Science Process Worksheet

GRADE LEVEL: Fifth Topic: Science Processes Grade Level Standard: 5-5 Construct new scientific processes.

Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Use the scientific processes to construct new meaning. (I.1.MS.1-6)

Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources Central Questions: 1. How do scientists ask questions to learn about the world? 2. How do scientists figure out answers to their questions. 3. How do scientists learn about the world from books and other sources of information? 4. How do scientist communicate their findings to other scientists and the rest of society? 5. How do scientists reconstruct knowledge that they have partially forgotten?

Use experiment “Leaves in Light and Dark” (III.2.MS.3; page 15) Observing Keep a daily journal of changes. Communicating Discuss or write a summary of the result of the experiment. Classifying Leaves in darkness/Leaves in light. Measuring Record the changes. Controlling Variables How much light the leaves receive. Developing Models and Theories See “PROCESS OF SCIENCE” attached

Process Skills:

New Vocabulary: question, research (collection of information), hypothesis, investigate/experimentation, procedure, results, conclusions

105 Science Process Worksheet

GRADE LEVEL: Fifth Topic: Science Processes Grade Level Standard: 5-6 Use the scientific processes to reflect on new knowledge. Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Use scientific processes to reflect on meaning. (II.1.MS.1-4)

Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources

Central Questions: 1. How do scientists decide what to believe? 2. How is science related to other ways of knowing? 3. How do science and technology affect our society? 4. How have people of diverse cultures contributed to and influenced developments in science?

Interpreting Data — Discuss and write a summary of the Use experiment “Leaves in results of the experiment. Light and Dark” (page 15) Inferring — Draw a conclusion on the effect of the temperature of water Controlling Variables —Discuss the variables that affect the rate at which the sugar dissolves Hypothesizing — Give a reasonable explanation for the possible results. Predicting — What do you think will occur. Communicating —Report orally or in writing the interpretation of the data.

Process Skills:

New Vocabulary: inferring, interpreting data, communicating, hypothesizing, predicting

106 Science Process Worksheet

GRADE LEVEL: Fifth Topic: Science Processes Grade Level Standard: 5-7 Utilize scientific method for investigation.

Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Develop an experiment using the scientific method.

Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources

Central Questions: 1. How do scientists ask questions to learn about the Products of Science world? Process of Science 2. How do scientists figure out answers to their questions. 3. How do scientists learn about the world from books and other sources of information? 4. How do scientists communicate their findings to other scientists and the rest of society? 5. How do scientists reconstruct knowledge that they have partially forgotten

Process Skills:

New Vocabulary: question, research (collection of information), hypothesis, investigate/experimentation, procedure, results, conclusions

107 PRODUCTS OF SCIENCE

The process of science generates certain products which also can be arranged in an hierarchy of increasing complexity. These products include scientific terms, facts, concepts, principles, laws, theories, models, and applications.

SCIENTIFIC TERM A word or words that scientists use to name an entity, object, event, time period, classification category, organism, or part of an organism. Terms are used for communication and would not normally include names given to concepts, laws, models, or theories.

SCIENTIFIC FACT An observation, measurement, logical conclusion from other facts, or summary statement, which is concerned with some natural phenomenon, event, or property of a substance, which, through an operationally defined process or procedure, can be replicated independently, and which, through such replication, has achieved consensus in the relevant scientific profession. Facts include things such as the speed of light or properties of materials like boiling points, freezing points, or size.

SCIENTIFIC CONCEPT A regularly occurring natural phenomenon, property, or characteristic of matter which is observable or detectable in many different contexts, and which is represented by a word(s) and often by a mathematical symbol(s) is called a scientific concept. When a scientific concept is fundamental to other concepts and is used extensively in creating such other concepts in nature, like length (or distance ), mass, electric charge, and time. Most scientific concepts are derived, that is, defined in terms of basic or other scientific concepts. When a derived scientific concept is in the form of an equation, it is a mathematical definition, not a natural relationship (e.g., destiny, speed, velocity acceleration).

SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLE A generalization or summary in the form of a statement or mathematical for when expression, a set of observations of, or measurements for, a variable representing a concept shows a regular dependence on one or more other variables representing other concepts. A principle of science is an expression of generalizations that are significant but are not at the level, in terms of broad applicability or generalizability, to be a scientific law.

EMPIRICAL LAW An empirical law is a generalization of a relationship that has been established between or more concepts through observation or measurement, but which relies on no theory or model for its expression or understanding. Such laws have important application and are of great importance as cornerstones for theories or models. Examples include Snell's law of refraction, Kepler's Laws, and evolution (but not the theory of natural selection).

108 SCIENTIFIC THEORY An ordinary-language or mathematical statement created or designed by scientists to account for one or more kinds of observations, measurements, principles, or empirical laws, when this statement makes one or more additional predictions not implied directly by anyone of such components. When such prediction or predictions are subsequently observed, detected, or measured, the theory begins to gain acceptance among scientists. It is possible to create alternative theories, and scientists generally accept those theories which are the simplest or most comprehensive and general in their accommodation to empirical law and predictive capability (e.g., atomic theory, kinetic molecular theory, theory of natural selection, theory of plate tectonics, quantum theory). Theories which can account only for existing laws make no new predictions, or at least do not have greater simplicity or economy of description when offered as alternatives to accepted theories, are of little value and therefore, generally do not displace existing theories.

SCIENTIFIC MODEL A representation, usually visual but sometimes mathematical or in words, used to aid in the description or understanding of a scientific phenomenon, theory, law, physical entity, organism, or part of an organism ( e.g., wave model, particle model, model of electric current, "Greenhouse" model of the Earth and atmosphere).

UNIVERSAL LAW A law of science that has been established through repeated unsuccessful attempts to deny it by all possible means and which therefore, is believed to have applicability throughout the universe. There are few such laws, and they are basic to all of the sciences (e.g., Law of Universal Gravitation, Coulomb's Law, Law of Conservation of Energy, Law of Conservation of Momentum).

APPLICATION OF SCIENCE Utilization of the results of observations, measurements, empirical laws, or predictions from theories to design or explain the working of some human-made functional device or phenomenon produced by living beings and not otherwise occurring in the natural world. (Some such applications depend on several laws or theories, and historically many have been devised without the humans involved having prior knowledge of those theories or laws.) Applications would include engineering and technology and the utilization of science in making decisions on issues that have scientific basis, for example, the relative radiation damage possible from human-made sources as compared with natural radiation.

109 PROCESS OF SCIENCE

The scientific endeavor involves continually examining phenomena and assessing whether current explanations adequately encompass those phenomena. The conclusions that scientists draw never should assume a dogmatic character as science necessarily is tentative. Authorities do not determine or create scientific knowledge, but rather scientists describe what nature defines and originates.

Those engaged in the scientific endeavor use and rely on certain processes. The processes can be arranged in an hierarchy of increasing complexity–observing, classifying, measuring, interpreting data, inferring, communicating, controlling variables, developing models and theories, hypothesizing, and predicting–but the process scientists use usually do not and need not "happen" in this order.

OBSERVING Examining or monitoring the change of a system closely and intently through direct sense perception and noticing and recording aspects not usually apparent on casual scrutiny.

CLASSIFYING Systematic grouping of objects or systems into categories based on shared characteristics established by observation.

MEASURING Using instruments to determine quantitative aspects or properties of objects, systems, or phenomena under observation. This includes the monitoring of temporal changes of size, shape, position, and other properties or manifestations.

INTERPRETING DATA Translating or elucidating in intelligible and familiar language the significance or meaning of data and observations.

INFERRING Reasoning, deducing, or drawing conclusions from given facts or from evidence such as that provided by observation, classification, or measurement.

COMMUNICATING Conveying information, insight, explanation, results of observation or inference or measurement to others. This might include the use of verbal, pictorial, graphic, or symbolic modes of presentation, invoked separately or in combination as might prove most effective.

CONTROLLING VARIABLES Holding all variables constant except one whose influence is being investigated in order to establish whether or not there exists an unambiguous cause and effect relationship.

110 DEVELOPING MODELS AND THEORIES Created from evidence drawn from observation, classification, or measurement, a model is a mental picture or representative physical system of a phenomenon (e.g., a current in an electric circuit) or real physical system ( e.g., the solar system). The mental picture or representative system then is used to help rationalize the observed phenomenon or real system and to predict effects and changes other than those that entered into construction of the model. Creating a theory goes beyond the mental picture or representative model and attempts to include other generalizations like empirical laws. Theories often are expressed in mathematical terms and utilize models in their description ( e.g., kinetic theory of an ideal gas, which could utilize a model of particles in a box).

HYPOTHESIZING Attempts to state simultaneously all reasonable or logical explanations for a reliable set of observations–stated so that each explanation may be tested and, based upon the results of those tests, denied. Although math can prove by induction, science cannot. In science, one can only prove that something is not true. Accumulated evidence also can be used to corroborate hypotheses, but science remains mainly tentative.

PREDICTING Foretelling or forecasting outcomes to be expected when changes are imposed on (or are occurring in) a system. Such forecasts are made not as random guesses or vague prophecies, but involve, in scientific context, logical inferences and deductions based (1) on natural laws or principles or models or theories known to govern the behavior of the system under consideration or (2) on extensions of empirical data applicable to the system. (Such reasoning is usually described as "hypothetico-deductive.")

Source: The National Science Teachers Association

111 Technology Worksheet

GRADE LEVEL: Fifth Topic: Technology Grade Level Standard: 5-8 Use of technology.

Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Use technology to research, create documents, and make presentations about scientific knowledge.

Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources

1. Teacher, adult, or student led exploration of selected Internet addresses, to provide relevant learning extensions of topics: • Internet • Videos

Process Skills:

New Vocabulary: research, internet, CD-ROM, create documents, research paper, portfolio, presentation/projects, hyper studio/powerpoint, poster projects

112 Gender/Equity Worksheet

GRADE LEVEL: Fifth Topic: Gender/Equity Grade Level Standard: 5-9 Investigate a variety of scientists.

Grade Level Benchmark: 1. Recognize the contributions made in science by cultures and individuals of diverse backgrounds.

Learning Activity(s)/Facts/Information Resources

1. Students use multimedia to locate information on Attached background gender and race in science. information from: Cultural and Gender Perspectives in 2. Role play one of the famous people from the Science, Michigan information they have located Department of Education

3. View a video of one of the famous scientists.

4. Make a bulletin board or poster of one of these famous people.

Assessment: Students will choose between either an oral presentation, written report, or a bulletin display that shows contributions of someone in science.

Process Skills:

New Vocabulary: Gerty Theresa Cori, Daniel Hale Williams, Robert Javik, Rachel Louise Carson, Grace Chow, Aldo Leopold, Maria Goeppert Mayer, Robert McNair, Albert Einstein, Eugenie Clark, Sylvia Earle, Matthew Fontaine Maury

113 LIFE SCIENCE: ECOSYSTEMS Rachel Louise Carson (1907-1964)

A CRUSADER AGAINST THE DANGERS OF PESTICIDES

Rachel Carson was raised in the towns But some fertilizers which contain pesticides of Springdale and Parnassus, can also be dangerous. Pennsylvania. It was here that she received Rachel Carson told the world about the her early education in the public school dangers of DDT, a pesticide widely used by system, but it was her mother, Maria farmers in the 1960's to control bugs. McLean Carson, who taught Rachel to love nature. She learned to appreciate birds, insects, and the wildlife in and around streams and ponds. So, even though Rachel’s first career goal was to become a writer, she later changed her mind and earned a B.A. in science from the Pennsylvania College for Women at Pittsburgh. She then enrolled in Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, where she received a master’s degree in zoology. In her book, The Silent Spring, she told Rachel Carson went on to work as an how DDT was poisoning parts of the food aquatic biologist with the U.S. Fish & chain, and thus affecting all living things. In Wildlife Service in Washington, D.C. Later, the food chain, all living things are she became editor-in-chief of the bureau, connected in some way. When any part of responsible for issuing bulletins and leaflets the food chain is harmed, we all are aimed at preventing the depletion of the harmed. The harm may not come in the nation’s wildlife. Through her writings, same ways or to the same degree, but all Carson wanted to make people aware of living things are affected. dangers to our environment such as Pesticides can filter into waterways pesticides. through the soil and through improper Modern science has developed a storage and disposal methods. Once in the variety of fertilizers for different purposes. water, they affect the aquatic life found in Some provide mineral nutrients necessary these ponds and streams, rivers and the for plant growth. Others are made to kill a oceans. Then it is only a matter of time specific kind of insect or a variety of insects. before these pesticides begin to effect the Then there are the kinds of pesticides that animals which prey on aquatic animals and kill other plants or weeds, which compete plant life. with crops for mineral nutrients in the soul. For example, you can find fish with Even though fertilizers help increase the toxic levels of pesticides in their bodies. size and amount of crops, questions exist When birds eat these fish, they will also about their safety, both to nature and to become poisoned with pesticides. When mankind. In general, fertilizers are safe. they lay eggs, the shells are too fragile to protect the unborn baby birds, or their

114 babies may be deformed. We must also consider the animals and insects living on or near lands where pesticides are used. They, too can get sick from eating these plants or other small animals (prey). Much of these contaminated lands are farms where our food is grown, where we get tomatoes, corn, wheat, beef, and pork. And the list goes on and on. Ms. Carson warned that we all needed to stop using DDT or many animals and plants would die. Rachel Carson made us all aware that it is important to know what pesticides are being used and how they are used — for the sake of all living things.

References

Current Biography 1951. H. W. Wilson Company. Nov. 1951. New York. p. 12-13.

The Sea Around Us. 1951. Rachel L. Carson.

The Silent Spring. 1962. Rachel L. Carson.

“Soiled Shores” by Marguerite Holloway & John Horgan. American Scientific. Oct. 1991.

115 LIFE SCIENCE: ECOSYSTEMS Grace Chow

PROTECTING OUR CLEAN DRINKING WATER

water. Or, sometimes these facilities are designed wrong or operated in a careless manner. Then they can cause the same kinds of contamination of our clean water sources.

Grace Chow works on developing better water treatment systems. She is involved with a number of projects designed to recycle sewage water in such a way as to put the water to good use not only people, Grace Chow is a civil engineer whose but also other animals and plant life. work centers on concerns for the environment. These concerns include It is hoped that sewage water treated in questions like how we use what is available new ways can be re-used for things like the from nature in an efficient manner, how we irrigation of farms, parks, and recreational can protect the environment in innovative areas, instead of using fresh water. That ways, and how to develop new technologies way, the limited amount of fresh water and methods to achieve these goals. available can be used for drinking.

Environmental problems occur in a variety of ways. When the water level on a lake or a waterway is high, it can cause the shoreline to erode away. When we build anything along a shoreline, we must realize that both the materials used in the building process as well as those materials in use after a building is complete can filter into the nearby waterways. Also, that heavy rains alone can cause flooding and soil erosion.

Cities build and maintain sanitary sewage treatment facilities designed to keep sewage (waste) water separate from drinking water. They are also designed to clean sewage from the water so that it can be reused. But, storms can cause these treatment plants to flood. When this happens, sewage water spills out into the rivers, streams, and other sources of clean

116 IMPORTANT PEOPLE

Grace Chow Civil Engineer

Nature can cause environmental problems in a variety of ways. High lakes cause shorelines to erode away. Anything built along the shoreline may topple into the water. Heavy storms (10 “ of rain in central Michigan in 24 hours) would cause problems of flooding and erosion The storms could completely flood out city sanitary sewage treatment facilities, causing the sewage to get into the river. Once in the river, sewage would then be carried into places where it should never be – flooding would occur in stores and homes, soaking into wood and furniture, carpeting, and equipment.

There are several other problems which can be caused by nature. Lightning can start fires that race across forests and parks, destroying homes for both humans and wildlife. Strong winds can blow down trees, as well as pick up soil from fields and carry it across many miles. Ice and snow can weigh down trees, causing both young and old trees to crash to the Earth. A tornado’s fierce winds may toss farm soil, automobiles, homes, or forest trees into the air. Soil, saturated with water, may suddenly slide down a hillside forming a “mudslide” that leaves the hill bare in one spot but covered with mud in another. Snow also slides down hills in “avalanches” capable of leveling all life before it. Regardless of whether they are caused by nature or humans, it is evident that many environmental problems exist.

Grace Chow is trying to find solutions to some of our environmental problems. Grace is a civil engineer who works on water treatment systems. Grace is involved with projects that recycle waste water and put it to good use in the community. Waste water which has been treated is used for irrigation of farms, parks, and golf courses. In this way, the amount of “fresh” water used is reduced. This in turn, increases the amount of “fresh” water available for drinking.

QUESTIONS 1. List several environmental problems caused by nature and how they affect the lives of humans. 2. In addition to the examples listed in the reading above, what other purposes can you think of for using recycled waste water? 3. Do you think there are any environmental problems caused by nature for which humans can find a solution?

117 EARTH SCIENCE: HYDROSPHERE Eugenie Clark (1922- )

“THE SHARK LADY”

Eugenie went to the Scripps Institute of Oceanography in California and began learning to dive and swim underwater.

In the late 1940's, Clark began experiments for the New York Zoological Society on the reproductive behavior of platies and swordtailed species. And, she conducted the first successful experiments on artificial insemination of fish in the United States.

The Office of Naval Research sent her Eugenie Clark is originally from New to the South Seas to study the identification York City. Her father died when she was of poisonous fish. Here, she visited places only two years old, and she was raised by like Guam, Kwajalein, Saipan and the her Japanese mother. While at work on Palaus. She explored the waters with the Saturdays, Mrs. Clark would often leave assistance of native people from whom she Eugenie at the Aquarium. Here, Eugenie leamed techniques of underwater spear- discovered the wonders of the undersea fishing. Through her work, she identified world. One Christmas, she persuaded her many species of poisonous fish. mother to get her a 15-gallon aquarium so she could begin her own collection of fish. The United States Navy was so That collection broadened to eventually interested in this work that she was include an alligator, a toad and a snake awarded a Fullbright Scholarship which took —all kept in her family's New York her to Faud University in Egypt—the first apartment. woman to work at the university's Ghardaqa Biological Station. Here, she collected some When Eugenie entered Hunter College, 300 species of fish, three of them entirely her choice of a major was new, and some 40 poisonous ones. Of obvious—zoology. She spent summers at particular interest to the Navy was her the University of Michigan biological station research on the puffer or blowfish type of to further her studies. After graduation, she poisonous fish. Hers was one of the first worked as a chemist while taking evening complete studies of Red Sea fish since the classes at the graduate school of New York 1880's. University and earned her master's degree studying the anatomy and evolution of the puffing mechanism of the blowfish. Next,

118 Eugenie received her Ph.D. from New York University in 1951. Her work has paid particular attention to the role nature plays in providing for the survival of a species as a whole —rather than each individual member of a given species —and special adaptations some animals have made to escape their predators. Examples include the chameleon which is capable of changing its color to blend in with its surroundings, or the African ground squirrel which pretends it is dead because many animals will not eat the flesh of prey that is motionless or already dead.

Eugenie Clark's most renowned work studied the shark, hence her nickname "The Shark Lady." And she has spent a lot of time speaking to groups about how sharks live in an attempt to lessen our fear of this creature.

References

The Lady and the Sharks. Eugenie Clark. Harper & Row, New York, 1969.

Lady With a Spear. Eugenie Clark. Harper, New York, 1953.

Artificial Insemination in Viviparous Fishes. Science. December 15, 1950.

119 LIFE SCIENCE: ORGANIZATION OF LIVING THINGS Gerty Theresa Cori (1896 - 1957)

FIRST AMERICAN WOMAN TO WIN THE NOBEL PRIZE

In the early 1900's it was unheard of for At 18, Gerty entered the Medical College of a girl to study science, let alone become a the German University at the University of scientist. But Gerty Theresa Cori ignored Prague. Here she earned her M.D. medical expectations of the time and went on to doctor degree and met her future husband, become the first American woman to win fellow medical student Carl Cori. the Nobel Prize.

Her early education took place at an all- girls school, common where she grew up in the European city of Prague, then located in Austria. Here, the focus was on preparing young women for life by developing their social and cultural abilities. Science and mathematics were not considered important. Nevertheless, by the time Gerty graduated from this school, she had been influenced by her uncle, a professor of pediatric medicine. She, too, decided to Gerty Cori and her husband Carl Cori become a doctor. Both were Interested In research, so the Before she could enter medical school, two physicians eventually traveled to the United however, Gerty would need eight years of States to begin joint research at the New York Latin. She would also need five more years State Institute for the Study of Malignant of mathematics, in addition to physics and Diseases in Buffalo. Of special interest was the chemistry. It looked like It was going to take study of the chemical process metabolism of eight years of rigorous study just to qualify for foods we eat as they are broken down into living medical school, plus six more years once she body-building materials. was admitted. With that kind of work ahead, Gerty decided to take time out for a vacation Around this time, something called insulin before beginning her ambitious program. was discovered. The protein hormone insulin is normally produced by the human body to control During this vacation, she met a teacher who the amount of carbohydrates such as sugars and offered to help with her Latin studies. What an starches in the blood. When the body can't use offer that turned out to be! By the time she carbohydrates because insulin is not produced began classes at the Realgymnasium at like it should be, a disease called diabetes Tetschen, Gerty had completed three years' occurs. worth of Latin requirements. A year later, she completed all of her requirements and was ready The Cori’s discovered that the most to take the medical school entrance exams. commonly eaten type of sugar is converted to

120 glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles. References Some is stored as fat, and the rest is burned or oxidized into carbon dioxide and water. They Women of Modern Science. Edna Yost. Dodd also found out that insulin decreases the amount Mead & Co. New York. 1959. of sugar stored in the liver and increases sugar used by the body. This was important Women & the Nobel Prize. Barbara Shiels. information for physicians to know when treating Dillon Press, Inc. Minneapolis. MN. 1985. patients with diabetes. Enzymes & Metabolism: A collection of papers. The Cori’s later demonstrated that muscle Gerty T. R. Cori. Elsevier Pub. Co. glycogen produces lactic acid during exercise Amsterdam. New York. 1956. and at other times. This lactic acid is then carried by the blood stream to the liver where it is Harpers Review of Biochemistry. David W. changed into liver glycogen. Liver glycogen is Martin. Peter A. Mayers and Victor W. then converted to glucose, and is carried back to Rodwell. Lange Medical Publications. Los skeletal muscles which then gain the energy to Altos, CA 1981. do work by converting glucose back to muscle glycogen. This series of chemical changes became known as the Cori cycle.

The couple also made some important discoveries about other proteins called enzymes — phosphorylase and phosphoglucomutase. And, they discovered the structure of the glycogen molecule. Gerty, herself, discovered four different types of glycogen storage diseases.

Drs. Gerty and Carl Cori shared the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for their work showing how glycogen is catalytically converted (enzymes are involved in the process or conversion). Although her husband was made a member of the National Academy of Sciences for his work, Gerty did not receive this honor until eight years later – after receiving the Nobel Prize. In fact, that proved to be the case with most of her other honors.

121 LIFE SCIENCE: ORGANIZATION OF LIVING THINGS Robert Jarvik (1946 - )

INVENTOR OF THE FIRST ARTIFICIAL HEART

While still in high school, Robert Jarvik felt a in Dr. Barney Clark, a retired dentist. But, it strong desire to become a medical doctor. provided cumbersome even though it was about Unlike many, it wasn’t a glorified picture of the the same size as a human heart. It was delicate balance between life and death that connected by tubes in the patient’s abdomen inspired Robert. Instead, he had a strong desire which were attached to a machine about the size to improve medical treatment methods. Robert of a portable television. found the usual method for suturing (sewing up a patient) to be awkward. He felt that there must be a better way and made up his mind to find it.

But when Jarvik began college, he studied architecture at Syracuse University in New York until his father suffered a nearly-fatal aortic aneurysm (blood clot to the aorta of the heart). It was then that Robert decided to pursue his dream of becoming a doctor. The problem was, he was rejected by most medical schools. After he was finally accepted by the University of Carrying something this size around everywhere Bologna in Italy, he dropped out two years later. made it difficult even to stand up. Nevertheless, Dr. Clark’s life was extended by three months While still at New York University, Robert had and his life experiences with the machine earned his biomechanics degree. So, he next provided the basis for important research on the moved to the western U.S. and went to work in device which continues today. Utah at Kolff Medical, a research and development company founded by Dr. Willem J. Lessons learned from Dr. Robert Jarvik’s desire Kolff. The philosophy of Dr. Kolff was basically to do something to help people like his father that “if man could grow one, then he can build who suffered from heart disease, along with one.” It is through Kolff’s work that we have the Barney Clark’s experience with the first Jarvik-7, artificial kidney or dialysis machine. have served to help prolong many lives since then—lives that would otherwise have been Robert Jarvik completed his medical studies ended by heart disease. while working for Dr. Kolff in Utah, and it was here that he designed the artificial heart. This References manmade machine—once surgically implanted in a patient—substitutes for the ventricles of the “Honoring the heart of an invention.” Science heart which pump blood to the arteries, and into News. February 19, 1983. Vol 123, no. 8. the patient’s blood circulatory system. After Barney Clark: reflections on the Utah In 1983 at the University of Utah, the Jarvik-7, an artificial heart program. Margery W. Shaw. initial version of the artificial heart, was implanted University of Texas Press. Austin. 1984.

122 EARTH SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER Margaret Lemone (1946- )

INVESTIGATING THUNDERSTORMS AND SQUALLS

ground and moist air near its surface. Then the temperature rises. Upper layers of the atmosphere do not absorb as much of the sun’s radiation – they are cooler, therefore it is warmer near the ground, and cooler higher up in the atmosphere. Thunderstorms help spread out this heat energy to all layers of the atmosphere, thus cooling off the surface of the earth – sort of like nature’s air conditioner during the summer months. Lemone is also interested in a process called molecular conduction. Here, the warmer air near the earth’s surface moves upward toward the cooler air in such a way that heat is transferred upward. During this process, faster moving molecules of warmer air bump into the colder air’s slower molecules. This bumping causes the Dr. Margaret Lemone is a slower molecules to move a little faster, meteorologist who investigates how thus warming the colder air. But, this thunderstorms become organized into lines, process of molecular conduction is slow also called squall lines. At the National –far too slow to prevent air temperatures Center for Atmospheric Research, she also from getting so high as to cause damage to studies ways in which these squall lines life forms like plants and people. effect air movement in the lowest part of the In order to cool off properly and earth’s atmosphere. maintain reasonable temperatures, warm air How do thunderstorms happen? must be able to rise far up into the cooler Certain atmospheric conditions must exist atmospheric regions. This is called for them to form. First, a fairly deep layer of convection, and is where the condition air in the atmosphere, about 10,000 feet or known as an unstable atmosphere enters more, must be moist. Second, the the picture. “Unstable” simply means that a atmosphere should be “unstable.” And, small section of air is ready to rise high, if it third, there should be few clouds in the is given a little push to get it moving — like daylight sky, so the sun’s rays can heat the starting a rock slide by tossing a single ground and air near the ground (the low stone onto the side of a rocky hill. All those atmosphere). other rocks begin to tumble because the As the ground and lower layers of the rocky hill is unstable. atmosphere are heated by radiation from An unstable atmosphere occurs when the sun, solar energy is absorbed by the the difference between warm surface air

123 and the cold upper atmosphere is great. thunderstorms and hurricanes, to help This is the same as saying that the rate of broaden our knowledge. Because of her temperature decrease is large. In order for work, we more clearly understand how a parcel of this warmer air to rise, its density thunderstorms are organized in lines, and must be less than the air surrounding it. how these clouds lines affect the air’s Warmer air tends to be less dense than motion in the lowest part of the atmosphere. cooler air. So it starts to rise in the same manner as an elevator. References To keep rising and increasing speed (acceleration), then it must remain warmer Thunderstorm Morphology and Dynamics. and less dense than the air surrounding it. 2nd ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Once it meets air that is the same Press, 1986. temperature and density, it stops rising. (The elevator stops.) The Thunderstorms. Louis J. Battan. New The greater the rate of temperature American Library, New York, 1964. decrease, the faster it moves upward (acceleration). As the air rises, heat is transferred upward and the temperature difference is reduced. When upward convection is powerful enough to reach heights of about 10 miles or so in the form of columns of air, we get very large convection clouds known as thunderstorms. In squall lines, we still have air that is moist and unstable. In this particular case though, the unstable moist air is concentrated along a narrow corridor. This atmospheric concentration is usually due to what is called a cold front. In a cold front, a large mass of cold air from the north moves southward, pushing aside the warmer air in its path. The cold air “wedge” forces warm air to rise. Because this warmer air meets the conditions of being moist and unstable, it can lead to the formation of thunderstorms. And, since the cold air is heavier than warm air and it is also stable, the “walls” of the corridor are maintained. Thunderstorms which form are confined to this corridor. The corridor and thunderstorms will move as the cold front wedge continues to move from north to south. Dr. Margaret Lemone’s research has taken her on airplane trips through numerous cloud systems, including

124 LIFE SCIENCE: ECOSYSTEMS Aldo Leopold (1887- 1948 )

FATHER OF MODERN CONSERVATION

Born In 1887, Aldo Leopold spent his the first three conservation principles. The boyhood years In Burlington, Iowa, and sportsman or hunter only believed in producing went on to attend Yale University's School of useful products for the purpose of hunting. But Forestry where he earned his professional the "true" nature lover, he said, defined degree. conservation in terms of preserving our flora and fauna as much as possible. Leopold believed When Aldo joined the U. S. Forest Service that conservation was not only about prevention, in 1909, his views were quite different from those but also using natural resources wisely. Nature around him. Leopold approached forest as a whole is a community of life including the management from an ecological perspective. To soil, waters, fauna, flora and people. his mind, forest management went beyond providing trees for industry. It should include watershed protection for the whole region from which a river receives its supply of fresh water, as well as grazing, fish and wildlife conservation, recreation and, of course, protecting land from the ravages of man.

In 1933, his treatise on Game Management led to a professorship at the University of Wisconsin. There, he sought to educate and involve youth in matters of ecology. He One of Aldo Leopold's last conservation organized projects including counting nests, fights was over the Wisconsin's whitetail deer planting shelter belts, filling feeding stations, management laws. The deer herd there had warning poachers, and recording weather gotten so large that it was eating away the plant conditions year round. life faster than the land could replace it. They were ruining the land. Whitetail fawns were Leopold also established some starving to death, and bucks were not growing to conservation rules which he called Ecological maturity. Leopold knew the answer to this Principles. These rules call upon us to do problem—reduce the size of the deer population. several things. First, to maintain soil fertility; second, to preserve the stability of water The deer had no natural predators in this systems; and third, produce useful products. region, so their numbers increased beyond a Fourth, he also called upon us to preserve our natural balance. Leopold's advice was to fauna and flora as much as possible. (Fauna lengthen the annual hunting season and allow refers to the animals of a given region and Flora the hunting of both bucks and fawns. (Fawns are refers to the plants of a region.) not usually hunted.) Conservationists did not like what Leopold advised, so the battles began. In Leopold's opinion, farmers and others interested in erosion prevention believed only in

125 Today, arguments are still being waged over what role people should take in preserving nature and the balance of nature. Is It our responsibility only to oversee and protect the lands and animals, or is it our duty to keep animal populations at controlled levels by allowing hunting? What should our role be when an animal population gets too large to be supported by the vegetation of the region? How much human intervention is too much?

Because he knew more about land ecology than any other person of his time, many principles of wildlife management in practice today were developed by Aldo Leopold and his co-workers. He had a rare understanding of the way biotic (life) forces interact, and the ways in which these interactions occur, affecting the life and landscape of America.

References

A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There. Aldo Leopold. Oxford University Press. 1949, 1980.

A Sand County Almanac with other Essays on Conservation from Round River. Aldo Leopold. Oxford University Press. 1949, 1966.

Game Management. Aldo Leopold. Charles Scribner & Sons. 1933.1961.

"Leopold Helped Set the Course of Modem Conservation." Wisconsin Conservation Bulletin. Dec. 1954.

"Aldo Leopold Remembered." by Clay Schoenefeld. Audubon. May 1978.

126 PHYSICAL SCIENCE: MOTION OF OBJECTS Ronald Erwin McNair (1950-1986)

LASER PHYSICIST AND NASA ASTRONAUT

Ronald Erwin McNair was born the son of a prejudice to losing two years' worth of teacher and an auto body repairman on October dissertation research data on the computer. 21, 1950, in Lake City, South Carolina. Even Inspired by early memories of his mother driving though both parents were employed, life was 600 miles a week to earn her master's degree, very difficult for McNair and his two brothers, McNair was not about to let any hardship stand who grew up in an atmosphere of racial in his way. He persisted and quietly went about prejudice. Throughout much of his childhood, he recreating his doctoral research. Within three and his brothers picked cotton, cucumbers, and months, he had come up with even better cropped tobacco for $4 a day to help support the material, completed his research experiments, family. and finished his dissertation. McNair received his Ph.D. in 1976. McNair began reading at the age of three, and became interested in science when he was young. After the Soviet Union launched the satellite Sputnik, McNair's classmates remember that science, Sputnik, and thoughts of space travel began to dominate his thinking. He excelled in both academics and sports such as football, track, and basketball, and graduated from high school as valedictorian of his class in 1967. Nevertheless, he remained the quiet, modest fellow his friends nicknamed "Gismo".

Since state colleges in South Carolina were not fully integrated, McNair attended North Carolina A & T State University. Needing to Next, he worked at the Hughes Research challenge his intellect, he majored in physics and Laboratories In Malibu, California. While there, was graduated with highest honors in 1971. he received a flier from NASA which said they Although he wanted to continue his education at were looking for shuttle astronauts. Dr. McNair a top school in physics, he was apprehensive returned his application, confident that he would about attending the Massachusetts Institute of at last fulfill his dream of space travel. In 1978, at Technology (MIT). But, he couldn't hide from the the age of 28, he was accepted into the challenge, and soon began his doctoral studies astronaut program as one of 35 applicants from there. among 10,000 who applied. Shortly after being accepted, Dr. McNair and Cheryl, his wife, were While at MIT, McNair worked on developing in an automobile accident. Fortunately, when the some of the first chemical and high-pressure other car crashed into them, he only suffered lasers, and worked with some of the top several broken ribs. Determined to regain his authorities in the field. Even so, he faced many health, Dr. McNair recovered from the injury and challenges at MIT, ranging from “unspoken"

127 reported to NASA for astronaut training—only the second black in history to do so. Jet, Vol. 70, No.2, March 31, pp. 14- 17.

His first experience in space travel aboard Sammons. Vivian O. Blacks in Science & the space shuttle Columbia in early January of Medicine. Hemisphere . Publishing Corp., 1986 was uneventful, and all went well. He even NY, 1990. had time during the mission to record solo renditions of the songs, “What the World Needs Who's Who Among Black Americans. 1985, p. Now Is Love" and "Reach Out and Touch" on his 578. saxophone. However, his second voyage into space ended in tragedy. Seventy-four seconds after lift-off from Kennedy Space Center, the space shuttle Challenger exploded above the shores of Florida. All crew members were lost.

Dr. McNair earned many honors and received a number of awards during his short life of 35 years. He was a Presidential Scholar, Ford Foundation Fellow, and Omega Psi Scholar of the Year. He was awarded three honorary doctorates, made a member of the National Society of Black Professional Engineers, and joined the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Ronald Erwin McNair was known as a man who completed things he started. A sixth-degree black belt In karate, accomplished saxophonist, scholar, scientist, and a loving family-man, he lived by the philosophy "Be your best" —leaving a legacy of excellence for us all to follow.

References

Black Collegian, December/January, 1980/81, pp. 31, 134-138.

Black Enterprise, Vol.16, No.9, April, 1986, p. 25.

Cheers, Michael D., "Requiem for a Hero",

Ebony, Vol. XLI, No.7, pp. 82-94.

Ebony, May 1986, pp. 14-17.

Jet, March 9, 1978, pp. 22-26.

128 EARTH SCIENCE: HYDROSPHERE Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806- 1873)

PAVED WAY FOR SCIENTIFIC APPROACH

Maury used ships’ logs, which noted winds an currents, to chart general circulation patterns of atmosphere and oceans. He began publishing these Wind and Current Charts, and gave them to mariners free of charge in return for similar information from their own ships’ logs. As a result, he was able to develop a series of charts and sailing directions which gave a climatic picture of surface winds and currents for all the oceans.

Matthew F. Maury was the seventh As it turns out, Maury was interested in child of a family in Virginia which originally improving sea technology in order to show came to the U.S. from Ireland. In 1825, he that sailing was superior to the steam joined the U.S. Navy and served at sea until propulsion engines being invented in the 1839 when a stagecoach accident left him mid 1800's. He claimed that his charts unable to return to sea duty. Maury was shortened sailing routes around Cape Horn reassigned to a post in Washington, D.C., at the southern tip of South America, thus where he became an advocate for naval making steamer-railroad routes to the west reforms. Southern expansionism and useless. increasing scientific study which could improve sea travel. He joined the He was also involved in the field of Confederacy in 1861, and served in marine micropaleontology. Around this England for the Confederate Navy during time, U.S. Navy vessels were beginning to the Civil War. make use of submarine telegraphy. They sounded (measured depth of) the North Upon his return to the United States, Atlantic under Maury’s direction from 1849 Maury went to work for the new National to 1853. Using these findings, Maury Observatory. But, he was not an prepared the first bathymetrical (deep sea accomplished astronomer and his sound) chart of contours located 1,000 shortcomings in the area caused problems. fathoms under the surface. Even though Maury was in charge of the observatory for 17 years, his contributions Maury organized the Brussels to astronomy were considered small. His Conference in 1853, but his efforts to unify failures in astronomy may have been due, international weather reporting for both land in part, to the fact that he was mainly and sea ran into opposition from a group he interested in improving navigation had helped found — The American technology, so he was more concerned with Association for the Advancement of the earth and less with the heavens. Science (A.A.A.S)

129 As happened before, Maury’s style of promoting ideas as being more worthy and important than others caused a problem. The A.A.A.S. felt that, just because Maury was qualified at sea observations, this did not make him a qualified meteorologist. So, he was only able to organize uniform weather reporting of sea conditions. Maury meant well, but he had made errors and was unwilling to revise some of his theories. After his death, however, the system was extended to include both land and sea meteorology.

Matthew Maury’s most significant contributions may have come in the form of stimulating other researchers to improve their own theories and research. That’s because he was inflexible and refused to revise his own findings, even when other evidence proved contrary to his stated theories.

References

Ocean Pathfinder: A Biography of Matthew F. Maury. Frances Williams. Harcourt, Brace and World, New York, 1966.

The Physical Geography of the Sea. Matthew Maury. T. Nelson, New York, 1863.

The Physical Geography of the Sea and its Meteorology. Matthew Maury. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1963.

130 PHYSICAL SCIENCE: MOTION OF OBJECTS Maria Goeppert-Mayer (1906- 1972)

SECOND WOMAN TO RECEIVE NOBEL PRIZE FOR PHYSICS

mathematics at Gottingen, intending to become a teacher.

Gottingen was one of the leading universities in Europe at the time and was staffed by many of the leading mathematicians and physicists of the day. Here, she was surrounded with, and nurtured by, many scientific giants. They often gathered at Gottingen to discuss their latest findings, and the science of physics was advancing rapidly. It was then that Max Born invited Goeppert to join his class. This was a turning point for Maria, who decided to Dr. Maria Goeppert-Mayer was born in concentrate her studies on physics so she could Poland in 1906. Her father was a seventh work with the puzzles of nature, rather than with generation university professor, and her mother mathematics–the puzzles of man. had been a French and piano teacher. In 1910, they moved to Gottingen where her father was Shortly after Maria's father died, Born appointed professor of pediatrics at the Georgia expanded his role as her mentor, and became Augusta University (commonly referred to as more of a father figure. His guidance and Gottingen), and founded a children's clinic. For teaching in theoretical physics, in addition to her several years, life in Gottingen was rich and filled strong mathematics education, gave Maria with intellectual stimulation. But, in 1914 with the Goeppert a solid foundation and the skills onset of World War I, life changed and, at times, necessary to become one of the great quantum was quite harsh. physicists of our time.

Maria's excellence in school, especially in Because of the Depression it was common mathematics and languages—along with a practice in Europe for families to take in never-ending curiosity—made her decide to boarders, especially university towns. In 1929, attend college. But, admission of women at Maria rented a room to Joseph Mayer, an universities was limited, and the entrance American who had just received his Ph.D. in examinations were quite rigorous. So, after chemistry from the University of California at graduating from high school in 1921, Maria Berkley, and had come to Europe to study with attended the Frauenstudium, a school which James Franck. Goeppert and Mayer soon prepared girls for the university entrance became more than landlady and boarder. Upon examination. Although the academic program receiving her doctorate in 1930, the two were was three years long, the school went bankrupt married. two years later. Undaunted, Maria took the entrance examination anyway, passed, and was Dr. Mayer completed his work and then admitted to the university. She studied accepted an appointment with the chemistry

131 department at Johns Hopkins University in mechanics on pioneering work concerning the Baltimore, Maryland. Unfortunately, the U.S. was structure of organic compounds. While at Johns at the height of the Great Depression and jobs Hopkins, she spent the summers of 1931-1933 were scarce. Plus, the university, like most at in Gottingen working and writing with Max that time, had strict rules against employing Born. Just before leaving Johns Hopkins for members of the same family. As a result, even Columbia University in New York City, Dr. though Dr. Goeppert-Mayer was exceedingly Goeppert-Mayer and her husband attended a well qualified, the best job she could find was an conference where it was first disclosed that the assistantship in the physics department. Even atom had been spilt. though underemployed, she was provided opportunities to continue her research and was Sadly, when first arriving at Columbia, Dr. later allowed to present lecture courses for Goeppert-Mayer was given an office, but not a graduate students. faculty appointment. Even so, she soon became close friends with a number of Columbia staff Kari Herzfeld, a prominent theorist in kinetic members, Including Enrico Fermi. He had just theory and thermodynamics, recognized Dr. won the Nobel Physics Prize and fled Germany Goeppert-Mayer's expertise and they soon because his wife was Jewish. The Fermi’s and began writing scientific papers together. She Mayer's became especially close. Soon the also worked with, and formed close relationships Mayers moved to Leonia, New Jersey, so they with Gerhard Dicke, Francis Murnaghan and could live nearby. Aurel Winter of the mathematics department. Each of these experiences added to her In 1941, Dr. Goeppert-Mayer was offered enrichment as a scientist, as did the rapid her first genuine position as a half- time faculty development of quantum mechanics during that member at Sarah Lawrence College in time. Dr. Goeppert-Mayer also worked closely Bronxville, N.Y. She developed and presented a with one of Herzfeld's students, Alfred Sklar, who number of science and mathematics courses later became the Director of the Argonne there, and continued her teaching throughout National Laboratory. World War II.

The situation in Europe during the 1930's In early December, 1941, Harold Urey began grew worse each day because of the Nazi putting together a research group to work on government in Germany. Thousands of Jews developing the atomic bomb, the Manhattan fled the country, realizing that if they stayed, they project. Dr. Goeppert-Mayer was offered a would be deported to concentration camps or position to work with those scientists on what killed. Because many of the leading scientists in was, for security reasons, called the Substitute Germany were Jewish, U.S. scientists were Alloy Materials project. Her top secret work quite concerned that their colleagues from included research on the thermodynamic abroad would be enslaved or murdered. A group properties of uranium hexafluoride. was formed to provide food and shelter for those who were able to escape. As a treasurer, Dr. Although she continued her part-time Herzfeld got Dr. Goeppert- Mayer quite involved, teaching at Sarah Lawrence, she also began and she opened her home to a number of participating in a research program called the refugees. Opacity Project. It focused on the properties of matter and radium at extremely high During this time, she also focused her temperatures, necessary to develop energy on methods of group theory, and matrix thermonuclear weapons. After working for some

132 while to design and build the first atomic bomb in Although another scientist had suggested such a Los Alamos, New Mexico, she returned home to possibility in 1933, his research was never be with Dr. Mayer. Soon after, while on their only completed because of the war. vacation in years, they received the news that the first atomic bomb had been exploded over In April 1950, the journal "Physical Review" Hiroshima, Japan. carried an article explaining her discovery. Simultaneously, Otto Haxel, J. Hans, D. Jensen, Immediately following the end of the war, the and Hans E. Suess, well-known German couple moved to Chicago, Illinois. Dr. Mayer was scientists, had also made the same discovery. appointed a full professor and given a position at Later, after meeting Jensen in 1950, the two the new Institute for Nuclear Studies at the collaborated in writing the Elementary Theory of University of Chicago (later renamed the Enrico Nuclear Shell Structure, published In 1955. Fermi Institute). The Opacity Project also moved Although Dr. Goeppert-Mayer was first to submit there, and was joined by a number of famous her documentation for publication, she and scientists. The university soon became known Jensen shared the 1963 Nobel Physics Prize. for its experts in nuclear physics, chemistry, astrophysics, cosmology, and geophysics. In 1954, Dr. Goeppert-Mayer was finally offered a full professorship in physics at the Here, Dr. Goeppert-Mayer was given the University of California at San Diego, and Dr. opportunity to continue her work with the Mayer, a professorship in chemistry. Only weeks Metallurgical Laboratory of the university as an after their arrival, Dr. Goeppert-Mayer suffered a associate professor and senior physicist. The stroke which left her partially paralyzed. Even so, Metallurgical Laboratory was soon replaced by she recovered enough to accept the Nobel Prize the Argonne National Laboratory under the in 1963 and continue her teaching and research Atomic Energy Commission. During this time, into the development of the shell model. Dr. Goeppert-Mayer was introduced to a cosmological model of the origin of the Although Dr. Goeppert-Mayer's efforts to elements. She realized that, because some remain actively involved in research were valiant, elements were more abundant than others, they her health problems began to quickly mount. must have a very stable nucleus. And, she found After losing the hearing in one ear, she began to that the nuclei of these stable elements suffer heart problems and died in San Diego on contained even numbers of either neutrons or February 20, 1972. protons. Throughout her life, Dr. Goeppert-Mayer Later, she realized that protons and neutrons fought against the evils and effects of gender could spin in their orbit around nuclei, and that and religious discrimination and persecution. Her there was a difference in the energy between friends described her as a quiet, modest, them relative to their direction. This allowed thoughtful, and elegant person. Those in the field them to be arranged in more different orbits than of physics refer to her as an enthusiastic was earlier thought. In addition, when protons scientific giant who brought to the world order and neutrons were most tightly bound, they and fundamental understanding of the nuclei. created stable elements and were in even numbers. At last, Dr. Goeppert-Mayer could clearly explain how the particles of the nucleus are arranged—"shells" within the nuclei—and the spinning orbit-coupling model of nuclei was born.

133 Books

Born, Max, and Mayer, Maria Goeppert, "Dynamische Glittertheorie der Kristalle", Handbuch der Physik,1935.

Mayer, Joseph, and Mayer, Maria Goeppert, Statistical Mechanics. UNKNOWN PUBLISHER, 1940.

Mayer, Maria Goeppert, and J. Hans D. Jensen, Elementary Theory of Nuclear Shell Structure. UNKNOWN PUBLISHER, 1955.

References

Dash, Joan, A Life of One's Own. New York, Harper and Row, 1973.

Sachs, Robert G., "Maria Goeppert Mayer-Two- Fold Pioneer", Physics Today, February, 1982, pp. 46-51.

Shiels, Barbara, "Maria Goeppert Mayer" in Women and the Nobel Prize. Dillon Press, Inc. Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1985.

134 EARTH SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER Warren Morton Washington (1936 - )

METEOROLOGIST WHO STUDIES THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

the atmosphere because these are increasing the warming effect.

We all understand the general principle that the earth is warmed by the sun—that the sun emits energy and the earth and its atmosphere absorb that energy. Most of the sun’s energy covers the ultraviolet (UV), visible and near-infrared regions. Only a small fraction of this energy is intercepted by the earth.

In order for there to be some balance of Born in Portland, Oregon on August 28, energy flow, the earth itself emits energy 1936, Warren Morton Washington went on back to space. However, the earth emits to graduate from both Oregon State energy at longer wavelengths because it is University with a B.S. degree in physics, much colder than the sun, and the sun and from Pennsylvania State University emits energy at the shorter wavelengths. where he received his Ph.D. in The earth’s emissions are in what are called meteorology. In fact, Dr. Washington was thermal infrared regions. only the second Afro-American in history to receive a doctorate in that subject. His Here is where the earth’s atmosphere research efforts were initially in the area of comes into the picture. The atmosphere meteorology, but more recently he has behaves differently at different wavelengths. studied the greenhouse effect and its Of all the solar energy entering the planet, deterioration of our planet. about 30% is reflected back to space by clouds, the earth’s surface, and As an introduction to the greenhouse atmospheric gases. Another 20% is effect, we must understand that it is not absorbed by atmospheric gases, mostly by entirely bad—the Earth is able to support the ozone which absorbs energy in the UV life because of the greenhouse effect. and visible ranges. Water vapor and Without it, the Earth surface would measure carbon dioxide is absorbed into the near- about 20°C below zero instead of 13°C infrared region. The earth’s surface above zero. Problems with this natural absorbs the remaining 50% of the sun’s phenomena occur because of man’s emissions, so the surface of our planet pollution and neglect, to the point where a becomes warmer. natural balance is getting more and more difficult to maintain. Basically, our biggest Thermal energy emitted by the earth concerns are with the gases that we add to seeks a different atmosphere—clouds,

135 water vapor and carbon dioxide—which are References stronger absorbers of radiation at the thermal infrared wavelengths. So, the Greenhouse Effect and its Impact on earth’s atmosphere is warmed as much by Africa. London: Institute for African thermal infrared radiation from its surface Alternatives, 1990. as by the energy (radiation) from the sun. Policy Options for Stabilizing Global And, the atmosphere itself emits thermal Climate. Hemisphere Pub. Corp., New infrared radiation. Some goes out into York, 1990. space, while the rest comes back toward the earth. Thus, the earth’s surface is Our Drowning World: Population, Pollution, warmed not only by the sun, but also by the and Future Weather. Antony Milne. earth’s own atmosphere in the form of Prism Press, Dorset, England; Avery thermal infrared radiation. This is the Pub. Group, New York, 1988. naturally-occurring greenhouse effect.

The dangers to our atmosphere come with the many gases we emit during our everyday activities. These gases are very strong absorbers of thermal infrared radiation. And, as they accumulate in our atmosphere, the atmosphere is better able to absorb and emit them, so more energy is emitted downward to the earth’s surface than normal. The result is that the earth’s surface is warmed beyond what would normally occur, and its natural balance is disturbed.

This can lead to an atmosphere which holds more water vapor, which is itself a greenhouse gas, thus adding to the warming greenhouse effect. Snow and ice are good reflectors of solar radiation, so they help cool the planet. But, with a warmer earth, there is less snow and ice, and less reflection of solar radiation back to space. These, along with other environmental and climatic changes due to the build-up of greenhouse gases, add to warming effect of our planet and further upset the balance of nature.

Dr. Warren Washington is currently director of a division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research.

136 LIFE SCIENCE: ORGANIZATION OF LIVING THING Dale Hale Williams (1858-1931)

A TRUE PIONEER IN THE MEDICAL FIELD

business. Dan’s older brother was a teacher and law student, while his youngest sister stayed in Annapolis with their grandmother. Two other sisters were sent to a convent school in Baltimore, Maryland.

At the age of 12, Dan also found himself in Baltimore, working as a shoemaker’s apprentice. Lonely and separated from family, he ran away to rejoin his mother. But, she interpreted Dan’s ingenuity and determination in traveling this distance as a sign that he was old enough to take care of While heart surgery may seem like a himself. So, she returned to Annapolis, modern idea, it was first performed back in leaving him and his little sister, Sally, behind 1893 by Dr. Daniel “Dan” Hale Williams to to fend for themselves. save the life of a young black man who had been stabbed in the chest. And this proved Dan found whatever work he could, to be only one of a long list of remarkable toiling as a dock worker, ship’s deckhand achievements. on the Great Lakes, and as a barber. Always ambitious, by the age of 17 he had Perhaps Dr. William’s background had moved to Wisconsin and opened a small something to do with his drive and ambition barber shop. But, he never forgot the to succeed. He was born in Hollidaysburg, importance his father had placed on Pennsylvania, the son of Daniel Williams, education and made up his mind to return Jr., a man of mixed African-American, to school when he could. Native-American, and white ancestry from Annapolis, Maryland. Determined to become a doctor, Dan secured an apprenticeship with Dr. Henry Dan’s father fought slavery as an Palmer in 1878 in Janesville, Wisconsin. abolitionist, and was a member of the Equal He later managed to enroll at the Chicago, Rights League, a group dedicated to Illinois, Medical College in 1880 and providing civil rights and education for all received his medical degree three years Blacks. A trustee of the local African later. Next, the brand-new physician Wesleyan Church, he died at the age of 47 opened a small practice in Chicago. following a battle with tuberculosis. Soon after, the family was torn apart. Never one to have time on his hands, Dr. Williams also served as a physician at Sarah Ann moved to Rockford, Illinois the Protestant Orphan Asylum, the South where she found work in a family-owned Side Dispensary, and taught clinical

137 medicine and anatomy at the Chicago the National Medical Association —the only Medical College. medical association open to Black physicians near the Turn of the Century. Along the way, he became aware of the tremendous discrimination Black people Dr. Williams later returned to work as a encountered when they became ill. Few physician at Provident and Mercy Hospitals doctors would treat them, and hospitals in Chicago, and as a surgeon at Cook frequently denied them entrance. When County Hospital. Here he once again Blacks were allowed inside, it was into performed surgeries unusual for their time charity wards where treatment was —Caesarian section births, operations to generally poor. save torn and mangled limbs, hernia repairs, removal of damaged kidneys, and In fact, facilities for minorities were so the very first operation to suture (sew up) a scare that Dr. Williams was forced to ruptured spleen. perform his first surgical operation on the patient’s dining room table. In addition, A true medical pioneer, Dr. Daniel Hale Blacks were often subjected to unneeded Williams dedicated himself not only to treatments and experiments by white saving lives through the development of doctors. new medical techniques, but also to improving the quality of life for Black people As was the case with his abolitionist everywhere. The institutions he father, Dr. Dan Williams fought hard for established, where promising Black nurses change. In 1891, he established the first and doctors could study and work, allowed interracial hospital in America—the them, in turn, to make their own Provident Hospital and Training School contributions to humanity. Association located in Chicago. It was not only a place where Black people could go References for proper medical treatment, but also a place Black interns and nurses could get Great Black Americans. 1976. Ben the training and professional experiences Richardson and William Fahey. they needed. Thomas Crowell Co. New York. pp. 244- 255. Two years later, Dr. Williams performed the first known heart operation and saved Dictionary of American Negro Biography. the life of James Cornish, a young Black 1982. Rayford Logan and Michael man who had been stabbed in the heart. In Winston. W.W. Norton and Co., New fact, this surgery was performed without the York. pp. 654-655. use of X-rays, antibiotics to fight infections, and with no blood transfusions since all of Dr. Dan: Pioneer American Surgeon. 1954. these medical advancements were Helen Buckler. Boston, Mass. unknown at the time.

Soon after, Dr. Daniel Hale Williams was appointed chief surgeon at Freedman’s Hospital at Howard University in Washington, D.C. And, he would establish

138 PHYSICAL SCIENCE: MOTION OF OBJECTS Sylvia Earle (1879-1955)

DISCOVERED 153 SPECIES OF MARINE PLANTS

all through school. She and her brother were the first in their family to go to college, and Sylvia was anxious to do well. Her strongest interest lay in the study of underwater plants and animals.

Later, in graduate school at Duke University, Sylvia realized that all of life is connected—that everything on earth is dependent upon everything else—and that everything depends upon plants. If the energy of the sun was not captured in plants through photosynthesis, there would be no animals and no human beings. She Sylvia Earle has spent her life observing learned that the first link in the ocean’s food nature and admiring the beauty of the chain is marine plant life. undersea world. As a child, Sylvia grew up on a small farm in New Jersey where she In 1964, Sylvia Earle took part in the and her two brothers enjoyed exploring International Indian Ocean Expedition. The nearby woods and marshes. They would only female among 60 males, she also take in sick and abandoned animals, journeyed to Rome, Nairobi, Athens, and and nurse them back to health. various islands in the Indian Ocean. Future Encouraged by her mother, Sylvia found the expeditions took her to three oceans where natural world a constant source of she discovered several new varieties of fascination. marine life, including a distinct red algae never seen before. She received her Ph.D. It was during family excursions to from Duke University in 1966. Ocean City, New Jersey that the sea world opened up to her. Sylvia fished for eels and As the lead scientist of the U.S. crabs, grew to love the fresh salt air and to Department of the Interior’s Tektite respect the power of the sea. The Earles program, Dr. Earle and an all-woman team moved to the west coast of Florida when of scientists and engineers went on a two- she was 12, so the Gulf of Mexico became week research expedition. The team lived her backyard and she began collecting sea underwater near the island of St. John for urchins and starfish. the entire time. From their studies of nearby reefs, 153 different species of Sylvia started first grade at the age of marine plants, including 26 never before five, so she was always the youngest in her recorded in the Virgin Islands, were class. Nevertheless, she made top grades discovered. Unfortunately, however, these

139 discoveries went relatively unnoticed. oceans, they would not like it. She wants Instead, the news media concentrated more us to understand that what we do in one on the fact that the research time was all place ultimately affects everybody because female—labeling them “aquachicks” and the health of the whole world depends upon “aquababes.” the health of our oceans.

Although this reaction upset Dr. Earle, References she did not stop moving forward. In 1977, the National Geographic Society, the World Exploring the Deep Frontier the Adventure Wildlife Fund, and the New York Zoological of Man in the Sea. Sylvia Earle. The Society sponsored an expedition to learn Society, Washington, D.C., 1980. about the humpback whale. Dr. Earle and other scientists studied the whale’s Life with the Dutch Touch. Sylvia Earle. mysterious and intensely reasonant songs The Hague, Government Publishing as well as their behavior. They also studied Office, 1960. the barnacles, algae and parasites which live on the whale’s hide. Earle swam, side Breakthrough: Women in Science. Diana by side with these gentle giants. Gleasner. Walker and Company, New York, 1983. Dr. Earle strongly believed that the more we know about the ocean, the more we will take care and preserve it. As for the whales, she says we must do more than just stop killing them; we must also protect the places in which they live.

While participating in the Scientific Cooperative Ocean Research Expedition, Dr. Earle not only made the longest and deepest dives ever recorded by a woman, but she also discovered a new genus of plants living at 250 feet below the surface. Another record-setting dive took place in 1979 when she was lowered 1,250 feet to the bottom of the Pacific Ocean off Oahu, Hawaii. This time she wore a suit of experimental design that resembled those used by astronauts. Here, she observed a small, green-eyed shark, a sea fan with pink polyps, and giant spirals of bamboo coral that looked like a field of bedsprings. These emitted a luminous blue light when she touched them.

Dr. Sylvia Earle is convinced that, if people could see what is happening to our

140 PHYSICAL SCIENCE: MOTION OF OBJECTS Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

CONCEPTUALIZED THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Dr. Albert Einstein was born the son of an electrical engineer on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany. His scientific curiosity began by age five as he pondered the invisible force which directed the needle of a compass given to him by his father. But, he showed little academic promise at the Catholic state school he was forced to attend, and was unable to speak very well at the age of nine. His teachers said he was mentally slow, unsociable, and “adrift forever in his foolish dreams.” Unaffected by these criticisms, Einstein took refuge in a sea of books teacher, but soon realized that his greatest and learned to play the violin. These solitary interests lay in experimental and theoretical pursuits brought him great joy. physics. One day, Einstein’s teacher brought to class Einstein passed his university examinations in a large nail she said was from the crucifixion of 1900, and was given a teaching certificate —but Jesus. As the only Jewish boy, all eyes turned to not a teaching job as was usual at that time. Anti- him as if he and his religious ancestors were Semitism was growing, and as a Jew, he was directly responsible. Einstein did not understand denied any job with status attached to it. After this senseless hatred, and he ran from the room, several years of unsuccessfully searching for a returning to his books for comfort. This incident teaching position, he accepted a job as a stayed with him throughout his lifelong fight technical expert, third class, in a patent office. against prejudice. Bored, Einstein began experimenting with At the age of 12, Einstein’s life changed complicated mathematical formulas. With a dramatically when he discovered Euclidean pencil in hand, he built a laboratory in his mind. geometry. By age 16, he had also become Those calculations were basis of his doctoral proficient in differentials and integral calculus. dissertation which he completed at age 26. They In the 1880's, Einstein’s family moved to also were his first steps in formulating a theory Switzerland. Even so, he continued to be which shook the foundations of science. unhappy in school and was soon expelled Einstein had long searched for a general because his rebellious attitude hurt the morale of principal which would explain a paradox that fellow classmates. He then tried to enter the occurred to him when he was 16 — if someone Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. Even runs alongside a train at the same speed as the though Albert’s knowledge of mathematics was train, it appears to be at rest. But, if it were superior to most, his knowledge in other areas possible to run alongside a ray of light, the ray of was greatly lacking and he failed his first attempt light – an oscillating electromagnetic wave – at taking the university entrance examination. would not appear to be at rest. Therefore, Later, in 1896, he was admitted to the Institute. everything in the universe was actually in motion. At first he wanted to become a mathematics Speed and direction are relative, and only

141 measured relative to other objects. Einstein then time in the form of a complicated four- concluded that space and time were also dimensional curve. Unlike Newton, Einstein relative. The only thing which was not relative proved that gravity was created by a localized was the speed of light. bending of space caused by the presence of large In short, he stated that, no matter how fast masses such as planets and stars. In addition, an observer is traveling, he or she must always he demonstrated that the shortest distance observe the velocity of “c” as the speed of light. between two points in space was not a straight He also hypothesized that, if an observer at rest line, but a curved line – light is modified by the and an observer moving at a constant velocity objects it encounters as it travels from one point perform the same experiment, they must get the to the next. same results. These two considerations were the In 1919, the light of a solar eclipse was basis of Einstein’s “Special Theory of Relativity.” independently measured at two observatories. He went on to prove that this theory predicted Einstein predicted that light rays which passed energy “E” and mass “m” are near the sun would, because of the intense interconvertible—thus “E = mc2". This formula gravitational field, be bent out of their path twice gave a remarkable new picture of the universe. as much as could be accounted for using The Special Theory of Relativity challenged Newtonian physics. He was correct, proving his long-held views of time and space. Always theory and the existence of gravitational waves. before, scientists had believed that mass, length, He also suggested that the universe is static and and time were absolute and unvarying. Einstein uniformly filled with a finite amount of matter; and demonstrated that they were dependent on the although finite, it has no beginning or end point. relative motion between the observer and what is The proof of his predictions, published in 1915, being observed. In 1907, he proved his entire caused a great fury in the scientific world. quantum hypothesis by showing that it In 1920, Einstein was appointed to an accounted for the low-temperature behavior of honorary lifelong professorship at the University specific heat in solids. of Leiden. A year later, he was awarded the In 1909, he was made an associate Nobel Prize for his famous 1905 equation for professor at the University of Zurich, and a full photoelectric effect. professor two years later. A year-and-a-half During 1921-22, Anti-Semitic attacks on after that, he became a full professor at the Einstein were renewed. Even Nobel Prize- Federal Institute of Technology. Einstein was winning physicists Philipp Lenard and Johannes rapidly advancing. He had become so well Stark were known to criticize Einstein’s theory of known within the scientific community that, in relativity as “Jewish physics.” The Anti-Semitic 1913, Max Planck and Walter Nernest asked prejudice increased rapidly with the rise of Nazi him to accept a research professorship at the Germany. It was during this period that Einstein University of Berlin. To further entice Einstein, took a public stand against Anti-Semitism. For Planck also offered him full membership in the two years he and Chiam Weizmann, the future Prussian Academy of Science. In 1914, Einstein first president of Israel, traveled worldwide to gain accepted and remarked, “The Germans are support for establishing Palestine as a Jewish gambling on me as they would on a prize hen. I homeland. do not really know myself whether I shall ever lay In 1924, S.N. Bose, with Einstein’s help, another egg.” developed Bose-Einstein statistics. This soon led By 1915, Einstein had refined his General to Einstein’s famous quantum theory of an ideal Theory of Relativity which described the gas. Around this same time, he was offered an structure of space. He maintained that the honorary vice presidency at the Mark Twain universe contained a continuum of space and Society. When he found that they also had

142 offered a similar position to Italian dictator Benito References Mussoli, however, he flatly refused. Shortly thereafter, he found his name high on a list of Born, Max, Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. people who were to be assassinated by the (Translated) 1922, (rev. ed 1962). Nazis, and moved to Holland. But, he found that formerly tolerant nation also to be rife with Anti- Clark, Ronald W., Einstein: The Life and Times. Semitism and a fear of Nazi Germany. In 1932, 1947. Einstein moved to the United States. Adolf Hitler then told Einstein that he would Encyclopedia of World Biography. McGraw Hill, overlook the fact that he was Jewish, and asked Vol. 3, 1973. him to return to Germany. When Einstein refused, Hitler reversed himself, insisted that no Frank, Philipp, Einstein: His Life and Times. Jew could have formulated the Theory of (Translated by George Rosen), 1947. Relativity, immediately revoked his German citizenship, and placed a price of 20,000 marks Feldman, Anthony, and Ford, Peter Scientists on his head. At the same time, Einstein and Inventors., Facts on File Publications, resigned from the Prussian Academy of Science 1979. because of their Anti-Semitism, and was expelled from the Bavarian Academy of Science. Infeld, Leopold, Albert Einstein: His Work and Its A year later he was appointed a life member Influence on Our World, 1950. of the Institute for Advanced Studies at Princeton University in New Jersey, and actively continued Jammer, Max, The Conceptual Development of his work there until 1939. At that time, American Quantum Mechanics, 1966. scientists were becoming concerned that the Relativity Theory (which showed that mass could Seeling, Carl, Albert Einstein: A Documentary be converted directly to energy) could be used Biography. (Translated by Mervyn Savil), by German scientists to build a new “super 1956. weapon.” With the threat of a world war looming, Einstein wrote to President Roosevelt, Schilpp, P.A., Albert Einstein: suggesting that the U.S. develop a Philosopher–Scientist. (2nd ed) 1951. counterweapon in hopes it could be used to deter a war, it was used to end one. In 1945, despite Einstein’s appeals, an atomic bomb was dropped over Hiroshima, Japan. Einstein spent his last years in semi- retirement at Princeton and continued to work and teach until 1945, when he retired and was made professor emeritus. Between that time and his death in 1955, Einstein became a strong advocate of a world government as the only practical way to achieve peace. Dr. Albert Einstein’s legacy is unending. He gave science an entirely new understanding of the universe. He fought against religious prejudice and war. And he lived a full life – a life spent in the service of others.

143 EARTH SCIENCE: ATMOSPHERE AND WEATHER Donald Glaser (1926- )

INVENTOR OF THE BUBBLE CHAMBER

produced by colliders are too small to be seen by the human eye, and too fast to be effectively detected. So, using the superheated liquid, scientists would be able to observe them and follow the particles’ paths.

In 1960, Dr. Donald Glaser was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the bubble chamber—a device to detect the paths of high energy atomic Born in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1926, particles. As these ionizing particles were Donald Glaser took up the study of both generated by particle accelerators, they mathematics and physics while in college. traveled into the bubble chamber through a After completing his bachelor’s degree in superheated liquid such as liquid hydrogen, these subjects at the Case Institute of deuterium, or helium. As these high energy Technology, he earned a Ph.D. in particles passed near the nuclei of the mathematics and physics at the California liquid’s atoms, there could be many Institute of Technology in 1950. different reactions.

During the decade that followed, the In the simplest case, a high energy scientific community was developing a giant particle increased in energy and extra particle accelerator, forerunner of today’s particles were produced. Bubbles that modern supercolliders. Scientists using formed in the chamber showed the path these accelerators were generating high that particles traveled through the liquid. energy particles, but they had no clear or Photographs could then be taken, showing reasonable way to study them. So, Dr. these paths from many angles. Glaser set about studying the properties of various liquids and solids which he thought Dr. Donald Glaser’s work has provided might make the observation of high energy precise information about high energy particles more practical. particles including masses, lifetimes, and decay modes never before available to Glaser was fascinated with the instability science. of superheated liquids. He reasoned that, if we greatly reduced the surface tension of a References superheated liquid —increasing vapor pressure at the same time—we should be The Principles of Cloud-Chamber able to see ionizing radiation passing Technique. J. G. Wilson. Cambridge through the liquid in the form of bubbles. University Press. 1951. High energy particles (ionizing particles)

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