Missiological Review 6 Xavier lrudayaraj, S.J., ed., Emerging (October 1984): 265-289. Dalit Theology (Madras: Jesuit Theological Secretariate, 1990). 44. Sathianathan Clarke, Dalits and M. E. Prabhakar, Towards a Dalit Christianity: Subaltern Theology (Delhi: ISPCK, 1988). Religion and Liberation K. N. Sahay, Christianity and Culture Theology in India (Delhi: Change in India (New Delhi: i j: Oxford University Press, 1999). Inter-Media Publications, 1986).

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Untouchability and Hinduism Modern Asian Studies 20 (1986): 209-230. Pauline Kolenda, "The Functional Catherine Schomer and W. H. McLeod, Relations of a Bhangi Cult," in The Sant Tradition of India Caste, Cult and Hierarchy: (Berkeley: University of Essays on the Culture of India Califomia Press, 1981). (Delhi: Folklore Institute, 1984). Darshan' Singh, Sant Ravidas and His David Lorenzen, Praises to a Formless Times (Delhi: Kalyani God: Nirguni Texts from North Publishers, 1978). India (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996). Gyan Prakash, "Reproducing Inequality: c Spirit Cults and Labor Relations 111 Colonial Eastem India,"

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