CONTENTS

ABOUT THE AUTHOR III Astronomical Interests III Business Projects Related to Astronomy IV The INFINITY Experiential Immersive Maze IV The SpaceWalker Edutainment Experience IV INFINITY Experiential Illusion Maze VII SpaceWalker Edutainment Attraction VIII

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STARGAZING VOLUMES XII STARGAZING’s Extraordinary Imagery XIII Who is STARGAZING Written for? XIII STARGAZING’S Magic Mix of Subjects XIII What You Should Know About The STARGAZING Text: XIV

VOLUME 1: MAXIMIZING YOUR STARGAZING EXPERIENCES 1

CHAPTER 1: THE WONDER AND JOY OF STARGAZING 3 WHY IS STARGAZING SO EXCITING TO SO MANY PEOPLE? 4 STARGAZING’S ‘WOW!’ FACTOR 4 Ten-Thousand Star Accommodation 5 Spectacular Eclipse Experiences 6 WONDERS SEEN IN A TELESCOPE 7 The Appearance of Deep Sky Objects in Amateur Telescopes 9 GETTING STARTED 10 Planetariums 10 ASTRONOMY CLUBS 11 Getting Advice 11 Sharing Knowledge and Ideas 12 STARGAZING IS A MULTI-SENSORY EXPERIENCE 14

CHAPTER 2: THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE UNIVERSE 16 STARS 17 SOLAR SYSTEMS 17 NEBULAS – INTERSTELLAR CLOUDS OF GAS AND DUST 17 GALAXIES 18 CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES 18 i SUPERCLUSTERS OF GALAXIES 18 THE FILAMENTARY STRUCTURE OF GALAXY CLUSTERS 18 EVERYTHING ORBITS SOMETHING 19 EARTH’S LOCATION IN THE UNIVERSE 19

CHAPTER 3: UNFORGETTABLE STARGAZING EXPERIENCES 21 OBSERVING IN SURREAL LOCATIONS 22 Making the Most of Stargazing Experiences 22 Comfort 24 Two Unforgettable Comet Halley Events 25 Thrilled by Celestial Fireworks 27 Cruising Through the Galaxy 28 An Interstellar Canoe Ride 30 Dining Under a Heavenly Orb 31 The Appearance of the Full Moon Rising over a Perfect Horizon 31 Our Main Course with a Bronze Orb Suspended in the Milky Way 33 STARGAZERS GET TO SEE NATURE’S NEONS 34 Bioluminescence 34 Fireflies 37 Invasion from Space 38 Glow-Worms 39 Bioluminescent Plankton 39 Earth Lights 41 Auroras 42 Spectacular Lightning Displays 43 Coronal Glows 51 Fireballs 51 St Elmo’s Fire 51 UNFORGETTABLE EXPERIENCES VISITING MAJOR OBSERVATORIES 52

CHAPTER 4: WHAT WONDERS CAN WE SEE IN THE SKY? 54 WHAT THE NAKED EYE CAN SEE 55 OBSERVING WITH BINOCULARS 57 WHAT TELESCOPES REVEAL 58 CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMICAL NUMBERS, A LIGHT YEAR, STAR MAPS & ASTRONOMICAL TERMS 61

ii Part 1 ASTRONOMICAL NUMBERS 62 A Light Year 64 The Speed of Light 64 The Speed of Light in Different Mediums 64 Part 2 PRACTICAL TIPS FOR STARGAZING 65 Navigating Your Way Around the Sky 65 Star Atlases 66 Measuring the Sky in Degrees 68 Part 3 COMMONLY USED ASTRONOMICAL TERMS 69 Magnitude – a Scale for Measuring Brightness 69 Integrated Magnitude 69 70 Intrinsic Brightness 70 Apparent Diameter 70 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 70 A Binary Star System 71 An Astronomical Unit 72 An Astronomical Unit (AU) is the distance from the Sun to the Earth. 72 72 The Celestial Poles 74 Locating the North Celestial Pole (NCP) 74 Locating the South Celestial Pole (SCP) 75 Right Ascension & Declination 76 Diurnal Rotation 76 Culmination 80 The Zenith 80 The Ecliptic 80 The Zodiac 80 The Equinoxes 80 Solstice 80 Conjunctions 80 Elongation and Conjunction 81 Perihelion - Aphelion 81

iii Deep Sky Objects 81 Common Names for Deep Sky Objects 81 Messier (M) Objects 82 NGC & IC Objects 83 The Dark of the Moon 83 Terminator 83 Albedo 83 Dwarf Planets 84 Meteors & Meteorites 84 Occultations 85 Transits 86 Phases 86 Refraction 87 Twilight 87 Scintillation 88 North, South, East & West 88 Airglow 88

CHAPTER 6: LET’S GET PRACTICAL 89 UNDERSTANDING THE ATMOSPHERE 91 The Structure of the Atmosphere 91 The Troposphere 91 The Stratosphere 91 The Mesosphere 91 The Thermosphere 91 The Ionosphere 91 The Exosphere 91 How Thick is the Atmosphere? 92 Cloud Types 93 What Is the Composition of the Air? 93 When Does Good and Poor Seeing Occur? 95 Do Mountains Have the Best Observing Conditions? 95 Why are Most Large Professional Observatories Located on High Mountains? 97 Is a Perfectly Dark Sky Pitch Black? 100 Airglow 100 Can More Faint Stars Be Seen from a High Mountain? 100 Sky Brightness 100

iv PREPARATION FOR DEEP SKY OBSERVING AT A DARK SKY SITE 102 Comfort 102 Food and Beverages 102 Wind Protection 102 Dressing for the Occasion 103 Managing Dew 104 Protection from Rain 104 An Eyepiece Case 105 The Effects of Body Heat 105

CHAPTER 7: MAKING THE MOST OF YOUR EYES 106 THE ADVANTAGES OF VISUAL OBSERVATIONS 107 How to Enhance Your Observing Sessions 107 PERSEVERANCE PAYS BIG DIVIDENDS 107 HOW OUR EYES WORK 107 How our Eyes Focus 108 Testing your Vision 108 Seeing Fine Detail 108 Visual Acuity Test 109 Observing Faint Objects 110 Dark Adaption 110 Substances That Reduce Dark Adaption 112 Test the Power of Full Dark Adaption 112 Night Blindness 112 Torchlight 112 Stray Light 113 Averted Vision 113 Threshold Vision Test 114 Astigmatism Test 114 Floaters 116 As Eyes Age 116 Cataracts 116 Macular Degeneration 117 The Iris 117

CHAPTER 8: TIPS ON OBSERVING WITH THE NAKED EYE & BINOCULARS 119 NAKED EYE OBSERVING 120 OBSERVING WITH BINOCULARS 121 v A Good Binocular Star Atlas 122 Binocular Parts 123 How Binoculars Work 123 Testing the Advantages of 3D Binocular Vision 123 The Finger-Touching Depth Perception Test 124 Focusing Binoculars For Perfect Vision 124 The Field of View 125 Binocular Sizes 125 Large Binoculars 127 Binocular Mounts for Comfortable Observing 127 A Rotating Binocular Chair 129 Test the Quality of Binoculars Before Buying 131

CHAPTER 9: USING AND BUYING TELESCOPES 132 THE WONDER OF THE UNIVERSE REVEALED 133 TYPES OF TELESCOPES 133 Refracting Telescopes 134 Newtonian Reflecting Telescopes 134 Schmidt-Cassegrain Reflecting Telescopes 134 BUYING A DREAM OR A NIGHTMARE? 136 THE BASICS OF A TELESCOPE 136 Aperture 137 Optical Quality 137 Good Collimation 137 Collimating a Newtonian Telescope 137 Focal Ratio & Focal Length 138 Magnification 139 High Magnification 140 Eyepieces 140 Using an Occulting Bar 141 Filters for Visual Observing 141 Telescope Mounts 142 WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHEN BUYING A TELESCOPE 142 A VIBRATION FREE MOUNT 145 IS BIGGER BETTER? 145 A Motorized Observing Chair with a Power-Assisted Elevating Seat 146 Simple Observer’s Seats 146 vi Choosing a Good Site to Set Up 147 CHAPTER 10: ENHANCING ONE’S OBSERVATIONAL EXPERIENCE BY DRAWING ASTRONOMICAL OBJECTS 149 WHY MAKE DRAWINGS? 150 COMPARING VISUAL OBSERVING TO PHOTOGRAPHY 150 HOW TO SEE MAXIMUM DETAIL 151 HOW TO MAKE A DRAWING 151 To Make a Pencil Drawing 152 Sketching Sunspots 153 Sketching the Planets 153 Drawing Rotating Planets 153 Preparing an Outline for Drawing the Planets 153 Observing Mars 155 Observing Jupiter 155 Observing Saturn 156 How to Draw Deep Sky Objects 157 Achieving Good Proportionality 157 Drawing Nebulous Objects 157 How to Make Negative Versions of Sketches 164 How to Make Colored Sketches 164 How to Change a Negative Drawing to a Positive One 165 Night Sky Paintings 167 Recording Scientifically Valuable Observations 167 Recording Observing Conditions 168 Recording Observer Variables 168

CHAPTER 11: PHOTOGRAPHING THE HEAVENS 170 THE BASICS 171 PHOTOGRAPHING STAR TRAILS 172 CAPTURING THE MILKY WAY 174 PHOTOGRAPHING AURORAS 176 CAPTURING COMETS 176 PHOTOGRAPHING METEOR SHOWERS 176 CAPTURE THE MOON IN COLOR 178 PHOTOGRAPHING THE FULL MOON RISING OR SETTING 178 PHOTOGRAPHING LUNAR DETAIL 179

vii PRODUCING HIGHLY DETAILED IMAGES OF THE MOON AND PLANETS 182 RECORDING FEATURES ON THE SUN 182 DEEP SKY PHOTOGRAPHY 183 NIGHTSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY 187 THE NIGHT SKY AS SEEN WITH TIMELAPSE VIDEO PHOTOGRAPHY 188 PHOTOGRAPHING GALAXIES TO DISCOVER SUPERNOVAS 188

CHAPTER 12: OBSERVATORY DESIGNS FOR AMATEURS 189 WHY BUILD AN OBSERVATORY? 190 THE SIZE OF AN OBSERVATORY 190 DESIGN OPTIONS 190 Traditional Domes 191 The Skyshed Pod Observatory 192 ROLL-OFF ROOF OBSERVATORIES 193 The Telescope Mount 195 THE ROLL-AWAY SHED 196 THE ADVANTAGES OF A DUAL ROLL-OFF ROOF OBSERVATORY 196 Operating in Slit Mode 200 Seeing the Northern or Southern Horizon 200 Wall & Roof Construction 200 Wind Proofing the Interior 200 Interior Design Finishes and Lighting 200 Design Variations for Quality Constructions 204 Astronomy Club House Observatories 204 A Commercial Double Observatory for Public Viewing Nights 206 THE SPLIT SHED ROLL-APART OBSERVATORY 207 COMMERCIAL ATTRACTION CONCEPTS UTILIZING DUAL ROLL-OFF ROOFS 208 Commercial Astrophotography Observatories 213

CHAPTER 13: THE WORLD’S LARGEST OBSERVATORIES 216 THE WORLD’S LARGEST OPTICAL TELESCOPES 217 Australia 217 Siding Spring – the Anglo-Australian Observatory (AAO) 217 The Canary Islands 219 The Observatorio Del Rogue De Los Muchachos 219 Chile 221 The European Southern Observatory (ESO) 221 viii Mauna Kea 226 The Observatories 228 Russia 231 South Africa 231 United States Of America 233 Mt Graham Observatory 233 Mt Hopkins Observatory 233 McDonald Observatory 234 Kitt Peak Observatory 234 Mt Palomar Observatory 236 Mt Wilson Observatory 236 FUTURE GIANT OPTICAL TELESCOPES 237 The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) 237 The Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT) 238 The 30 M Extremely Large Telescope 239 Comparison of Primary Mirror Diameters on Large Telescopes 240 Size Comparison of the World’s Largest Telescopes 241 THE LARGEST OPTICAL TELESCOPES IN SPACE 243 THE WORLD’S LARGEST RADIO TELESCOPES 245

CHAPTER 14: PRESERVING THE NIGHT’S NATURAL BEAUTY 247 THE OVERSELLING OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING 250 WASTED LIGHT AND ENERGY 250 Billboard and Signage Lighting 250 Street Lighting 251 Cut-Off Street Lighting Protects the Night Sky 251 Garden and Parkland Lighting 255 Shielded Light Fittings for Businesses, Community Centers, and Homes 257 So-Called ‘Security’ Lighting 259 ANTI-POLLUTION LAWS 259 Light Pollution Ordinances 260 OBTRUSIVE LIGHT INCREASES HEALTH RISKS 260 ECOLOGICAL DAMAGE FROM WASTE LIGHT 261 A WORLD AWASH WITH WASTE LIGHT 261

VOLUME 2: OBSERVING AND DISCOVERING OUR SOLAR SYSTEM 264

CHAPTER 15: EARTH’S ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA 266 ix EARTH’S CHANGING ORBIT AND THE TILT OF ITS AXIS 267 WATCHING THE EARTH ROTATE 268 THE TRAVELING SUN 268 What Causes the Seasons? 268 The Ever-Changing Length of Day & Night 268 How Far Does the Sun Move Across the Sky from Mid-Winter to Mid-Summer? 269 OBSERVING SUNSET AND SUNRISE 269 Observing the Sun’s Green Flash 270 What Is the Green Flash? 270 The Elusive Green Flash 271 Where Are Your Best Chances of Seeing the Green Flash? 271 RAINBOW COLORED STARS 272 EARTH’S SHADOW & THE BELT OF VENUS 273 The Belt of Venus 273 DREAMLIKE AURORAS 275 What Causes Auroras? 277 The Colors of Auroras 277 When & Where to See Auroras 278 Auroras Seen from Space 281 DANGEROUS SOLAR STORMS 281 SPRITES - AMAZING LIGHTNING AT THE EDGE OF SPACE! 282 LUNAR HALOES 285 OBSERVING SATELLITES 285 How to Observe Satellites 285 When to Look for Satellites 286 What Do Satellites Appear like to the Naked Eye? 286 How Satellites Change in Brightness 287 Specular Reflections 287 Geosynchronous Satellites 288 Satellite Re-Entries 289

CHAPTER 16: CATCH A FALLING STAR 291 METEORS 292 Meteor Types 292 What Size Are Meteors? 293 When a Meteor Hits the Atmosphere 293

x The Colors of Meteors 294 Meteor Trails 294 Photographing Bolides 295 Meteor Showers 299 The Leonids Meteor Shower 299 Other Meteor Showers 302 The Amazing Giacobinid Shower 304 Future Artificial Meteor Showers 304 Earth-Grazing Meteors 304 Meteors with the Impact of a Nuclear Bomb 304 Airburst Meteors 304 METEORITES 305 People Hit by Small Meteorites 305 Large Meteorite Falls 305 The Allende Meteorite 307 The Mundrabilla Meteorite 307 The Willamette Meteorite 308 Airburst Meteor Events 308 The Chelyabinsk Super-Bolide 309 Apophis Asteroid 309 The Tunguska Event 309 Meteorite Craters on Earth 310 Total Devastation Impacts 313 Near Earth Asteroids 315

CHAPTER 17: OBSERVING OUR DYNAMIC STAR 318 OUR SUN 319 The Sun’s Unexpected Evolution 320 How Was It Discovered That the Sun Was a Star? 324 VIEWING THE SUN 325 Naked Eye Observing 325 Observing the Sun Using Eyepiece Projection 326 SOLAR ACTIVITY 327 Storms on the Sun 327 Observing Sunspots 331 Prominences 334 Solar Telescopes 338

xi Solar Satellites Capture the Sun’s Explosive Nature 339 Extremely Energetic Solar Flares 339 THE SOLAR CYCLE 341 Predictions for Increasing Global Cooling 341 THE SOLAR WIND 343 How Cosmic Rays and the Solar Wind Affect Earth’s Climate 343 How to Observe Cosmic Rays 345 THE SUN’S ORBIT AROUND OUR GALAXY 346 THE DARKENING SUN 347 Partial Solar Eclipses 347 Pinhole Projection of the Partial Phases of a Solar Eclipse 348 Total Solar Eclipses 349 How Long Do Total Solar Eclipses Last? 349 What Is a Total Solar Eclipse Like? 349 The Sun’s Corona 349 A Total Eclipse Confirmed Einstein’s Theory of Relativity 349 The Chilling Effect of a Solar Eclipse 354 If Sunlight Stopped Warming the Earth 354 Shadow Bands 354 Annular Solar Eclipses 354 The Moon’s Varying Distance 354

CHAPTER 18: EARTHSHINE, A BRONZE MOON & A MYSTICAL LIGHT 357 THIN LUNAR CRESCENTS 358 A New Moon 358 A 1-Day Old Moon 360 Observing the Phenomenon of a Giant Moon Rising 361 EARTHSHINE 362 BRONZE MOONSHINE 364 THE ELUSIVE ZODIACAL LIGHT 366

CHAPTER 19: EXPLORING OUR DRAMATIC MOON 370 THE MOON WAS ORIGINALLY ASSUMED TO BE EARTH-LIKE 371 WHAT DOES THE MOON LOOK LIKE? 371 LUNAR IMAGES 375 THE MOON’S CHARACTERISTICS 375 The Moon’s Mineral Composition 377

xii THE MOON’S ORBIT AROUND THE EARTH 378 Sunrise and Sunset on the Moon 378 The Moon’s Changing Distance from Us 380 TIDES ON THE EARTH AND THE MOON 381 King and Neap Tides 381 Libration - Lunar Rock ‘N’ Roll 384 ALBEDO - THE MOON’S REFLECTIVITY 385 VIEWING THE MOON’S LIMB FROM A SHALLOW ANGLE 386 OBSERVING LUNAR OCCULTATIONS 388 DID ASTRONAUTS LAND ON THE MOON? 390 Judging Distances on the Moon 395 LUNAR ATLASES 401 MAJOR LUNAR FEATURES 401 Dark ‘Seas’ of Lava 401 Wrinkle Ridges in Basins 404 Ray Craters 408 Large Lunar Craters 410 Tycho 410 Plato 412 Archimedes, Aristillus, and Autolycus 412 Copernicus 412 Eratosthenes 413 Clavius 413 Arzachel & Alphonsus 414 Grazing Blow Meteoric Impact Craters – Messier A & B 414 Lunar Mountain Ranges 418 The Apennines 418 The Mystery of Reiner Gamma 419 Rivers of Lava 419 Hyginus & Triesnecker Rilles 420 Hadley Rille 421 The Cobra Head Valley & the Aristarchus Volcanic Plateau 424 Lunar Faults & Fissures 426 The Straight Wall 426 The Stunning Alpine Valley Divides the Alps Mountain Range 427 Lunar Domes 429

xiii THE FAR SIDE OF THE MOON 432 EXTREME LUNAR ADVENTURES 435 How Large Does the Moon Appear in the Sky? 435 Future Lunar Tourism Tours 436 The Human Satellite Experience 436 Low Gravity Sports 436 Answers to the Moon Illusion 438

CHAPTER 20: ABOUT PLANETARY SYSTEMS 440 HOW DO SOLAR SYSTEMS FORM? 441 Accretion Discs 442 The Early Stages of Solar System Formation 442 The Mix of Elements Within Planets 446 New Theories of Planetary Formation Required 448 MULTIPLE STAR SYSTEMS 448 PLANETS WITH MAGNETIC FIELDS 448 OUR SOLAR SYSTEM 449 Surprising Historical Ideas about the Planets 449 So Many Different Worlds in our Solar System 449 Visualizing the Size of the Planets and Their Orbits 449 A Scaled Down Model of our Solar System 450 Visualizing our Model Solar System 451 Micro-Scale For Objects in the Solar System and the Galaxy 452 Comparing the Scale of the Solar System to our Milky Way 452 DIAGRAMMATIC ILLUSTRATIONS 452 MASS CAUSES SPACE-TIME TO CURVE 453 Which Way is Up? 454 THE AXIAL TILT OF THE PLANETS 454 CHANGES IN THE APPARENT SIZES OF THE PLANETS 455 WHEN IS THE BEST TIME TO SEE THE PLANETS? 456 COMPARING BODIES IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM 457

CHAPTER 21: THE INNER PLANETS MERCURY & VENUS 461 OBSERVING THE EVENING AND MORNING STARS 462 How to See Venus During the Day with The Naked Eye 464 MERCURY 465 Mercury’s Characteristics 465

xiv A Crazy Mercurian Day 467 Mercury in Close-Up 469 The Mighty Caloris Basin 471 Other Special Features on Mercury 475 Mercury in 3D 478 Remarkable Features 478 BRILLIANT VENUS 487 Venus’ Characteristics 487 Venus’ Day Is Longer Than Its Year 487 Transit of Venus 488 Transit of Mercury 488 Venus’ Elusive Ring of Light 489 Venus – a Hellish Planet 490 The Russian Venus Probes 490 Venus’ Atmosphere 491 Venus’ High Temperature 491 Atmospheric Illusions 492 Could There Be Life in the Clouds of Venus? 492 The Surface 492 Will Astronauts Ever Walk on Venus? 493 NASA’s Magellan and Messenger Probes Uncloak Venus 493

CHAPTER 22: THE AMAZING RED PLANET 500 INDIA’S FIRST MARS PROBE 501 MARS’ PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 502 Dark Markings 503 Mars’ Atmosphere 503 Frigid Temperatures on Mars 503 Mars’ Orbit 504 Mars’ Terrain 505 VIEWING MARS IN A TELESCOPE 505

Do Mars & Venus Suffer a Runaway Greenhouse Effect Because They Have Atmospheres High in2 CO ? 508 MARS’ ICECAPS 509 POLAR ICESCAPES 513 Ice Spiders 516 Recent Possible Evidence for Running Water on Mars 521 UNUSUAL CRATERS 523

xv EXTREME WATER EROSION 524 EVIDENCE FOR A MARTIAN OCEAN 524 RIVERS ON MARS 526 MARS’ GREAT GRAND CANYON 531 MARS’ ENORMOUS VOLCANOES 537 PLANET WIDE DUST STORMS 543 THOUSANDS OF DUST DEVILS 544 MARS’ INCREDIBLE SAND DUNES 546 3D VIEWS ACROSS MARS’ DESERTS 549 THE FACE ON MARS 552 SUNSET ON MARS 553 THE POSSIBILITY OF MARTIAN LIFE 554 MARS’ TWO MOONS - PHOBOS AND DEIMOS 555 IN CONCLUSION 556

CHAPTER 23: THE GREAT JOVIAN SYSTEM 557 THE GAS GIANTS 558 THE GREAT JOVIAN SYSTEM 558 Jupiter’s History 558 JUPITER’S CHARACTERISTICS 560 Inside Jupiter 563 OBSERVING JUPITER 563 Observing Jupiter’s Cloud Bands 564 The Great Red Spot 564 Jupiter’s Oblateness 566 Jupiter’s Storms 566 Could Life Exist in Jupiter’s Atmosphere? 571 PHENOMENA OF JUPITER’S PLANET-SIZED MOONS 572 Transits 572 Eclipse Shadows 572 Disappearances and Reappearances of the Moons 574 The Mutual Phenomena of the Galilean Moons 574 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GALILEAN MOONS 576 Incredible Io - the Supervolcano Thermal Park of the Solar System! 576 Europa – a Water-World in Which Life May Exist 584 Europa’s Terrain 585 xvi Europa’s Ocean 590 Ganymede – the Largest Galilean Moon 592 Callisto – a Frozen Muddy World Saturated with Craters 596

CHAPTER 24: THE MAJESTIC SATURNIAN SYSTEM 600 SATURN’S PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 602 OBSERVING SATURN 602 The Rings 604 The Changing Aspect of Saturn’s Rings 611 Saturn’s Enormous Storms 613 Enormous Lightning Strikes 613 Saturn’s Amazing North Polar Vortex 614 The South Polar Vortex 616 Auroras on Saturn 616 Saturn’s Surprising Moons 618 Moons Involved with the Rings 619 Pan – the Iced Cookie Moonlet 619 Prometheus and Pandora – the Shepherding Moonlets 620 Epimetheus and Janus – Moons of the F Ring 620 Saturn’s Moons Beyond the Rings 621 Icy Mimas – with Its Big Eye 621 Enceladus – a World of Unexpected Activity 623 Tethys – a Muddy Iceball 630 Titan – a World of Oceans, Lakes, Rivers, Rain, and Volcanoes 632 Mysterious Iapetus – a World of Extreme Contrasts 638 Dione, Helene, and Polydeuces – the Triplets 640 Hyperion – a Sponge-Like Small Moon 641 Helene – the Ice Queen Moonlet with a Melted Skin 641 Phoebe – the Captured Centaur Asteroid 642

CHAPTER 25: URANUS & NEPTUNE 645 THE VOYAGER MISSIONS TO THE GAS GIANTS 646 BLUE-GREEN URANUS 647 Uranus’ Characteristics 647 Uranus’ Size & Composition 647 Uranus’ Storms 648 Uranus’ Rings 649 Photographing Uranus’ Rings and Moons 649 xvii Uranus’ Family of Moons 650 Miranda – a World with a Tortured Geology 650 Ariel – a Fractured Moon 652 Observing Uranus 652 DEEP BLUE NEPTUNE 653 Neptune’s Characteristics 653 Neptune’s Atmosphere 654 Observing Neptune and Triton 654 Neptune’s Moons 655 Triton – an Active World of Impressive Landscapes 655 Nereid 661

CHAPTER 26: THE OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM - ASTEROIDS, DWARF PLANETS & COMETS 664 Part 1 ASTEROIDS 665 The Inner Asteroid Belt 665 The Composition of Asteroids 666 Merging Asteroids 666 Ceres 670 Vesta 674 Jaxa’s Ryugu Asteroid Mission 679 Observing Asteroids 682 Discovering Asteroids 682 Mining Asteroids 684 The Kuiper Asteroid Belt 685 Tyche 688 Planet X 689 Part 2 DWARF PLANETS 690 What Is the Difference Between a Planet and a Dwarf Planet? 690 Pluto 691 Pluto’s Discovery 691 Pluto’s Characteristics 692 Observing Pluto 692 New Horizon’s Discoveries 693 Pluto’s Terrain 694 Charon 704

xviii New Horizon’s Next Target 705 Part 3 THE OORT CLOUD 705 Part 4 COMETS 706 A Brief History of Comets 706 The Structure of Comets 707 Comet Nuclei 707 The Orbits of Comets 715 Comets Cause Meteor Showers 716 Did Water in Comets Create Our Oceans? 716 Could Comets Have Brought Life to Earth? 717 Where Did Comets Form? 717 Is Water Plentiful on Comets? 717 Probes to Comets 717 The Deep Impact Probe to Comet Tempel 1 718 The Rosetta Probe to Comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko 719 The Mystery of Minerals in Comets 726 A Comet’s Coma 727 Comets That Break Apart 728 The Great Comets 730 Great Sungrazer Comets 732 Other Great Comets 736 Halley’s Comet 736 Kamikaze Comets 738 Comets and Asteroids That Collide with Planets 738 Comet Shoemaker-Levy Hits Jupiter 738 FAMOUS AMATEURS WHO HAVE DISCOVERED COMETS 740

VOLUME 3: OBSERVING & UNDERSTANDING DEEP SPACE 742

CHAPTER 27: SUCH A DIVERSITY OF STARS! 744 WHY DO STARS GIVE OFF LIGHT AND HEAT? 745 How Fusion in a Star Releases Energy 745 HOW STARS ARE CREATED 746 PLANETS AROUND OTHER STARS 749 Space Art 750

xix STAR NAMES 750 WHEN A STAR FIRST TURNS ON 751 DETERMINING A STAR’S CHARACTERISTICS 752 TEMPERATURE DETERMINES A STAR’S COLOR 754 OBSERVING COLORED STARS 755 SO MANY TYPES OF STARS! 757 BINARY AND MULTIPLE STAR SYSTEMS 758 Algol - the Demon Star 758 Contact Binaries 763 THE SIZES OF STARS 764 Size Comparison of the Planets to Stars in Order of Increasing Diameter 764 STELLAR EVOLUTION SIMPLIFIED 765 Types of Stars 767 Stars from the Largest to the Smallest 767 Ultra-Dense Bizarre Stars 767 Explosive Events 767 Hypergiants 767 Supergiants 769 Red Supergiants 770 Blue and Yellow Supergiants 773 Giants 773 Red Giants 773 Dwarf Stars 773 Yellow Dwarfs 774 Our Sun’s Evolution 774 Red Dwarfs 775 Blue Dwarfs 777 White Dwarfs 778 Brown Dwarfs 778 THE NEAREST STARS TO THE SUN 781

CHAPTER 28: BIZARRE STARS 782 Part 1 STRANGE STARS 783 Epsilon Aurigae – a Most Mysterious Star 783 A Five Star System 785 Rapidly Spinning Stars 785 xx Part 2 UNUSUAL VARIABLE STARS 786 The Enigmatic Star Eta Carinae 787 Novas 790 A Helium Flash Nova 790 The Strange Nova-Like Star V838 Mon 792 A Dedicated Amateur Who Discovered Novas and Comets 792 Colliding Stars - Nova Vul 1670 793 Part 3 WARNING! MIND-BENDING ATOMIC PHYSICS AHEAD 794 The Size of Atoms 794 Electrons 795 The Quantum Universe 796 Degenerate Matter 797 Quarks & Leptons – the Most Basic Forms of Matter 800 Part 4 SUPER-DENSE STARS 802 Neutron Stars 802 Bipolar Light Beams and Radio Pulses 803 Strange Quark Stars 804 Magnetars 804 Gamma-Ray Bursters (GRBS) 804 Part 5 SUPERNOVAS 808 How Stars Generate Energy and Heavier Elements 809 Supernovas Cause Star Formation 812 When Betelgeuse Goes Supernova 812 Supernova Types 812 Type Ia – a White Dwarf Supernova 812 Types Ib and 1c – Core Collapse Supernovas 814 How a binary system with a white dwarf and a giant star produce a supernova 814 The Implosion 815 The Explosion 815 Mass of Stars That Go Supernova 817 Supernova Remnants 818 The Crab Nebula – Messier 1 818

xxi Discovery of the Unusual 1987a LMC Supernova 821 Visual Supernova Searches 824 Amateur Supernova Searches 825 Naked Eye and Binocular Search Charts for Searching for Supernovas Visually in the Magellanic Clouds and the Andromeda Galaxy 826 Part 6 BLACK HOLES 827 Types of Black Holes 828 Stellar Mass Black Holes 828 Supermassive Black Holes (SMBHs) 829 Quasars 829 Observational Evidence That Proves the Existence of Black Holes 830 Proof 1 – Near Infinite Mass 830 Proof 2 – Strong Emissions 830 Proof 3 – Polar Jets 830 Proof 4 – Black Holes Absorb Energy 834 Proof 5 – the Spin of Black Holes 834 Proof 6 – Gravity Waves Detected from Black Hole Mergers 834 Proof 7 – Stars Orbiting Supermassive Black Holes 835 A Black Hole’s Event Horizon 837 Naked Black Holes 839 A Black Hole’s Accretion Disc 839 Entering the Event Horizon 840 The Singularity 841 COMPARING BLACK HOLES TO THE BIG BANG 842 SUPERNOVA SEARCH CHARTS FOR THE LMC, SMC, & M31 842

CHAPTER 29: THE MAGNIFICENT MILKY WAY & THE CONSTELLATIONS 848 OUR MILKY WAY’S APPEARANCE 849 INTERESTING ASPECTS OF OUR MILKY WAY 850 THE SPIRAL ARMS 852 The Sun’s Dangerous Journey Through Our Galaxy’s Arms 854 When the Sun Passes Though the Spiral Arms 855 How the Spiral Arms Form 855 Comparing the Size of Our Milky Way to Our Solar System 855 THE MILKY WAY’S HALO 857 OUR EDGEWISE VIEW OF OUR GALAXY FROM WITHIN 861 xxii VIEWS OF OUR MILKY WAY 863 See Our Galaxy in 3D with Your Naked Eye 865 THE CENTER OF THE GALAXY 865 The Galactic Disc Is Rich in Star Clusters and Nebulas 868 A Midnight Walk Around the Anglo-Australian Telescope Dome 868 The Great Emu in the Sky 869 IDENTIFYING SOME OF THE MILKY WAY’S MOST OBVIOUS CONSTELLATIONS 870 Easy Constellations and Bright Stars to Learn 870 Obvious Southern Constellations 872

CHAPTER 30: BEAUTIFUL DIFFUSE NEBULAS 875 WHAT ARE DIFFUSE NEBULAS? 876 TYPES OF DIFFUSE NEBULAS 877 BRIGHT DIFFUSE NEBULAS TO OBSERVE 884 The Great Orion Nebula, M42, NGC 1976 884 The , M8, NGC 6523 in Sagittarius 890 The , M20, NGC 6541 in Sagittarius 893 The Omega or Swan Nebula, M17, NGC 6618 in Sagittarius 895 The Eta Carinae Nebula, NGC 3372 in Carina 896 The Butterfly Nebula, NGC 1318 in Cygnus 908 The Cygnus Loop Nebula 909 The Vela Supernova Remnant 913 DARK NEBULOSITIES 916 The Coal Sack 916 The Pipe Nebula 916 The Horsehead Nebula 917 Thackeray’s Dark Globules 918 The Ink Spot Nebula, Barnard 86 in Sagittarius 918 The Corona Australis Dark Nebula Region 920 M78 – The Evil Looking Nebula 923 Other Star Birth Dust Nebulas 925 NEBULAS IN THE LARGE AND SMALL MAGELLANIC CLOUDS (LMC & SMC) 926 The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) 927 Drawings of LMC Objects 927 The Tarantula Nebula, NGC 2070 931 The Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) 937

CHAPTER 31: EXTRAORDINARY PLANETARY NEBULAS 944 xxiii THE SHAPES OF PLANETARIES 945 HOW DO PLANETARY NEBULAS FORM? 947 OBSERVING PLANETARY NEBULAS 949 The Helix Nebula, NGC 7293 in Aquarius 950 The Owl Nebula, M97, NGC 3587 in Ursa Major 951 The , M27, NGC 6853 in Vulpecula 951 The M57 in 952 The Eight Burst Nebula Or the Southern Ring Nebula, NGC 3132 in Vela 952 The Bug or Butterfly Nebula, NGC 6302 in Scorpius 953 The Retina Nebula, IC 4406 in Lupus 953 NGC 2818 in Pyxis 954 The Eskimo or Clown Face Nebula, NGC 2392 in Gemini 954 The Cat’s Eye Nebula, NGC 6543 in Draco 955 Ghost of Jupiter, NGC 3242 in Hydra 955 The Saturn Nebula, NGC 7009 in Aquarius 956 The Planetary, NGC 5189 in Musca 957 NGC 6164 in Norma 957 OTHER PLANETARIES PHOTOGRAPHED BY THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE 958 UNUSUAL PLANETARY NEBULAS 961

CHAPTER 32: STELLAR JEWEL BOXES 965 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF OPEN CLUSTERS 966 OBSERVING THE BEST OPEN CLUSTERS 966 The Nearest Naked Eye Open Clusters 967 The Hyades 967 The Pleiades or the Seven Sisters 967 Coma Berenices Cluster 968 The Best Open Clusters in the Northern Sky 969 The Perseus Double Cluster, NGC 884 and NGC 869 in Perseus 969 M37, NGC 2099 in Auriga 970 M35, NGC 2168 in Gemini 970 The Beehive Cluster or Praesepe Cluster, M44, NGC 2632 in Cancer 971 M67 in Cancer 971 M52 in Cassiopeia 971 The Best Open Clusters in the Southern Sky 972 M41 in Canis Major 973 M47, NGC 2422 in Puppis 973 xxiv NGC 2451 in Puppis 973 The Diamond Cluster, or the Southern Beehive, NGC 2516 in Carina 974 IC 2391 in Vela, the Omicron Velorum Cluster 974 NGC 3114 in Carina 974 The Gem Cluster, NGC 3293 in Carina 974 IC 2606, The Southern Pleiades in Carina 976 The Wishing Well Cluster, NGC 3532 in Carina 976 The Pearl Cluster, NGC 3766 in Carina 977 The Jewel Box Cluster, NGC 4755 977 NGC 6321 in Scorpius 979 The Butterfly Cluster, M6, NGC 6405 in Scorpius 980 The Comet Cluster, M7, NGC 6745 in Scorpius 980 NGC 6067 in Norma 980 The , M11, NGC 6705 in Scutum 981 Open Clusters in the Magellanic Clouds 981 NGC 2100 in the LMC 981

CHAPTER 33: GREAT GLOBULARS 982 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBULARS 983 Stellar Populations in Globulars 983 Globular Populations 984 Types of Stars in Globulars 984 Stars That Have Close Encounters 984 Stars That Merge 984 Black Holes in Globulars 985 The Orbits of Stars in Globulars 985 The Ages of Stars in Globulars 986 The Orbits of Globulars Around Their Parent Galaxy 986 Collapsed Core Globulars 987 The Distribution of Globulars Around Galaxies 988 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN & GLOBULAR STAR CLUSTERS 989 OBSERVING GLOBULARS 989 The Apparent Brightness of Globulars to the Naked Eye 990 THE MOST IMPRESSIVE GLOBULARS TO OBSERVE 990 The 20 Best Globulars 990 GREAT GLOBULARS IN THE NORTHERN SKY 991 The Great Hercules Cluster, M13 991

xxv M5, NGC 5904 in Serpens 993 M3, NGC 5272 in Canes Venatici 993 M15, NGC 7078 in Pegasus 993 M92, NGC 6341 in Hercules 994 SOUTHERN DELIGHTS 994 Omega Centauri, NGC 5139 in Centaurus 994 Tucanae 47, NGC 104 in Tucanae 999 NGC 6752 in Pavo 1004 M22, NGC 6656 in Sagittarius 1005 NGC 6397 in Ara 1006 M4, NGC 6121 in Scorpius 1006 NGC 362 in Tucana 1007 M2, NGC 7089 in Aquarius 1008 M55, NGC 6809 in Sagittarius 1008 M10, NGC 6254 in Ophiuchus 1009 M62, NGC 6266 in Ophiuchus 1009 NGC 2808 in Carina 1010 NGC 6541 in Corona Australis 1011 NGC 6723 in Sagittarius 1011 BEING INSIDE A GLOBULAR 1013

CHAPTER 34: GLORIOUS GALAXIES 1014 HOW TO OBSERVE GALAXIES 1015 HOW GALAXIES WERE DISCOVERED 1015 The Amazing Story of the Great Debate 1017 TYPES OF GALAXIES 1023 GALAXY NAMES 1024 THE LOCAL GROUP OF GALAXIES 1024 The Most Obvious Small Faint Dwarf Galaxies 1027 The Large and Small Magellanic Clouds 1032 The Great Andromeda Galaxy, M31, NGC 224 1034 The Triangulum or the Catherine Wheel Galaxy, M33, NGC 598 1036 MAJOR GALAXIES WITHIN 100 MILLION LIGHT YEARS 1038 THE SCULPTOR GROUP OF GALAXIES 1040 The Silver Coin Galaxy, NGC 253 1040 NGC 247 1041 The Southern Cigar Galaxy, NGC 55 1042 xxvi NGC 300, NGC 6744, NGC 7793 1045 THE INKBLOT GALAXY, NGC 1313 IN RETICULUM 1046 THE URSA MAJOR GROUP 1047 M81/M82 Group 1047 Bode’s Galaxy, M81, NGC 3031 1047 The Northern Cigar Galaxy, M82, NGC 3034 1049 NGC 3077, NGC 2976 1049 THE PINWHEEL GALAXY, M101, NGC 5457 1050 THE CENTAURUS GROUP OF GALAXIES 1053 NGC 5128, Centaurus A 1053 M83 GROUP IN CENTAURUS 1057 M83 1057 NGC 4945 1059 NGC 5102 1059 THE SOMBRERO GALAXY, M104, NGC 4594 IN VIRGO 1060 THE CANES VENATICI 1063 M106, NGC 4258 1063 M51 Group 1065 The Whirlpool Galaxy, M51, NGC 5194 1065 The Sunflower Galaxy, M63, NGC 5055 1066 NGC 891 GROUP IN ANDROMEDA 1067 NGC 891 1067 NGC 925 1067 NGC 7331 IN PEGASUS 1069 THE LEO GROUP - M66, M65 AND NGC 3628 1070 NGC 1097, ARP 77 GROUP IN FORNAX 1071 THE RINGTAIL, OR , NGC 4038-39 IN CORVUS 1071 NGC 1672 IN DORADO 1072 GALAXY GROUPS AND CLUSTERS 1073 Calculating the Mass of Galaxy Clusters 1073 SUPERCLUSTERS OF GALAXIES 1075 The Virgo-Coma Supercluster 1076 The Center of the Virgo Supercluster 1076 NGC 4631 1087 The interacting Hockey Stick Galaxies, NGC 4656 and NGC 4657 1087

xxvii THE COMA BERENICES SUPERCLUSTER 1088 M90, NGC 4569 and M91, NGC 4548 1088 The M64 Group 1089 The Black Eye Galaxy, M64, NGC 4826 1089 The Cat’s Eye Galaxy, M94, NGC 4736 1091 The Needle or Spindle Galaxy, NGC 4565 1092 NGC 4651, the Umbrella Galaxy 1093 THE LEO I GROUP OF GALAXIES 1094 M95 1094 M96 1094 UGC 5340 1096 NGC 3521 1097 THE FORNAX CLUSTER 1099 NGC 1427A 1101 NGC 1380 1102 NGC 1387, NGC 1399 and NGC 1404 1103 NGC 1316 and NGC 1317 1103 NGC 1365, the Great Barred Spiral 1106 NGC 1532 and NGC 1531 1107 THE ERIDANUS CLUSTER 1108 The Turbine Galaxy, NGC 1232 1108 NGC 1300 1109 THE ANTILA GALAXY, ABELL S0636 CLUSTER 1111 STRANGE & UNUSUAL GALAXIES 1113 Peculiar Dwarf Galaxies 1113 Interacting Galaxies 1114 Ring Galaxies 1115 Dustless Edgewise Galaxies 1116 Old Spirals Lacking Nebulas and Star birth 1117 MERGING GALAXIES 1119 Ring Galaxies Formed from Collisions or Mergers 1121 How the Milky Way and M31 Will Merge in the Distant Future 1123 GRAVITATIONALLY LENSED GALAXIES 1125

VOLUME 4: THE BIG QUESTIONS 1129

CHAPTER 35: OUR STRANGE AND COMPLEX COSMOS 1131

xxviii Part 1 COSMOLOGICAL CONCEPTS & ENIGMAS 1132 Part 2 THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER 1133 A Brief History of the Evolution of Matter 1134 Basic Components of Matter 1135 The Nature of Matter in Four Common States 1138 An Explanation of the States of Matter 1142 The Forces of Nature 1142 A Brief Summary of String Theory 1142 Part 3 THE BIG BANG AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE 1144 The Big Bang 1144 How the Universe Evolved 1147 Chronology of the Universe in Billions of Years 1150 An In-depth Account of the Big Bang 1150 Part 4 THE ‘OBSERVABLE’ UNIVERSE 1154 Part 5 THE EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE 1158 Where Could the Universe Have Come from? 1160 Part 6 DARK MATTER & DARK ENERGY 1161 Dark Matter 1162 Dark Energy 1162 Important Facts About Mass, Energy and Gravity 1162 Could Dark Energy Create a Multiverse? 1164 Part 7 THE MULTIVERSE CONCEPT 1164 Could There be Parallel Universes? 1166 Virtual Universes 1166 Part 8 THE PECULIAR PROPERTIES OF SPACE AND TIME 1167 The Profound Effects of Relativity 1167 The Photon Paradox 1168

xxix Part 9 THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE 1168 Is the Greater Universe the Same as It Is in Our Region? 1168 Discovering the Geometry of the Earth 1169 Is Space Flat or Curved? 1172 What Geometry Does Space Have? 1173 Extra Dimensions 1174 Visualizing Higher Dimensions 1175 The Weirdness of the Quantum Universe 1175 Part 10 MERGING GALAXIES 1176 How Galaxies Merge 1178 The Stages of Merging Galaxies 1178 What is the Great Attractor? 1181 Part 11 THE FUTURE OF THE UNIVERSE 1188 We Are Very Privileged 1190 The Death of the Universe 1190 Part 12 THE UNIVERSE’S TWO OPPOSING PROPERTIES - ENTROPY & ORDER 1190 What Drives the Universe Towards Increasing Complexity? 1191 The Discovery of Chaos Theory 1191 A Simple Formula Drives Chaos 1192 An Experiment That Visually Demonstrates the Butterfly Effect 1192 Butterfly Effects at Work in Nature 1193 Part 13 THE FILAMENTARY STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE 1195 The Spooky Alignment of the Poles of Quasars 1196 The Illustris Simulation of the Universe 1197 The Microwave Background Radiation 1198 Part 14 HOW DID OUR UNIVERSE BECOME SO FINELY-TUNED? 1199 Part 15 DID A GOD CREATE THE UNIVERSE? 1200 How Religion Evolved 1200 The Impact and Role of Science 1201 xxx Is Religion a Common Stage of Development For All Intelligences? 1202 People Who Believe in Religion 1202 What the Future Holds 1203

CHAPTER 36: ANSWERS TO THE BIG QUESTIONS 1204 Part 1 WHY THE QUESTIONS IN THIS CHAPTER ARE IMPORTANT? 1205 Throughout This Chapter 1205 A Lifetime of Research and Discussions 1205 Uncertainty and Speculation 1206 Humanity’s Expanding Knowledge 1210 The Advancement of Astronomy over the Last 100 Years 1210 Revolutions in Science 1212 Exponential Growth 1213 Mega-intelligence 1214 Discussions on the Big Questions 1214 Innovative Environments for Creative Thinking 1215 Amazing Concepts 1218 Simple yet Challenging Puzzles 1218 An Imaginative Analogy to Modern-Day Explorers in Science 1219 Answers to Simple yet Challenging Puzzles 1220 WARNING! Challenging Concepts Follow 1221 Part 2 IS THERE LIFE OUT THERE? 1222 Observable Universes Within the Greater Universe 1223 How Many Planets Exist in the Observable Universe? 1225 How Many Galaxies Are There in the Universe? 1226 Dwarf Galaxies 1226 Globular Star Clusters 1226 How Many Stars Are There in an Average-Sized Galaxy? 1227 How Many Planets Do Stars Have? 1227 Are There Planets Outside Solar Systems? 1228 How Many Planets Are There in the Universe? 1229 Finding Exoplanets 1229 Amateurs Are Now Discovering Exo-planets 1231 What Are Exoplanets Like? 1231 The Number of Planets That Might Sustain Life 1236 How Many Planets Might Have Intelligent Life? 1237 xxxi Estimated Numbers of Galaxies, Stars, Planets Supporting Life, and Those with High Technology Intelligence 1238 Part 3 WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT LIFE? 1239 How Did Life Evolve? 1239 The Major Steps in the Evolution of Life 1239 How Is Life Defined? 1244 What Does Life Need to Evolve? 1244 Can Life Only Exist in the ‘Habitable Zone’ of a Star? 1246 Can Life Adapt to Extreme Conditions? 1247 How Vulnerable Is Life to Changing Conditions? 1252 Magical DNA and Genes 1252 Is Life on Earth Unique? 1253 How Quickly Did Life Evolve on Earth? 1254 Why Is There a Preference for Left and Right-Handedness in the Molecules for Life? 1262 Can Evolution Occur Quickly? 1262 Emotions 1263 Part 4 IS ALIEN LIFE LIKELY TO EXIST? 1264 What Might Alien Life Forms Be Like? 1264 Genetic Differences and Intellectual Separation 1271 Part 5 WHERE ARE THE ALIENS? 1271 Why We Do Not See Evidence of Intelligent Life? 1273 Recognizing Advanced Intelligences 1274 Wishful Beliefs 1274 What Are UFOs? 1274 UFO Hoaxes 1275 Scientific Investigations of UFO Reports 1276 The Martian Invasion! 1276 Earth to Become Unlivable! 1278 Recent Myths About World-Threatening Catastrophes 1278 So, What Are the UFOs That People See? 1281 Part 6 WILL HUMANS EXPLORE MARS AND OTHER WORLDS? 1283 Political Incentive 1283 The Cost 1283

xxxii What Is Needed to Go to Mars? 1283 Many Planned Manned Mars Missions 1284 What Role Will Robots Play? 1285 What Are the Realities of a Manned Mission to Mars? 1285 Travel Times to Mars Are Too Long to Be Practical for Humans 1285 Food 1285 High-Velocity Space Drive Technology Is Unlikely to Be Invented 1286 Major Problems for Manned Mars Missions 1286 Life Threatening Risks Due to Low Gravity 1286 Radiation Exposure 1287 Psychological Problems 1287 Medical Problems 1287 Lack of Maintenance Facilities 1288 Space Suits 1288 Depressing Landscapes 1288 3D Martian Landscapes 1290 Robotic Missions Are the Only Viable Solution 1290 Visiting Other Worlds Virtually 1292 Part 7 HOW REALISTIC IS INTERSTELLAR SPACE TRAVEL? 1292 Energy Requirements for Interstellar Travel 1292 The Cosmic Speed Limit 1294 Long Travel Times Make Space Travel Illogical 1295 Other Reasons Why Interstellar Space Travel Is Unrealistic 1295 Will Exponential Technological Development Make Space Travel Pointless? 1296 Part 8 ARE SPACE WARPS & TIME TRAVEL POSSIBLE? 1296 Does the Warping of Space Affect Time? 1297 Would Changing the Past Affect the Future? 1297 Impossible Accuracy Is Required for Any Form of Warping Space 1298 Reconstruction After Teleportation 1299 Teleportation Blasts 1299 Part 9 HOW FAST IS HUMAN KNOWLEDGE INCREASING? 1299 Why Did Humans Advance so Much More Quickly Than Other Animals? 1300 What Were the Major Milestones That Led to Humans Evolving Towards High Technology? 1301

xxxiii The Discovery and Use of Metals Was a Major Technological Breakthrough 1307 The Evolution of Human Architecture 1308 Ages Of Human Development 1308 Visions of Future Cities 1314 Cities in Orbit 1319 Part 10 WHAT IS EXPONENTIAL TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT? 1321 The Exponential Growth of Inventions 1321 The Development Rate of Computers 1322 How Technology Has Developed 1322 Transportation 1322 3D Printing 1323 The Cost of Production 1323 Energy 1323 Virtual Reality 1323 High Tech Communication 1323 Advances in Vision 1323 Increasing Computer Intelligence 1324 Transhumanism 1324 Advanced Genetic Engineering 1324 Nanotechnology Enhanced Transhumans 1327 Rapidly Increasing Intelligence, Memory, Knowledge, and Wisdom 1327 Living in Virtual Reality Worlds 1327 Part 11 WHAT IS A MEGA-INTELLIGENCE? 1330 The Difference Between Us and a Mega-intelligence 1330 The Expotential Evolution of Mega-intelligence 1330 Mega-intelligence May Evolve from a Synthesis of Super Computers and Quantum Computers 1331 Governments Are Ignoring The Effects of Technological Advances 1332 How Quickly Will Mega-intelligences Take Control? 1332 Will Mega-Intelligence Control Us? 1333 The Current Development of AI 1334 AI’s Decision-Making Ability 1334 The Technological Singularity 1338 What Might Mega-intelligence Evolve into? 1341 How Long Ago Might the First Mega-Intelligences in the Universe Have Evolved? 1341 Why Do We Not See Evidence for Mega-intelligence in the Universe? 1341 xxxiv Could Interstellar Mega-Intelligences Communicate with One Another? 1343 Part 12 IS INTERSTELLAR RADIO COMMUNICATION POSSIBLE? 1343 SETI - the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 1343 What Might Aliens Think of Our Radio Transmissions? 1345 Would Advanced Aliens Want to Plunder Us? 1345 Envisaging the Future 1346 Part 13 HOW SOON WILL INTELLIGENT ROBOTS EVOLVE? 1348 Current Advances in AI Surveillance 1349 Could Intelligent Robots Produce Art? 1352 Humanized Robots (Hubots) 1352 Will Robots Replace Humans in the Workforce? 1353 What Are the Advantages of Robots? 1353 AI in Medicine 1354 The Decline in People Doing Science and Mathematics 1356 AI Is Already Taking Human Jobs 1356 What Will Humans Do? 1358 Our Future Health 1358 Predicting The Future 1359 Is Technology Unnatural? 1359 Is There Anything in the Universe That Is Not Natural or Not Physical? 1360 Part 14 HOW DOES INTELLIGENCE EVOLVE? 1362 What Is Intelligence? 1362 About the Human Brain 1362 Different Types of Intelligence 1366 Entropica – a Self-Learning Intelligent Program 1367 Does Yellow Slime Mold Have Intelligence? 1367 Part 15 CONSCIOUSNESS 1368 What Is Consciousness? 1368 The Evolution of Consciousness 1369 Limited Consciousness 1369 The Human Brain Compared to Computer Intelligence 1370 What Role Might Consciousness Play in the Universe? 1371

xxxv Part 16 CONCEIVING A THEORY OF MIND 1372 The Goals of Intelligence 1372 The Challenge of Replicating the Human Mind and Consciousness 1373 Do Human Minds Think Differently to Computers? 1373 Global Computer Neural Networks 1375 Part 17 DOES ENHANCED CONSCIOUSNESS SLOW THE PASSAGE OF TIME? 1375 The Goal of Sensory and Intellectual Enhancement 1375 Minimizing the Brain’s Sensory Filtering System 1378 Plants That Enhance Consciousness 1378 The Expansion of Time 1379 Research Findings 1382 Hallucinations 1383 Common Effects 1383 Could Thoughts and Experiences Be Transferred from One Mind to Another? 1384 Enhanced Memory 1385 Part 18 IS THE FUTURE PREDETERMINED? 1385 Does the Present Exist? 1386 Observing History as It Occurs 1387 Part 19 DOES INTELLIGENT LIFE HAVE FREE WILL? 1388 The Autopilot in Our Mind 1388 How Do Our Senses Work? 1389 Multiple Senses 1390 Part 20 DO WE CONSCIOUSLY MAKE OUR DECISIONS? 1391 Part 21 WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE IDENTICAL TWIN STUDIES? 1392 NATURE VS NURTURE 1392 To What Extent Do Our Genes Control Us? 1392 Environmental Effects on Genes 1394 Part 22 DUAL BRAINS 1397 The Left Hemisphere 1397 xxxvi The Right Hemisphere 1397 Two Minds in One Body 1398 Working Together 1398 Decision Making 1401 The Importance of Scientific Literacy 1401 Part 23 WHAT IS MATTER? 1403 Materialism or Idealism - Which Is Right? 1403 Why Are the Results of the Double Slit Experiment so Counter-Intuitive? 1404 How Can the Weird Properties of Quantum Entanglement Be Explained? 1406 An Explanation for Quantum Weirdness 1406 The Delayed Choice Quantum Eraser Experiment 1408 Is There Anything That Is Not Physical? 1410 Part 24 IS OUR UNIVERSE REAL, OR IS IT A SIMULATION? 1410 Support for Idealism 1412 What Evidence Supports Our Universe Being a Simulation? 1412 Is the Universe the Ultimate Operating System? 1414 Part 25 COULD MEGA-INTELLIGENCE CHANGE THE EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE? 1415 Could Our Universe Be a Digital Program? If So, Who Wrote It? 1415 The Universe’s Bits 1416 How Is a Simulated Universe Different from a Real One? 1416 Could a Consciousness Beyond Our Universe Have Created the Big Bang? 1417 Part 26 IS THE UNIVERSE DESIGNED AROUND MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS? 1418 Examples of Simple Formulas in Nature 1419 Fractals – Nature’s Formulas for Repeating Patterns 1419 Examples of Fractals in Nature 1420 The Algebraic Formulas of Logic 1425 Computer Modeling of Nature Based on Fractal Geometry 1425 Are Infinities Real? 1425 Part 27 SUMMARIZING THE MAIN POINTS OF CHAPTER 36 1426 The Number Of Planets That Might Sustain Life and Intelligence 1426 Universal Necessities and Laws for the Emergence of Life 1427

xxxvii The Evolution of Mega-Intelligence 1427 Humans Will Evolve into Transhumans 1428 Intelligence & Consciousness 1429 Space Travel & Space Warps 1429 Communication with Interstellar Intelligences 1429 Challenging Concepts 1430 Being Realistic About Popular Myths 1430 Limiting Our Vision 1431 Part 28 OUR AMAZING COSMOS 1433 Astronomy - the Most Exciting of All the Sciences 1433 Astronomy Encompasses Many Sciences 1433 Endless Incredible Discoveries 1433 What We Now Know 1433 What We Are About to Discover 1434 Marvelous Beauty 1434 How Lucky Are We? 1435 Discovering What Is Real 1437 Astronomy Excites the Imagination 1438 IN CLOSING 1438

APPENDIX 1: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION 1442 THE CENSORING OF INFORMATION 1443 Fake Science 1443 Chapter 6 – Let’s Get Practical 1443 Chapter 11 – Photographing the Heavens 1443 Chapter 15 – Earth’s Astronomical Phenomena 1443 Chapter 16 – Catch a Falling Star 1443 Chapter 17 – Our Amazing Sun 1444 Chapter 19 - Our Dramatic Moon 1444 Chapter 20 – Discovering the Planets 1444 Chapter 26 – Asteroids Dwarf Planets & Comets 1444 Chapter 27 – Such a Diversity of Stars 1444 Chapter 28 – Bizarre Stars 1444 Chapter 33 – Great Globulars 1444 Chapter 34 – Glorious Galaxies 1444 Chapter 35 – Our Strange and Complex Cosmos 1444

xxxviii Part 1 – Cosmological Concepts and Enigmas 1444 Part 2 - The Structure of Matter 1444 Part 3 - The Big Bang and the Evolution of the Universe 1445 Part 4 - The Observable Universe 1445 Part 5 – The Expansion of the Universe 1445 Part 6 - Dark Matter and Dark Energy 1445 Part 7 - The Multiverse Concept 1445 Part 9 - The Geometry of Space 1445 Part 12 – The Universe’s Two Opposing Properties 1445 Part 14 – How Did Our Universe Become So Finely-Tuned 1445 Part 15 – Did God Create the Universe 1445 Chapter 36 - Answers to the Big Questions 1445 Part 1 - the Growth of Knowledge and Technology 1445 Part 2 - Is There Life out There? 1445 Part 3 - What Do We Know About Life? 1445 Part 6 - Will Humans Explore Mars? 1445 Part 9 - How Fast Is Human Knowledge Increasing? 1445 Part 10 - Exponential Technological Development 1445 Part 11 - Mega-Intelligence 1445 Part 12 - Is Interstellar Radio Communication Possible? 1446 Part 13 - How Soon Will Intelligent Robots Evolve? 1446 Part 14 - How Does Intelligence Evolve? 1446 Part 15 – Consciousness 1446 Part 16 - Conceiving a Theory of Mind 1446 Part 17 - Does Enhanced Consciousness Slow the Passage of Time? 1446 Part 18 - Is the Future Predetermined? 1446 Part 19 - Does Intelligent Life Have Free Will? 1446 Part 20 - How Conscious Are We of the Decisions We Make? 1446 Part 21 – the Implications of Identical Twin Studies 1446 Part 23 – What Is Matter? 1446 Part 24 - Are Virtual Universes Possible? 1446 Part 25 - Could Mega-Intelligences Change the Evolution of the Universe? 1447 Part 26 – Is the Universe Designed Around Mathematical Formulas? 1447

APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT BASIC SCIENCE 1448 QUESTIONS 1449 Physics 1449

xxxix Chemistry 1449 Astronomy 1450 Geology 1450 Meteorology 1450 Medical/Physiology 1451 Biology 1451 ANSWERS 1452 Physics 1452 Chemistry 1452 Astronomy 1453 Geology 1454 Meteorology 1455 Medical/Physiology 1456 Biology 1457

APPENDIX 3: OUTSTANDING ASTROPHOTOGRAPHERS 1460 INTRODUCTION 1461 Beletsky, Yuri - Chile  1461 Bosman, Richard - Enschede, Netherlands  1461 Cannistra, Stephen - USA 1462 Claro, Miguel - Lisbon, Portugal  1462 Crouch, Steve - Canberra, Australia  1462 Druckmuller, Miloslav - Chec Republic 1463 Dyer, Alan - Alberta, Canada  1463 Eder, Ivan - Hungry  1463 Equivar, Sergio - Equivar, Argentina 1464 Espenak, Fred - Arizona, USA  1464 Fera, Bob - California, USA  1464 GaBany, Robert Jay - USA  1465 Gendler, Robert - USA  1465 Goldman, Don - USA  1465 Guisard, Stephane - Chile  1466 Hart, Phil - Australia  1466 Hoeven, Andre van der - Netherlands  1466 Olsen, Rolf - Auckland, New Zealand  1467 Legault, Thierry- France  1467 Lopez, Daniel - Canary Is  1467

xl Lorenzi, Marco - Singapore, Australia  1467 Mazlin, Steve - USA  1468 Peach, Damian - England, UK  1468 Rhemann, Gerald - Austria  1469 Sidonio, Michael - ACT, Australia 1469 Tafreshi, Babak - Chile 1469 Trimarchi, Eddie - Gold Coast, Australia  1470 Tyler, Dave - England, UK 1470 Verschatse, Daniel - Santiago, Chile  1470 Viladrich, Christian - France  1470

APPENDIX 4: ON INTELLIGENCE, KNOWLEDGE, AND WISDOM 1472 INTELLIGENCE VS KNOWLEDGE 1473 KNOWLEDGE 1473 WISDOM 1474 The Qualities of People with Wisdom 1474 COMMON QUALITIES OF INTELLIGENT PEOPLE 1475 INTELLIGENT QUOTA (IQ) 1476 RANGES OF IQ 1477 COMPARING IQs 1478

INDEX 1480

xli xlii