Springer Geography

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10180 Yves Boquet

The Philippine Archipelago Yves Boquet Département de Géographie Université de Bourgogne Dijon, France

ISSN 2194-315X ISSN 2194-3168 (electronic) Springer Geography ISBN 978-3-319-51925-8 ISBN 978-3-319-51926-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51926-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017930197

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This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Acknowledgements

In loving memory of Mrs Josefina Labrador (1939-1977)

This book would not exist without the warm welcome of my Filipino friends and colleagues. Maraming salamat sa inyong lahat! I must first of all thank the Department of Geography at the University of the –Diliman in City for hosting me on several occasions and espe- cially during my stay as a guest faculty from June to September 2013. Heartfelt thanks to its director Dr. Darlene Occeña-Gutierrez, who organized my stay and arranged for my long-term campus accommodation, free of charge, barely 5 min walking time from my bedroom to my classroom: thanks are given to the efficient and friendly staff of UP-Nismed residence. Thank you Professor Meliton Juanico, who introduced me to during my first ever visit to the Philippines in August 2009. Thank you to David Garcia who accompanied me in Clark and Subic Bay, and Emmanuel Garcia for experiencing all kinds of public transport in Manila on my second visit in December 2009. Thank you also to Daniel Mabazza for many insightful exchanges including in Chile and Poland during IGU conferences, Doracie Zoleta-Nantes (from Cologne to Kyoto), Ony Martinez, and the rest of the department, faculty, staff, and my students of GEOG 151 and GEOG 242, for their contributions and suggestions about this book, and the tasting of Philippine delica- cies on many occasions. Thank you to colleagues in other departments, in particular the Institute of Transport, the UP Department of Architecture and Urban Planning (Dean Mary Ann Espina, Michael Tomeldan, Danilo Silvestre), the UP Diliman Center for International Studies (Professor Cynthia “Chim” Zayas, Raymond Macapagal and others, who introduced me to Ifugao anthropology), and UP Chancellor Dr. Michael Tan. I have also a profound gratitude to the Lyceum of the Philippines University (Manila campus) for another 4 months teaching stint (June to September 2015): thanks to Deans Cristina Aquino and Lilibeth Aragon, as well as Myrna Reyes and Rommel Cabacog who helped immensely in the logistics of an extended stay, and to the dynamic students of my world tourism classes. Thank you to colleagues in Ateneo de Manila (), especially Danielle Guillen, Michael Pante, Professor Filomeno Aguilar, and Hiroko Nagai, and at La Consolacion College (Manila), for welcoming me to conferences and for seminars

v vi Acknowledgements in their respective universities, and for trusting me to publish in Philippine Studies and review for books and articles about the Philippines. Being recognized as an expert on their country by my Filipino academic peers is indeed very gratifying. Christian Merer, as Cultural attaché at the French Embassy in Manila ( to be precise), provided early advice and contacts with Philippine academics. This was very valuable. I am grateful to the University of Burgundy and my colleagues in the Department of Geography for allowing me to leave for such long times and as often! Succeeding university presidents Sophie Béjean and Alain Bonnin, the deans of the School of Social Sciences Daniel Durney and Philippe Salvadori, as well as International Relations director Caroline Fortier have all encouraged my efforts to develop aca- demic exchanges with the Philippines. My senior students at the UTB Inter-Age Université pour Tous have been a remarkably responding audience in the spring of 2016 when I proposed a course focusing solely on the Philippines, quite possibly a first in French universities. Thanks to Editions Universitaires de Dijon’s director Professor Hervé Duchêne for encouraging me to write on short notice an abridged French version of this book, and EUD commercial director Philippe Vauthier for promoting it so well to the media on the eve of the 2016 Philippine elections. It helped me to clarify the focus of some chapters in the present book. Thanks must be addressed to Jean-Jacques Bavoux, Carol Boquet, Pierre Camberlin, Jean-Pierre Chabin, Robert Chapuis, Guillaume Giroir, and Pierre Volpoet for their constructive readings, remarks, criticisms, and suggestions along- side the elaboration of this book. I have an immense gratitude towards my sister Véronique Lahaye, cartographer at the Paris geography institute (University Paris-Sorbonne) who made beautiful maps out of my ugly sketches and scribbles and transformed boring statistical data into explicit thematic maps. One map drawn at UP by Ony Martinez for an earlier paper was reused in this book. All photographs in the book are mine. I was also able to experience life in the Philippines “from the inside” thanks to many friendships developed since 2009. It is impossible to mention everyone, but I thank above all those who welcomed me to their homes in provinces, under the shade of palm trees or in front of rice fields, without the physical comfort of the West or hotels, but with the warm and smiling hospitality of Filipinos: families De Leon, Guevarra, Martinez, Osio, Saguinsin and Siquijor in Calauan, Cabuyao, Pagsanjan, Victoria and Santa Cruz (), Diesta and Marbella in Pagbilao and San Antonio (Quezon), Labrador, Ramos and Botuyan in Cayucyucan (Camarines Norte), Factor in Pinamalayan (Oriental Mindoro). Thank you all for making me “kuya” (elder brother), “tito” (uncle), or “ninong” (godfather and wed- ding sponsor). Thank you Mr. Rogelio Labrador for making me feel part of your extended family, and for the karaoke singing duets. This immersion in the life of several Filipino families has been an invaluable experience to complement and enrich academic, book-based, knowledge, and understand better how people live in the country, what is important to them, while sharing their day-to-day joys and ­sadnesses, hopes and disappointments, enthusiasms, and difficulties. I think it will show through in several parts of this book. Acknowledgements vii

Thank you to Bernard Marcellana for driving long hours to Bicol and the north- ern Philippines (Baguio, Banaue, Sagada) in 2011 and 2012 and many interesting insights about the Philippines during these trips of discovery outside of Manila. I am very grateful to Richel Martinez, Joy, and Janneth Botuyan for helping and translat- ing into/from Tagalog or Bikolano during field surveys in Pagsanjan and Cayucyucan. The country has many problems to solve, but also a youthful population willing to do it, if given the chance. Filipino children (Aesha, Allaine, Andy, Ayill, Chris Jay, Evelyn, Ghiem, Hannahkim, James Albert, Jhanella, John Hurley, Khayeann, King Lenard, Limchel, Maelyn, Mark Rassel, Miles, Nonoy, Patrick, Ralph Ronald, Rheu Jade, Sarah Joy, Sean Ace, Trishia, Yuna, and millions of others): the future of the Philippines is in your hands! Contents

1 Introduction...... 1 References...... 7

Part I Land, History and People 2 7107 Islands...... 11 2.1 Sea and Land Intertwined: The Terraqueous Character of the Philippines...... 12 2.1.1 Islands, Seas and Lakes...... 12 2.1.2 Shorelines...... 18 2.1.3 Philippine Seas and EEZ...... 21 2.2 Mountainous Islands from the Ring of Fire...... 22 2.2.1 Physiography of the Philippines...... 22 2.2.2 The Complex Origin of the Philippine Archipelago...... 24 2.3 The High Level of Maritimity of the Archipelago...... 27 2.3.1 Coastal Population...... 27 2.3.2 People of the Sea: The Badjao “Sea Gypsies”...... 28 2.3.3 Dangers from the Sea...... 30 References...... 31 3 A Tropical Archipelago...... 37 3.1 General Characteristics of the Philippine Climate...... 37 3.2 Amihan and Habagat...... 43 3.3 Typhoons...... 48 References...... 57 4 The Spanish Creation of the Philippines: The Birth of a Nation...... 61 4.1 Pre-Hispanic Philippines...... 62 4.2 Spanish Exploration and Conquest...... 65 4.3 The Spanish Colonization of the Philippines...... 68

ix x Contents

4.3.1 Hispanic Philippines...... 68 4.3.2 Catholic Philippines...... 72 4.4 The Philippine Revolution...... 76 4.4.1 The National Heroes, and Bonifacio...... 78 4.4.2 From the Spanish-American War to the Philippine-­American War...... 79 References...... 83 5 From US Colony to Independent Country: The Construction of a State...... 91 5.1 The American Colonization of the Philippines...... 91 5.2 The Independence of the Philippines...... 96 5.2.1 The Commonwealth of the Philippines...... 96 5.2.2 The Japanese Invasion...... 98 5.2.3 Independence...... 101 5.3 The Republic of the Philippines...... 103 5.3.1 From Democracy to Martial Law...... 103 5.3.2 “People Power”: The EDSA Revolution...... 104 5.3.3 The Post-Marcos Years...... 105 References...... 110 6 100 Million Filipinos...... 117 6.1 The Rising Number of Filipinos...... 119 6.1.1 Growth Population Data...... 119 6.1.2 A Young Country...... 120 6.1.3 A Sexually Active Filipino Youth...... 122 6.1.4 Determinants of Fertility...... 126 6.1.5 The Role of the Catholic Church in High Fertility Rates..... 128 6.1.6 Fertility and Infant Mortality...... 129 6.2 A Slower Population Growth and Its Expected Benefits...... 129 6.2.1 A Fertility Transition Underway...... 129 6.2.2 The Society Debate Around the RH Bill...... 131 6.2.3 A Demographic “Sweet Spot” for the Philippine Economy ?...... 136 6.3 The Health Status of the Philippine Population...... 137 6.3.1 Mortality and Life Expectancy...... 138 6.3.2 Improving Children’s Health...... 138 6.3.3 Controlling Infectious Diseases...... 140 References...... 150 7 The Diversity of the Philippine Population...... 159 7.1 The Linguistic Diversity...... 160 7.2 Indigenous Minorities in the Philippines...... 168 7.2.1 The Diversity of Indigenous Minorities...... 168 7.2.2 The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997...... 172 7.3 The Chinese in the Philippines...... 173 References...... 175 Contents xi

Part II The Philippines in the Global Economy 8 Emerging Tiger? The Paradoxes of the Philippine Economy...... 183 8.1 A Laggard Country...... 184 8.2 A Declining Position in Asia...... 187 8.3 A Country Perceived as Difficult to Do Business In...... 190 8.4 Innovation and Higher Education: A Mediocre Performance in International Surveys...... 192 8.5 An Unusual Structure of Employment...... 196 8.6 The “Informal” Economy...... 197 8.7 Growth Without Development?...... 201 References...... 205 9 Farm Productions and Rural Landscapes...... 213 9.1 Farms and Crops...... 214 9.2 Rice in the Philippines...... 215 9.2.1 Rice Eating in the Philippines...... 216 9.2.2 The Geography of Rice in the Philippines...... 217 9.2.3 The Ifugao Rice Terraces of Northern Luzon...... 219 9.3 Corn: The Second Staple Crop...... 224 9.4 Three Major Export Crops...... 226 9.4.1 Coconuts...... 227 9.4.2 Bananas...... 234 9.4.3 Pineapple...... 239 9.5 Animal Husbandry in the Philippines...... 242 9.5.1 Hog Raising, Between Backyard Pigs and Industrial Swine Production...... 242 9.5.2 Cattle Raising...... 246 9.5.3 Poultry...... 248 References...... 252 10 The Philippine Agriculture: Weaknesses and Controversies...... 259 10.1 Sugar Haciendas...... 261 10.2 Agrarian Reform...... 266 10.2.1 Land Ownership Inequalities...... 266 10.2.2 Peasant Movements...... 268 10.2.3 Land Reform...... 270 10.3 Insuring Rice Self-Sufficiency for the Philippines...... 280 10.3.1 Not Enough Rice...... 280 10.3.2 Rice Research: Successes and Controversies...... 283 10.3.3 Rice Imports Policy...... 287 10.4 The Issues of Land Conversion and Environmental Degradation...... 288 References...... 290 xii Contents

11 The Use and Abuse of Sea Resources...... 301 11.1 Fish and Fisheries...... 303 11.1.1 The Consumption and Use of Seafood...... 303 11.1.2 Fisheries Production and Geography...... 305 11.1.3 Reversing the Decline of Philippine Marine Fisheries..... 311 11.2 Aquaculture in the Philippines...... 314 11.2.1 Fishponds for Milkfish...... 315 11.2.2 Subsistence Aquaculture?...... 318 11.3 Protecting a Rich Marine Environment Under Threat...... 320 11.3.1 Marine Biodiversity...... 320 11.3.2 Coastal Resource Management...... 322 11.3.3 Restoring Mangrove Ecosystems...... 327 References...... 330 12 Industry vs. Services...... 341 12.1 The Failed Industrialization of the Philippines...... 342 12.1.1 Mining Potentials and Conflicts...... 344 12.1.2 Energy and Steelmaking...... 346 12.1.3 The Textile and Garment Industries...... 349 12.1.4 The Philippine Automotive Industry...... 351 12.1.5 A Belated Turn Towards High-Technology Manufacturing...... 353 12.2 The Rise of Services...... 354 12.2.1 Sources of Wealth...... 354 12.2.2 Call Centers Hub: English as an Asset in Globalization...... 356 References...... 361 13 Global Pinoys: The Archipelago of Migration...... 367 13.1 A Worldwide Filipino Presence...... 369 13.1.1 The Geography of Philippine Expatriation...... 370 13.1.2 A Growing Trend of Philippine Expatriation...... 370 13.1.3 Filipinos in North America...... 376 13.1.4 Filipinos in the Middle East...... 380 13.2 The Role of the Philippine Government in International Migration...... 382 13.2.1 Organizing Migration...... 384 13.2.2 Protecting Workers and Their Families...... 386 13.3 Assessing the Impact of International Migration on the Philippines...... 389 13.3.1 Filipino Skilled Mobility or Brain Drain?...... 389 13.3.2 The Migration of Nurses...... 391 13.3.3 Remittances...... 393 13.3.4 The Case of Filipino Sailors...... 397 13.3.5 Social and Family Destructuration...... 399 13.4 The Risks of Dependence: A “Slave Nation”?...... 400 References...... 404 Contents xiii

Part III Regional Organization and Spatial Planning 14 Spatial Structures of the Philippines: Urbanization and Regional Inequalities...... 419 14.1 Administrative Divisions of the Philippines...... 420 14.1.1 Provinces...... 421 14.1.2 Regions...... 422 14.1.3 Cities and Municipalities...... 423 14.1.4 Barangay...... 426 14.1.5 Purok and Sitio...... 430 14.2 From Rural to Urban: Patterns of Urbanization in the Philippines...... 431 14.2.1 Urbanization Rates...... 431 14.2.2 Migration and Urbanization...... 434 14.3 From the Colonial to the Modern City: Housing Forms and Urban Landscapes...... 436 14.3.1 Colonial Cities from the Spanish Area...... 436 14.3.2 Traditional Philippine Houses...... 438 14.3.3 New Urban Landscapes...... 444 14.4 Regional Disparities and Hierarchies...... 448 14.4.1 Disparities in the Economic Development and Weight of Philippine Regions, Provinces and Cities...... 449 14.4.2 Social Inegalities Between the Philippine Regions...... 456 References...... 459 15 Transportation in the Philippines...... 465 15.1 Navigating the Philippines...... 466 15.1.1 Philippine Cargo Shipping Ports...... 467 15.1.2 Boat Travel: The Philippine Ferries...... 470 15.1.3 The Strong Republic Nautical Highway...... 473 15.1.4 The ...... 476 15.2 Air Transport in the Philippines...... 478 15.2.1 Airlines in the Philippines...... 478 15.2.2 Patterns of Air Traffic in the Philippines...... 480 15.2.3 Which Airport for Manila?...... 484 15.3 Rail Transport...... 489 15.4 Bus Transport in the Philippines...... 493 15.5 Local Transportation in the Philippines...... 496 15.5.1 Jeepneys...... 496 15.5.2 Trisikels and Other Three-Wheelers...... 502 15.5.3 Other Idiosyncratic Modes of Transportation in the Philippines...... 509 15.6 Towards a Better Transport System?...... 510 References...... 511 xiv Contents

16 The Growth of Greater Manila...... 521 16.1 The Spanish Colonial City: ...... 522 16.2 American Manila: The Burnham Plans...... 526 16.3 The New Capital: Quezon City...... 531 16.4 From Manila to the Megacity of MetroManila...... 534 16.5 Transportation Networks in Manila...... 539 16.6 A Multicentered Metropolis...... 542 16.7 Vignettes of the Manila ...... 548 16.7.1 University Clusters...... 548 16.7.2 Makati...... 551 16.7.3 ...... 555 References...... 561 17 Managing Metro Manila...... 567 17.1 The Challenge of Floods...... 570 17.2 The Challenge of Housing: Squatters and Urban Development..... 574 17.3 The Challenge of Daily Mobility...... 581 17.3.1 Road Traffic...... 582 17.3.2 Bus Transportation and the Traffic Difficulties of Metro Manila...... 586 17.3.3 Decongesting the Roads...... 590 17.3.4 Rail Transit...... 592 17.3.5 What Role for the River?...... 594 17.3.6 Planning for a Better Manila Mobility...... 596 17.4 Manila as a Sustainable And Smart Green City: An Impossible Dream?...... 599 17.5 Towards a Better Metropolitan Governance?...... 603 17.5.1 Institutional Gridlock...... 603 17.5.2 A Unified Manila Government?...... 605 References...... 606 18 Regional Development Policies in the Philippines...... 617 18.1 The Evolution of Regional Planning in the Philippines...... 619 18.1.1 Early Efforts at Regional Planning...... 619 18.1.2 NEDA and Regional Planning...... 623 18.1.3 Moving Away from Metro Manila: The Growth Centers Strategy...... 624 18.1.4 Special Economic Zones...... 627 18.2 Clark and Subic: From the US Military to National Development Centers...... 631 18.2.1 The Role of Subic and Clark as Military Facilities...... 631 18.2.2 The Eruption of Mt Pinatubo and the Closing of the Bases...... 635 18.2.3 The Reinvention of Clark and Subic as Nodes of Growth...... 637 18.2.4 Clark Green City...... 639 Contents xv

18.3 Cebu, the Philippines’ Second City...... 641 18.4 New Directions in Planning?...... 645 18.4.1 BIMP-EAGA...... 645 18.4.2 Towards Federalism?...... 647 References...... 649

Part IV Challenges for the Philippines 19 Towards a Bangsamoro in ?...... 661 19.1 Early Islam in Mindanao...... 665 19.2 The Moros in Colonial Times...... 668 19.2.1 Catholic Spaniards and Muslim Sultanates...... 668 19.2.2 American Policies Towards Muslim Mindanao...... 670 19.3 The Twentieth Century Settlement of Filipinos in Mindanao...... 672 19.4 Jihad or Negotiations?...... 680 19.4.1 BMLO and MNLF...... 681 19.4.2 MNLF vs. MILF...... 682 19.4.3 Islamist Terror Groups: ASG, BIFF and JIM...... 683 19.4.4 Bangsamoro Basic Law: Towards a Sustainable Peace in Mindanao?...... 686 19.5 The Sultanate of Sulu in Sabah...... 691 19.5.1 The Philippines Dispute with Malaysia over Northern Borneo...... 692 19.5.2 The 2013 Attempt of a Sultan of Sulu over Sabah...... 695 19.5.3 A Future Independent Sultanate of Sulu?...... 696 19.6 The Root of Conflict in Mindanao: Islam, Ethnicity or Poverty?...... 697 References...... 701 20 South China Sea or West Philippine Sea?...... 711 20.1 General Principles of the Law of the Seas...... 713 20.2 Cross-claims on the Waters of the South China Sea...... 714 20.3 Challenges of the Spratly Islands and Intensifying Disputes...... 718 20.3.1 Oil...... 718 20.3.2 Maritime Traffic...... 719 20.3.3 Fisheries Issues...... 719 20.4 The Militarization of the Islands...... 720 20.4.1 Terms of Occupation of the Islands...... 720 20.4.2 A Press That Adds to Tensions...... 721 20.5 Internationalization and Filipinization of the Dispute...... 722 20.5.1 From Local to Global Tensions...... 722 20.5.2 China’s Land Reclamation in the South China Sea...... 724 20.5.3 United Nations Arbitration...... 725 20.5.4 A Renewed Military Alliance Between the Philippines and the United States?...... 726 References...... 728 xvi Contents

21 It’s More Fun in the Philippines? The Challenges of Tourism...... 737 21.1 Visitors to the Philippines...... 739 21.2 Assets of the Philippines for Tourism...... 740 21.3 The Weaknesses of Philippine Tourism Development...... 746 21.4 Opportunities and Pro-Tourism Policies...... 749 21.4.1 More Fun in the Philippines...... 750 21.4.2 Diving...... 751 21.4.3 Gambling...... 752 21.4.4 Medical and Wellness Tourism...... 754 21.5 Threats and Failures...... 757 21.6 Local Impacts of Tourism in the Philippines...... 759 21.6.1 Bohol: A Focus on Ecotourism...... 760 21.6.2 Laguna’s Resorts: Perimetropolitan Leisure...... 761 21.6.3 Batanes...... 763 21.6.4 The Rice Terraces of Northern Luzon and the Sagada Caves...... 764 References...... 767 22 Environmental Challenges in the Philippines...... 779 22.1 A Most Exposed and Vulnerable Country...... 780 22.1.1 World Rankings of Risk and Vulnerability...... 781 22.1.2 “Natural” Disasters...... 782 22.1.3 Disasters and Society...... 785 22.2 Earthquake and Tsunami Risks: Towards Mitigation Policies?...... 786 22.2.1 Are Filipinos Prepared for the “Big One”?...... 786 22.2.2 Tsunami and Earthquake Preparedness...... 791 22.2.3 Coastal Hazards and Climate Change...... 792 22.3 Environmental Degradation...... 797 22.3.1 The Sad State of Philippine Forests...... 798 22.3.2 Soil Degradation...... 803 22.3.3 Mining Impacts...... 805 22.3.4 Loss of Biodiversity and Protected Areas...... 806 22.4 From Vulnerability to Resilience...... 810 22.4.1 Filipinos at Risk...... 811 22.4.2 Filipinos in Risk...... 812 22.4.3 Adaptation and Mitigation...... 814 22.4.4 Building Institutional Resilience...... 815 References...... 818 23 Conclusion: Towards Sustainable Development in the Philippines?...... 831 References...... 833

People Index...... 835

Places Index...... 839 List of Acronyms

ABC Association of Barangay Captains ADB Asian Development Bank ADIZ Air Defense Identification Zone AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ALI Inc. APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation APT Assembly, Packaging, and Testing ARB Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries ARMM Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao ASC Agricultural Systems Cluster ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASG Abu Sayyaf Group AZE Alliance for Zero Extinction BCDA Bases Conversion and Development Authority BDO BDPB Bicol Development Planning Board BEH Bündnis Enwicklung Hilft (Alliance Development Works) BEP Bilingual Education Program of the Philippines BFAR Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources BGC Bonifacio Global City BIFF Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters BIMP-EAGA Brunei-Indonesia-Malaysia-Philippines East Asia Growth Area BISUDECO Bicol Sugar Development Corporation BLADCOR Bicol Livestock and Agricultural Development Corporation BLDC Bonifacio Land Development Corporation BMLO Bangsa Moro Liberation Organization BMR Bangsa Moro Republic BOI Board of Investments BPI Bank of the Philippine Islands BPO Business Process Outsourcing BRIC Brazil, Russia, India, China

xvii xviii List of Acronyms

BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa BRICSAM Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Mexico BRRI Bangladesh Rice Research Institute BSP Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas CAB Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro CADT Certificate of Ancestral Domain/Land Title CALABARZON , Laguna, , Rizal, Quezon CAMANAVA , , , Valenzuela CAR Cordillera Autonomous Region CARP Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program CARPER Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms CARS Comprehensive Automotive Resurgence Strategy CAVITEX Manila-Cavite Expressway CBCP Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines CBD Central Business District CDC (1) Center for Disease Control (in Atlanta, Georgia, USA) CDC (2) Clark Development Corporation CEC Canadian Experience Class CEO Chief Executive Officer CFO Commission on Filipinos Overseas CHASSAM Coastal Hazards and Storm Surge Assessment and Mitigation CIA Central Intelligence Agency CIDF Coconut Industry Development Fund CITRUS Central Institute for the Training and Relocation of Urban Squatters CIVETS Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey, South Africa CLCVA Central Luzon Cagayan Valley Authority CLEX Central Luzon Expressway CMRP Community-Based Mangrove Rehabilitation Project CNI Commission on National Integration

CO2 Carbon dioxide COCOFED Coconut Producers Federation COMELEC Commission on Elections COMET City Optimized Managed Electric Transport COP21 21st Conference of the Parties (United Nations Conference on Climate Change, held in Paris) CPF Charoen Pokphand Foods (Thailand) CRRI Central Rice Research Institute (Cuttack, India) CSI Coconut Scale Insect CVRP Central Visayas Regional Project DA Department of Agriculture DAR Department of Agrarian Reform DARBC Dolefil Agrarian Reform Beneficiaries Cooperative DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources List of Acronyms xix

DepEd Department of Education DFC Davao Fruits Corporation DLTB Del Monte Land Transport Bus Company DMIA Diosdado Macapagal International Airport (Clark) DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid DOST Department of Science and Technology DOT Department of Tourism DOTC Department of Transport and Communication DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways DREAM Disaster Risk and Exposure Assessment for Mitigation DRR Disaster Risk Reduction DRRMO Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office DRT Diving Resort Travel DU30 Rodrigo Duterte EAFM Ecosystem Approach to Fishery Management EBFM Ecosystem-based Fisheries Management ECOFISH Ecosystems Improved for Sustainable Fisheries ECoP Employment Confederation of the Philippines EDB Economic Development Board (Singapore) EDCA Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement EDCOR Economic Development Corps EDSA Epifanio de los Santos Avenue EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EHS United Nations University’s Institute for Environment and Human Security EM-DAT (International) Emergency Disasters Database EMSA European Maritime Safety Agency ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation EPZA Export Processing Zones Authority EU European Union EV Electric Vehicles FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FAR Floor Area Ratio FDI Foreign Direct Investment FFF Federation of Free Farmers FISH Fisheries Improved for Sustainable Harvest FPIC Free Prior and Informed Consent FSSP Food Staples Sufficiency Program FX Shared taxi/minivan (originally Toyota FX models) GARB Genuine Agrarian Reform Bill GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDP Gross Domestic Product GET Global Electric Transport GHG Greenhouse gases GI General Issue (material used by American soldiers) xx List of Acronyms

GIS Geographical Information Systems GMA Gloria Macapagal Arroyo GMO Genetically Modified Organism GOMBURZA Gomez-Burgos-Zamora GPI Global Peace Index GPS Global Positioning System HDI Human Development Index HFA Hyogo Framework for Action HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HLI Hacienda Luisita Inc. IAS Institute of Agrarian Studies ICC Indigenous Cultural Communities ICM Integrated Coastal Management IMD Institut de Management et Développement (Switzerland) IMF International Monetary Fund INC Iglesia ni Cristo IPB Institute of Plant Breeding IPRA Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act IRA Internal Revenue Allotment IRDFS Integrated Rice-Duck Farming System IRRI International Rice Research Institute (Los Baños) ISEA Insular Southeast Asia ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and Syria IT Information Technologies ITCZ Intertropical Convergence Zone IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature JI Jemaah Islamiyah JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JIM Justice for Islamic Movement JMA Japan Meteorological Agency JOIN Japan Overseas Infrastructure Investment Corporation for Transport and Urban Development KAMP Kalipunan ng mga Katutubong Mamamayan ng Pilipinas (Assembly of the Indigenous People of the Philippines) KBA Key Biodiversity Area KKK (1) Katipunan (Kataas-taasan, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan) (Highest and Most Honorable Association of the Children of the Nation) KKK (2) Kaibigan, Kaklase, Kabarilan KLM Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N.V. (Royal Dutch Airlines) KMP Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas (Peasant Movement of the Philippines) KOPIA Korean Project on International Agriculture LaDDeRS Local Development of Doppler Radar Systems LASEDECO Land Settlement and Development Corporation List of Acronyms xxi

LASIK Laser-Assisted In-Situ Keratomileusis LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design LTFRB Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board LGBT Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transsexual LGU Local Government Unit LLDA Laguna Lake Development Agency LMPF Lumad Mindanao Peoples Federation LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas LPU Lyceum of the Philippines University LRT Light Rail Transit LTO Land Transportation Office MAP Management Association of the Philippines MARINA Maritime Industry Authority MASICAP Medium and Small Industries Coordinated Action Program MAV Minimum Access Volume MBA Military Bases Agreement MBC Makati Business Club MCPSS Marine Conservation Project for San Salvador Island MDA Mindanao Development Authority MDG Millennium Development Goals MERALCO Manila Electric Railroad and Light Company MFA Multi-Fiber Agreement MGB Mines and Geosciences Bureau MHS Ministry of Human Settlements MILF Moro Islamic Liberation Front MIMAROPA Mindoro, Marinduque, Romblon, Palawan MIRAB Migration, Remittances, Aid and Bureaucracy MITI Ministry of International Trade and Industry (Japan) MKBA Marine Key Biodiversity Area MMC Metropolitan Manila Commission MMDA Metropolitan Manila Development Authority MMEIRS Metropolitan Manila Earthquake Impact Reduction Study MMIAC Metro Manila Inter-Agency Committee MMR Mumps, Measles, and Rubella MNLF Moro National Liberation Front MOA-AD Memorandum of Agreement on Ancestral Domain MOU Memorandum of Understanding MPA Marine Protected Areas MRR Manila Railroad Company MRT Metropolitan Rail Transit MSCI Morgan Stanley Capital Index MTBMLE Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education MTPDP Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan NAIA Ninoy Aquino International Airport (Manila’s main airport) NAPOCOR National Power Corporation xxii List of Acronyms

NARRA National Resettlement Rehabilitation Administration NASUTRA National Sugar Trading Corporation NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NBA National Basketball Association (USA) NCC National Competitiveness Council NCIP National Commission on Indigenous Peoples NCR National Capital Region (=Metro Manila) NCSB National Statistics Coordination Board NDC National Development Corporation NDRRM National Disaster Risk Reduction & Management Council NEC National Economic Council NEDA National Economic Development Agency NEPA National Economic Protectionism Association NFA National Food Authority NFSW National Federation of Sugar Workers NGO Nongovernmental Organization NGP National Greening Program NHA National Housing Authority NIGS National Institute of Geological Sciences NIPAS National Integrated Protected Areas System NLEX North Luzon Expressway NLSA National Land Settlement Administration NOAH Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards NPA New People’s Army NPFP National Physical Framework Plan NSB National Seaman Board NSIC National Seed Industry Council NTZ No Take Zone OCW Overseas Contract Workers OEDB Overseas Employment Development Board OFW Overseas Filipino Workers OIC Organization of Islamic Cooperation OMA Office for the Muslim Affairs OMACC Office for Muslim Affairs and Cultural Communities ONCC Office for Northern Cultural Communities OSCC Office for Southern Cultural Communities OWWA Overseas Workers Welfare Administration PAGASA Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration PAGCOR Philippine Amusement and Gaming Corporation PAHRA Presidential Assistant on Housing and Resettlement Agency PAL Philippine Airlines PAMB Protected Area Management Board PANAMIN Presidential Assistance on National Minorities PAR Philippine Area of Responsibility List of Acronyms xxiii

PBA Philippine Basketball Association PBSP Philippine Business for Social Progress PCA Philippine Coconut Authority PCB Palawan–Mindoro Continental Block PCCI Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry PDC Philippine Decentralization Committee PDH Philippine Department of Health PDOS Pre-departure Orientation Seminar PDP Philippine Development Plan PDRF Philippines Disaster Resilience Foundation PEZA Philippine Economic Zone Authority PHHC People’s Homesite and Housing Corporation PHILCOA Philippine Coconut Authority PHILRICE Philippine Rice Research Institute (1) PHILSCAT Phil-Sino Center for Agricultural Technology PHILSUCOM Philippine Sugar Commission PHIVOLCS Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology PHP Philippine Peso PLDT Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company PMB Philippine Mobile Belt PMC Pacific Microwave Corporation PMMA Philippine Merchant Marine Academy PNOC Philippine National Oil Company PNR Philippine National Railways PNS Philippine Nautical School POEA Philippine Overseas Employment Agency POLO Philippine Overseas Labor Office PC Philippine Packing Corporation PPA Philippine Port Authority PPICS Peru, Philippines, Indonesia, Colombia, Sri Lanka PRB Population Reference Bureau PRC People’s Republic of China PRCC Rehabilitation Commission PRDF Philippines Disaster Resilience Foundation PRECHUR Presidential Committee for Housing and Urban Resettlement PRLM Philippine Land Reform Movement PRRI Philippine Rice Research Institute (2) PSA Philippine Statistical Authority PSF People’s Survival Fund PSRI Philippine Sugar Research Institute PUB Public Utility Bus PUJ Public Utility Jeepney PUP Polytechnic University of the Philippines PUV Public Utility Vehicle PWU Philippines Women’s University xxiv List of Acronyms

QR Quantitative Restrictions RA Republic Act RCDP Regional Cities Development Project R&D Research and Development RDC Regional Development Council RH Reproductive Health RO-RO Roll-on Roll-off maritime transport RPT Real Property Tax SALT Sloping Agricultural Land Technology SBDA Subic Bay Development Authority SBFZ Subic Bay Freeport Zone SCS South China Sea SCTEX Subic-Clark-Tarlac Expressway SDO Stock Distribution Option SEARCA Southeast Asian Regional Center SEATO Southeast Asia Treaty Organization SEZ Special Economic Zone SICRMC Southern Iloilo Coastal Resource Management Council SITMo Save the Ifugao Terraces Movement SK Sangguniang Kabataan (Youth Council) SLEX South Luzon Expressway SM Shoe Mart SME Small and Medium Enterprises SOCCSKSARGEN South Cotabato, Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Sarangani, General Santos City SONA State of the Nation Address SPARE Special Program of Assistance for Relocation of Evacuees SPDA Southern Philippine Development Authority SPDC Sapang Palay Development Committee SRA Sugar Regulatory Administration SRNH Strong Republic Nautical Highway SSS Social Security System SUV Sport Utility Vehicle SWS Social Weather Stations TADECO Tagum Development Corporation TB Tuberculosis TBI Technology Business Incubators TESDA Technical Education and Skills Development Authority TEU Twenty (feet) Equivalent Unit (a measure of container traffic) TFDA Tondo Foreshore Development Authority TIMP Turkey, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines TIP Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines TNC Transnational Corporation TNT Tago Nang Tago (in perpetual hiding) = illegal migrants List of Acronyms xxv

TODA Tricycle Operators and Drivers’ Associations TPLEX Tarlac-Pangasinan-La Union Expressway TVA Tennessee Valley Authority UAE United Arab Emirates UCPB United Coconut Planters Bank UK United Kingdom UMA Unyon ng Manggagawa sa Agrikultura, Union of Agricultural Workers UNCLOS United Nations Conference on the Law Of the Seas UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Population Division UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction UP University of the Philippines UPLB University of the Philippines Los Baños UPS United Parcel Service US/USA United States of America USAAF US Army Air Forces USAID United States Agency for International Development V 20 20 Vulnerable Countries Forum VAD Vitamin A Deficiency VOC Volatile Organic Compound WHO World Health Organization WISE Weather Information-Integration for Systems Enhancement WMO World Meteorological Organization WPS West Philippine Sea WTO World Trade Organization WWII World War Two