AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE FOOD SECURITY

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT REPORT

Prepared by

USAID Collaborative Research Support Programs Team

May 2000

AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE FOOD SECURITY

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT

Executive Summary

USAID/Ethiopia has signed an agreement production of field and horticultural crops, to assist the Government of Ethiopia, in livestock and apiculture. It also looked at particular the Amhara Regional Authority, technology related to the seed industry, to design activities that will result in agroclimatic analysis, watershed manage- increased rural income, and thereby ment, soil erosion and fertility, food increase food security. An important goal science, socio-economic factors, and the of the agreement is to increase rural structure of the research system. incomes through participatory agricultural research, giving technology users an It is clear that land degradation from important say in technology development, overgrazing, soil erosion, deforestation, and transforming a top-down, supply and cultivation of steep, fragile lands has driven technology transfer system to a resulted in loss of biodiversity, bottom-up, demand-driven one. productivity, stability, and resiliency in the region. In the three ANRS research To this end, USAID/Ethiopia requested centers the team visited, the staff is young field support from USAID’s Washington and enthusiastic. They expressed the Global Bureau’s Collaborative Research need for more senior and experienced Support Programs. A ten-member inter- scientists who would provide leadership disciplinary team was convened to conduct and guidance to them and the overall an assessment into the availability of research programs. The research staff are technology in the region and the capacity also constrained by inadequate facilities, of regional research centers to generate equipment, and supplies. The research and disseminate technology. This report capability needs to be strengthened in outlines the team’s findings and suggests several ways, including increasing the an action plan designed to strengthen the research efficiency of the current system, research component of the agreement. along with strategic expansion and The action plan is followed by a set of upgrading of the centers. In general, the anticipated results that should contribute to efficiency of current research investments the attainment of food security in the should be addressed first, followed by region. upgrading and expansion. Unless this situation is corrected, the lack of adequate Assessment. Forty-eight of the 105 research capabilities will continue to be a woredas of the Amhara region are bottleneck for attainment of food security. drought-prone and suffer from frequent food shortages. Many households are The extension capabilities for the transfer only able to produce sufficient food to of technology packages are organ- meet their food requirements for less than izationally in place, and the research six months of the year. centers are relatively well staffed. However, considerable capability building The team assessed the availability of is required to upgrade the technological technology in the region and the capacity expertise of the extension staff, as well as of those present to generate and subject-matter specialists and develop- disseminate technology in furthering the ment agents. The extension staff need

i much more technical support and research region initiate a plan to prepare a high information if they are to be more effective resolution, geo-referenced data base that in their work. characterizes the socioeconomic and biophysical conditions down to the village Immediate Action. Based on the level. This human and natural resource assessment, the team formulated a data base is needed to transfer successful research action plan that would contribute technologies discovered through to the reversal of the current situation and participatory adaptive research to other set in motion advancement toward food similar locations where they are likely to security. The first action deals with succeed. Without this spatial data base, institutionalizing an adaptive, participatory technology will continue to be transferred research methodology in which by slow, expensive and unreliable trial- researchers, members of the extension and-error methods. service, and households have equal say in setting research priorities. This action The urgency of the situation, however, will ensure that efforts of research and requires that immediate action be taken to extension personnel are demand-driven, lessen long standing food security rather than supply-driven as it is now. This constraints with readily available research approach should be initiated technologies. For this purpose, a list of immediately and be ready for imple- technologies for early on-farm testing is mentation in the coming cropping season. provided. These technologies address problems which farm households have The second action is designed to provide repeatedly cited as causes of crop training, mentoring, and higher education failures. It is expected that as farmers, opportunity for a young and inexperienced researchers, and development agents research staff. Isolation from the global work together to test technologies, many research community, in general, and the more existing technologies will be found regional and national research centers, in suitable for local adoption. particular, makes it impossible for researchers to apply existing and new Technical Assistance. The regional technologies in the region. The research research units will require additional libraries are virtually empty and support to conduct on-farm testing of the telephones are rare. To rectify this listed technologies. In particular, the situation, the team recommends the third young staff can benefit from working with action, the installation of a modern experienced researchers invited to information, computer, and commun- participate in the implementation of the ication system to link every research on-farm trials. Such senior researchers center in the region to every other regional can be invited from national and center and to the national and global international research organizations, research community. including USAID supported Collaborative Research Support Programs, which are The fourth action calls for modernizing designed to participate in these kinds of the research laboratories and equipment, activities. and making provisions for timely replacement of parts and supplies, and Results. Assuming that all components the fifth action recommends that the for attaining food security are in place, the

ii action plan for research proposed above as reforestation, erosion control, should result in attainment of four increased biodiversity, water harvesting, conditions that define sustainable and elimination of over-grazing can agroecosystems. The verifiable indicators measurably increase resiliency. Indicators of the four conditions are: of resiliency include reduced sediment load in the Blue Nile and its tributaries, 1. Increased productivity, which refers to increased biodiversity in field crops, trees increased yields and increased income and livestock, and expanded reforested per unit input of land, labor, and capital. areas and reduced hectares of Yields and income are the indicators of overgrazed land. this condition. 4. Increased equitability, which refers to 2. Increased stability, which refers to the the equal sharing of benefits derived from reduction in wide yield and income the agroecosystem. The benefits should fluctuation or feast to famine cycles. include access to adequate amounts of Risk-minimizing technologies identified nutritious food through household through participatory, adaptive research production and/or purchases. Two will contribute to increased stability of the indicators measure the status of Amhara region agroecosystems. The equitability. These measures are the verifiable indicator of increased stability is mean household incomes and its a decline in the coefficient of variation in variance. The aim is to achieve high the year-to-year fluctuation in yield and means and low variances which income. translates to high income, reduction in the number of poor households and a 3. Increased resiliency, which refers to general improvement in the quality of life the capacity of the agroecosystem to for members of the population that have withstand and recover from stresses and traditionally suffered chronic poverty. perturbations imposed on the system by humans and natural events. Actions such

iii iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 SCOPE OF WORK ...... 1

1.1 Scope ...... 1

1.2 Deliverable ...... 1

2.0 ASSESSMENT METHODS...... 2

3.0 CONTEXT OF FOOD SECURITY IN THE AMHARA REGION ...... 3

4.0 SUMMARY ASSESSMENT...... 4

4.1 Diversification of Productive Activities ...... 5

4.2 Risk Management ...... 5

4.3 Adaptive Research Linking Research, Extension, and Rural ...... 5 Households for Technology Adoption

4.4 Natural Resource Conservation, including Biological Components ...... 5

4.5 Reinforcement of High Potential Successes ...... 6

4.6 Need for Improved Nutrition ...... 6

4.7 Need for Increased Research Capability and Coordination ...... 6

5.0 TECHNOLOGY AVAILABILITY, GENERATION AND DISSEMINATION ...... 7

5.1 Soil Erosion and Fertility ...... 7

5.2 Agroclimatic Analysis and Watershed Management ...... 9

5.3 Improved, Dissemination-Ready Genetic Material ...... 11

5.4 Field Crop Production ...... 12

5.5 Vegetable Production ...... 14

5.6 Other High Value Crops ...... 15

5.7 Seed Industry ...... 16

5.8 Livestock Production...... 17

5.9 Apiculture ...... 20

5.10 Food Science ...... 21

5.11 Socio-Economic Factors ...... 22

5.12 Capability and Structure of the Research System ...... 24

v 6.0 BUILDING A PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH PROCESS ...... 28

6.1 Why Participatory Research? ...... 28

6.2 Facilitating Stakeholder Participation ...... 28

7.0 ACTION PLAN ...... 29

7.1 Action Plan 1. Institutionalizing Adaptive, Participatory Research ...... 30

7.2 Action Plan 2. Training, Mentoring and Higher Education ...... 32

7.3. Action Plan 3. Modernizing Computer and Communication Technology...... 32

7.4 Action Plan 4. Modernizing Research Facilities and Supply Delivery System ...... 33

7.5 Action Plan 5. Creating a Georeferenced Spatial Data Base ...... 33

8.0 TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMMEDIATE ON-FARM TRIALS ...... 34

9.0 TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR TECHNOLOGY IDENTIFICATION, ASSESSMENT, AND DISSEMINATION ...... 37

10.0 ANTICIPATED RESULTS AND INDICATORS OF SUCCESS ...... 38

11.0 SUGGESTED BUDGET CATEGORIES ...... 39

12.0 ANNEXES ...... 41

12.1 Research Assessment Team ...... 41

12.2 Itinerary ...... 43

12.3 Organizations and Persons Contacted ...... 49

12.4 Literature Reviewed ...... 52

12.6 Acronyms ...... 56

vi NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE FOOD SECURITY

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT

1.0 SCOPE OF WORK 1.2 Deliverable. A comprehensive report will be due in draft form at the end of the 1.1 Scope. USAID/Ethiopia has signed an visit. It will contain analyses of the current agreement to assist the Government of agricultural and natural resource Ethiopia, in particular the Amhara National management research and extension Regional State (ANRS), to design capabilities and make recommendations activities which will result in increased for reinforcing these capabilities through rural incomes, thereby increasing food long- and short-term technical assistance security. These activities will initially focus and training. Recommendations of the on the 48 chronically food-insecure report will support Strategic Objective 1 districts (woredas) of the ANRS, with the and include actions, the results of which objective of decreasing the number of will be measurable by the three principal chronically vulnerable households over indicators of achievement, food the next five years. An important goal availability, cash income, and nutrition under Strategic Objective 1 of in the 48 chronically food-insecure USAID/Ethiopia, which is “Rural woredas in the Amhara region for the next household production and productivity five years. The report will make specific increased,” will be participatory recommendations for USAID assistance to agricultural research giving technology be directed towards two principal activity users an important say in technology areas: 1) technical and operational support development. An assessment will be for the design and implementation of conducted to determine the level of applied research plans; and 2) the technology currently available, both in- promotion of effective interaction and country and elsewhere, that can be communication between researchers, adapted for dissemination and use in extension agents, and rural households. rural, food-insecure areas of Ethiopia. The assessment and recommendations Information gained during this should include the entire Amhara region, so assessment is critical to determine the that successful activities may be expanded levels of technical assistance and training to other woredas within the Amhara region required for achieving success and or to other national regional states subject providing benchmark indicators and to the mutual agreement of the reasonable timetables. The Collaborative Government of Ethiopia and USAID/ Research Support Programs of USAID’s Ethiopia. Contained in this report are: Global Bureau are to provide expertise for the agricultural and natural resource ¥ An assessment of the availability, technology assessment, which will be generation and dissemination of conducted in collaboration with USAID, technology. the ANRS Integrated Food Security Unit, ¥ An action plan for strengthening the ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, other applied, agricultural research. stakeholders in the Amhara region, and ¥ The anticipated results from regional, national and international implementing the action plan and research organizations. identification of indicators to measure success.

1 2.0 ASSESSMENT METHODS literature (Annex 10.4). To make first-hand observations of food production in Amhara The Amhara Agricultural and Natural region, the team travelled both by air and Resource (Research) Technology on the ground. The team’s itinerary began Assessment was conducted by an with reviewing documents and meeting in interdisciplinary team with expertise in Addis Ababa with officials of the U.S. agro-climatology, agro-ecology, animal Agency for International Development science, crop protection, economics, (USAID/Ethiopia), the Ethiopian Agri- sociology, soil science,vegetable crops cultural Research Organization (EARO), production and participatory watershed the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento management (Annex 10.1). The team de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), the Inter- evaluated potentials to facilitate rural national Livestock Research Institute participation in developing, adapting and (ILRI), and the Swedish International disseminating technology essential to Development Agency (SIDA) (Annex 10.3) increase food security in the Amhara to obtain information regarding the region. The team used “household” instead activities of the organizations contributing of “farmer” to remove the “male farmer” to food security of the Amhara National stereotype embedded in agricultural Regional State (ANRS). research and extension and to understand the complex intra-household dynamics that The team next travelled by air to Bahir Dar, influence farm and non-farm activities the capital of the Amhara region, and took taken up by men, women, and children a ten-day road trip back to Addis Ababa to within a household. Using the household gather information by meeting with as the unit of analysis enabled the results research and extension personnel at the of research and extension to be scaled up kebele, woreda zone and regional levels, to various levels of heirarchies. A as well as with members of rural house- heirarchical, systems approach was used holds in several zones of the Amhara to conduct the assessment of agricultural region. During the trip, the team was technologies in the Amhara region. This briefed by ANRS officials of the Food method recognizes that the ANRS includes Security Unit, the Bureau of Agriculture, the approximately 2.5 million households and three Agricultural Research Centers, the that policies and decisions are made and Plant Health Clinic in Combolcha, and the implemented at many levels, encom- Regional Sheep Breeding Center at Amed passing different numbers of people: the Guya, farmers and peasant association household, peasant association (PA), leaders (Annex 10.3). At each visit, the kebele, woreda, zone, region, and nation. team was briefed, obtained documents, and interviewed employees to gain specific The team’s itinerary (Annex 10.2) to collect information relevant to the scope of work. information included visits to Ethiopian Field visits with woreda and zonal officials organizations at the national, regional, and with rural household members zonal, woreda and kebele level as well as engaged in agriculture and animal hus- visits with rural household members bandry were included to give team (Annex 10.3). The team also met with members an opportunity to observe first- members of two International Agricultural hand agricultural and animal husbandry Research Centers (Annex 10.3) and activities and natural resource man- reviewed published and unpublished agement.

2 3.0 CONTEXT OF FOOD SECURITY IN insecure. There has been no single year THE AMHARA REGION since 1950 where there was no drought in the eastern part of the region. Famines Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in have been recorded as far back as biblical the world. Per capita incomes are times. On the other hand, much of the estimated at just over $100 per year. western half of the region has good soils Estimated life expectancy is and adequate rainfall and typically approximately 48 years. Just 3 percent of produce agricultural surpluses. rural dwellers in the Amhara region have access to potable water. Adult literacy The population of the Amhara region is stands at 35 percent of the total approximately 15 million people of whom population and only 22 percent of children 89 percent live in rural, agricultural in the relevant age bracket attend primary households. Cereals account for more school. Between forty and sixty percent of that 80 percent of cultivated land and 85 children are chronically undernourished percent of total crop production. The and in the Amhara region 80 percent principal cereal crops in the Amhara suffer from stunted growth. Nationally, 23 region are teff, barley, wheat, maize, percent die before reaching adolescence. sorghum and finger millet. Pulses and oil crops are the other major categories of Per capita food consumption showed a field crops. Nationally, livestock population steady decline from 1979 to 1994. This is is the largest in Africa (29.8 million cattle, true both in terms of consumption of 11.5 million sheep, 9.6 million goat, 3.9 domestic production as well as total million equines, 0.25 million camel and consumption including imports and food 25.8 million poultry) but is characterized aid. An erratic, but general, trend towards by low productivity. About 27.9 percent of improvement in total agricultural the livestock in Ethiopia, 30.7 percent of production has been achieved since 1995 the poultry, and 18.5 percent of the due to generally adequate rainfall, some beehives are found in the Amhara region. liberalization of agricultural production, and increased provision of modern inputs Most of the region is on the highland to farm households. Surplus production, plateau and is characterized by rugged however, has led to sharp drops in prices mountains, hills, plateaus, valleys and of agricultural outputs due to limited gorges. Hence, the region has varied commercialization infrastructure. Even in landscapes composed of steep fault recent good harvest years, approximately escarpments and adjoining lowland plains 40 percent of Ethiopians have been in the east, nearly flat plateaus and unable to meet their basic nutritional mountains in the center, and eroded requirements. In 1999, failure of the belg landforms in the north. Most of the (short season) rains in many regions of western part is a flat plain extending into the country led to a five year high of 6.8 the Sudan lowlands. The topographical million people depending upon food aid. features represent diversified elevations ranging from 700 meters above sea level The Amhara region suffers from recurrent (m.a.s.l.) in the eastern edge to over 4600 droughts and pest invasions. Of the 105 m.a.s.l. in the northwest. Based on woredas in the region, forty-eight are moisture availability and thermal zones, drought-prone and chronically food- ten major agro-ecological zones and 18

3 sub-zones have been identified in the the plateaus and low-lying areas is region. A little over 50 percent of the total another major constraint. area of the region is considered potentially arable for agricultural production activities. The traditional method of soil fertility regeneration by fallowing and use of A population growth rate of 3 percent a organic fertilizer has almost completely year is leading to a doubling of the human broken down due to land scarcity resulting population every 25 years. This rapid from overpopulation. In addition, most population growth rate has led to severe crop residue is removed by farmers for land shortages and rapid natural resource either fuel or construction purposes. degradation. In the Amhara region, 94 Remaining organic matter in fields is percent of households have insufficient removed by livestock stubble grazing. Dry land to meet their food needs. Rural manure is used for fuel due to the chronic households are compelled to clear and shortage of firewood and lack of cultivate marginal lands on steep hillsides. alternative sources of energy. In sum, Only one to three percent of the Amhara increasing populations and a declining region remains forested. Overgrazing availability of land that is increasingly further denudes the land of vegetative eroded and experiencing a chronic net cover. Forage requirements are estimated decline in nutrients stocks is undermining to be 40 percent below needed levels to the ability of the agricultural sector to meet maintain the current livestock population. the basic food requirements of the Amharan people. Much of Ethiopia in general and the Amhara region in particular is characterized by mountainous agriculture 4.0 SUMMARY ASSESSMENT with slope gradients ranging from 5-45 percent. Much of the annual rainfall Individuals have food security when they comes in short violent events of up to 100 have adequate access to food, in both mm/day. The exposure of denuded slope quantitative and qualitative terms, either areas to this type of rainfall results in by producing or purchasing it. The overall Ethiopia having one of the most serious objective to achieve food security should soil degradation problems in the world. be to increase household production and Annual rates of soil loss in the Amhara productivity. Progress toward achieving region in some steep lands and food security can be measured by: overgrazed slopes exceed 300 increasing food availability tons/ha/year, or 250 mm/year. Lesser (kilocalories/person/day), increasing rates of soil erosion in ANRS are also of household incomes, and improved concern, since loss of soil reduces the nutritional status of children in the region. land’s waterholding capacity and soil fertility. In the ANRS, yields are estimated Based upon the assessment methods to decline by 1-2 percent per year due to described in Section 2.0, the following soil erosion. Nationally, on over 2 million summary assessment describes key hectares, the soil depth is so reduced that elements needed to achieve the goal of the land is no longer able to support food security in the Amhara region. This cultivation. Water logging problems summary assessment is based on the associated with the Vertisols in some of ideas and proposals encountered in the

4 team’s contacts with individuals and can also contribute to more reliable institutions on both the national and production of field crops and horticultural (Amhara) regional level. Nevertheless, crops. Management of risk can also be this is a preliminary draft and the team addressed by the development of welcomes comments to help modify and appropriate germplasm adapted to the improve this report. The key elements are above-mentioned production constraints. summarized in the subsections below and Tree crop production of fruit, fodder, and will be referred to throughout this fuelwood that is less susceptible to document. drought is a further risk-coping strategy, as well as the access to off-farm 4.1 Diversification of Productive employment. Activities. Three factors contribute to the need for diversification of the productive 4.3 Adaptive Research Linking activities of rural households: 1) yield Research, Extension, and Rural variability affected by such factors as Households for Technology Adoption. drought, frost and pests that make rural Given the high variability of agro- households vulnerable when relying ecological zones, risk, and resource predominantly on cereal crops, 2) price constraints facing rural households, there variability in output and input markets, and is a need for adaptive research that takes 3) the overall inability of the agricultural into account the diversity of conditions sector in many areas to produce enough facing rural households. Establishing food to feed increasing populations. systematic linkages between research, Diversification is therefore needed both in extension, and rural households is an terms of agricultural production activities effective means of generating (e.g,. field crops, fruits and vegetables, technologies appropriate for these poultry, livestock) and in terms of off-farm conditions. Researchers must have income-generating activities (e.g., frequent feedback about what is and is not artisanry, petty commerce, paid working in terms of benefits to farmers. agricultural labor, small business Rural household members and extension enterprises) that allow rural households to agents can not only provide that purchase food. information but are often the best source of ideas on how to adapt a technology to 4.2 Risk Management. Rural households local conditions. In addition, linkages operate in a highly risky environment due involving rural households to set the to production risks (climate, pests, research agenda helps ensure that new diseases, etc.) and the variability of technologies are not only technologically prices. The diversification of agriculture viable but indeed address priority discussed in 4.1 is one strategy to problems as perceived by rural minimize risk. Practices that conserve households who are the ultimate users of moisture for crops are another example of technological solutions. a useful strategy. This is particularly important to rural households who wish to 4.4 Natural Resource Conservation invest in productivity-enhancing inputs Including Biological Components. such as improved seeds and fertilizer that Natural resources such as soils, water, need adequate moisture to be effective. plants, and animals are key factors Irrigation and wells, where appropriate, affecting farm productivity. Massive land

5 degradation is undermining the productive potential areas can reduce degradation in capability of the agricultural sector. marginal areas by reducing production Conservation efforts that have focused on pressures on degraded and marginal land. physical structures (terraces, soil bunds, Further, high potential areas have greater drainage ditches, etc.) have been only capacity to generate off-farm income for partly successful and need to be household members from low potential rethought and reinforced. Greater areas by employing labor in upstream emphasis on planting trees, shrubs and (input provision) and downstream grasses on a denuded landscape can (agriculture product transformation) result in greater resiliency of production agricultural sector activities and other systems. Vegetative cover not only helps small businesses. On the other hand, the control erosion and conserve water, but technology packages used in high also serves to recycle nutrients, reduce potential zones are generally not evaporative demand on crops and soils, appropriate and need to be adapted for and increase soil organic matter. more marginal, drought-prone areas. Furthermore, biological components can serve the dual purpose of natural resource 4.6 Need for Improved Nutrition. Food conservation and can also provide income security includes both quantitative and generating products such as fodder, qualitative aspects. Individuals, in fuelwood, fruit, and medicine. Systematic particular children, may suffer from adaptive research needs to be conducted vitamin and protein deficiencies even on dual purpose conservation-income- when they have an adequate level of total generating techniques such as grass caloric intake. Diversification of strips, upper watershed reforestation, agricultural production and off-farm homestead vegetation and alley cropping. income for food purchase are proven means to enable individuals to obtain a 4.5 Reinforce High Potential more balanced diet. Research and Successes. Ethiopia has extensive areas extension programs need to identify and endowed with both fertile soils and take into account nutritional shortcomings adequate moisture that are rare in other in planning their strategic objectives. regions of Africa. Recent experiences by Orienting small-scale horticultural Ethiopian research and extension in promotion toward improved nutrition is collaboration with Sasakawa Global 2000 one example. In general, efforts should be showed that a doubling to tripling of yields made to coordinate with health and is possible in high potential areas with educational services to address nutritional good soils and adequate water with a issues in a comprehensive manner. technological package including improved seed, fertilizer and credit. Economic 4.7 Need for Increased Research analysis showed that these packages also Capability and Coordination. The substantially increased net income for current ANRS research capability is not rural households in these areas. Food adequate for addressing the seriousness security cannot be achieved by focusing and diversity of problems faced by the only on chronically food insecure zones. agricultural sector in the Amhara region. The production of agricultural surpluses The research centers in general lack from high potential zones can provide low adequate human resources in terms of cost food to deficit areas. Success in high senior research personnel with advanced

6 degrees as well as trained technical While these factors are critical for food support staff. In addition, there is need for security, they are beyond the scope of the greater material resources such as assessment mandate and are best vehicles to reach the field and equipment covered in other planning reports to conduct on-station experiments. Furthermore, the agricultural research system is in a period of transition due the 5.0 TECHNOLOGY AVAILABILITY, process of regionalization. A clear division GENERATION AND DISSEMINATION of research tasks that takes advantage of the comparative advantages of the 5.1 Soil Erosion and Fertility. different research centers at the regional, Approximately 39 percent of the land in national, and international levels and the Amhara region is estimated to be used which avoids unnecessary duplication is for grazing and browsing and 27 percent needed. Support for increased capability is under cultivation, much of it being should be accompanied by greater cultivated for three millenia or longer. coordination in order to be effective. Many of the soils which shrink and swell have severe drainage and waterlogging The team also identified a number of other problems during the rainy season. A factors that are necessary to achieve food majority of the land is steep, infiltration security but which are not explicitly rates are low, and little surface cover is left addressed in this document. These after extensive cropping or grazing. Soil factors include: conservation measures are needed, but a high percentage of the land has already ¥ Land tenure policies to give been severely degraded. Rainfall is households greater tenure security variable and must be utilized effectively. If in order to encourage long-term during the high rainfall period some of the investments to increase productivity excess water could be stored in or on the and to promote natural resource soil using water management conservation. technologies, the risk of crop failure and ¥ Control of population pressures that erosion associated with rainfall variation are outpacing the ability of the could be reduced. agricultural sector to increase food production and are leading to Continuous cropping, loss of surface soil increased natural resource by erosion, and relatively little application degradation. of mineral nutrients has resulted in low soil ¥ Transportation and communication fertility. Soil erosion and low fertility pose infrastructure to improve the both long- and short-term problems. commercialization of agricultural Furthermore, these conditions are often production and inputs as well as to interrelated. The topsoil loss magnifies improve research-extension-rural deficiencies of nitrogen (N) and household linkages. phosphorus (P), currently the major ¥ Supportive economic policies such causes of low soil fertility. as credit, promotion of the private sector, improved marketing Ethiopia is considered to have one of the efficiency. most serious soil degradation problems in the world. The average annual rate of soil

7 loss in Ethiopia is estimated to be 12 to potassium fertilizer has not been tons/ha/yr, and it can drastically exceed studied appreciably as soil levels are not this on steep slopes with soil loss rates low. Additional potash may reduce frost greater than 300 tons/ha/year, or 250 damage, however, and this aspect should mm/year, where vegetation is denuded. be evaluated. On over 2 million hectares, the soil depth is so reduced that the land is no longer Prior soil tests, such as those by H. F. able to support cultivation. The Ethiopian Murphy, have shown phosphorus (P) government launched a massive soil deficiency to be a major problem for crop conservation program beginning in the production in the Amhara region. A mid-1970s. Between 1976 and 1990, standard rate of phosphate is now 71,000 ha of soil and stone bunds, recommended, but applications should be 233,000 ha of hillside terraces for based on diagnostic analysis, because afforestation, 12,000 km of checkdams in availability of soil P may vary. gullied lands, 390,000 ha of closed areas Participatory, adaptive research is needed for natural regeneration, 448,000 ha of to achieve efficient fertilization. Soil test land planted with different tree species, labs exist at some of the research stations and 526,425 ha of bench terrace and others are being constructed. Simple interventions were completed. However, procedures, common among all labs in by 1990, only 30 percent of soil bunds, 25 the region and in the country, should be percent of the stone bunds, 60 percent of employed. Reports from a program, the the hillside terraces, 22 percent of land International Soil Fertility and Evaluation planted in trees, and 7 percent of the Project, sponsored by USAID about 20 reserve areas still survived. Clearly, years ago, should serve as a guide. The interventions that reduce the land national research organization, EARO, degradation rate and that are localized to should try to standardize such procedures existing environmental conditions are across regions. necessary. In general, technology to stabilize soil on 5.1.1 Available technology. The three common grazing lands near stream banks regional laboratories are beginning to using vegetation is beginning to become generate information regarding the rates available at Adet and Sirinka. Additional of fertilizer applications for areas of highly research on tree species other than variable rainfall to refine the general Eucalyptus is urgently needed. Many rural recommendations supplied by EARO, households have created surface drains ICRISAT, and CIMMYT. For cereals grown to remove excess water to prevent under the various conditions in the region, waterlogging. The removal of this water adaptive research is needed. Adequate has often caused gully erosion. nitrogen (N) will increase protein in grain Technology being evaluated is terrace and forage and will aid human nutrition. building and reducing the land Legumes grown in rotation with cereals degradation rate using agroforestry contribute small amounts of N. Other techniques. Much soil conservation and possible means of increasing N are from water harvesting technology is available in green manure crops and agroforestry, but the country from EARO and ICRISAT, and economic analysis is needed to assess additional technology from ICRAF could their economic feasibility. Crop response be utilized.

8 5.1.2 Capability to generate new positions in the landscape. With technology. Research on erosion, water increased human population has come management and soil fertility is being decreased use of fallow land, increased conducted at the research stations, livestock pressure, and degradation of substations or on the fields of rural the natural resource base, including soil, households. Most of the researchers lack water, and native flora and fauna. By advanced degrees and training could taking a watershed approach across a become more effective with increased range of hierarchies, from small funding to conduct adaptive research catchments to larger streams and even programs. rivers, issues such as upstream- downstream effects and interactions 5.1.3 Extension capability. The among components of the system can be Extension Service has increased its addressed. Local communities have capability to reach farmers through institutional capability to implement, numerous Development Agents (DA). monitor, and enforce decisions made With common packages, the DAs, with regarding interventions. The problems to only brief training in agriculture, can be addressed will determine the size of contact and advise farmers. Additional the watershed selected, but in watershed training for DAs and their supervisors research, a focus on scaling up needs to would allow development of flexible be addressed. Precipitation is one of the extension recommendations for individual most variable aspects of the environment farms and actual rainfall. This training that limits productivity and food security. would also allow the DA to evaluate Due to the inherently low precipitation in problems that need to be researched. many regions and the variable nature of When soil testing becomes a practice the timing and amount of rain across food available to rural householders, the DA insecure regions, the indigenous could assist them in getting representative producers are risk adverse. A better soil samples. understanding and predictability of the weather could enhance adoption of new 5.2 Agroclimatic Analysis and technologies. Irrigation can also provide Watershed Management. Many of the stability in the water supply and therefore problems faced by people in the highly in production potential, but irrigation has complex and variable Amhara region not been developed on a large scale. cannot be solved on a field-by-field basis Solutions to problems such as land use or by using a disciplinary approach. The distribution and water management within landscape is spatially variable, with steep a land-scape/watershed will require a upper slopes suited to perennial part-icipatory, systems approach to vegetation, relatively level lowlands and research, extension, and development, highlands that are primarily used for field because the research arena involves the crop production, and intermediate zones, livelihoods and lives of the people in the often with mixed use of crop production watershed. interspersed with communal pastures. Human population pressures are high 5.2.1 Available technology. Although and increasing, with decreased meteorological data are limited, some landholding size per household and relatively long-term weather stations exist movement of people from lower to higher in the Amhara region and detailed

9 analysis of some of these sites was available from the Famine Early Warning reported by IAR, ILRI, and ICRISAT in the System (FEWS) might provide useful mid-1980s, giving probability distributions information for implementing more by month or week of the year, along with flexible approaches to adaptive and mean and standard deviation on an demonstrative research for highly annual and monthly basis. Some of the variable rainfall areas. sites also included temperature analysis, although analysis of risks associated with There has been limited development of frost has been limited and should be water supplies for irrigation along streams pursued where historical data from high and even less development of small altitudes are available. The research ponds (along with protected source areas centers each maintain one or more upstream) to capture and store water weather stations, but there appears to during the rainfall surplus months for use have been little analysis of the data. during the dry months. Technology Agroclimatic analysis of geo-referenced developed by ILRI (1999) for PAs to build weather records needs to be conducted ponds using animal power could provide for all long term stations (>10 years) in or household and livestock water supply near the region to develop maps of (and/or along with small scale irrigation) agroclimatic patterns and to determine if for gardens or high-value cash crops. It precipitation amounts and patterns would also serve the added benefit of (starting dates, ending dates, length of reducing erosion hazard from intense the belg (short season) and meher (long storms by increasing water retention season) rainy seasons) are changing capacity in the landscape. Development of over time—as is widely believed in the such systems would clearly require the region—or if recent dry seasons are participation of households, villages and within the normal range of variability of extension at several levels, as well as the climate. The “response farming” adaptive research, and, on approach developed in the 1970s-1980s occasion,Bureaus such as Water and/or in Kenya and expanded to sub-Saharan Health. In addition, design (based on West Africa (linear relationships between agroclimatic, soils, topographic, and date of onset of rains to probable length demand analysis), engineering, and of the season and total rainfall) should be construction of dams and ponds or other evaluated to determine if simple irrigation schemes should be balanced indicators could be identified that would with the design of the production systems guide cropping and forage production that would use the water to produce high toward those options having high value crops or nutritive food supply for productivity potential with the lowest risk households and communities. for that particular season. If such relationships could be developed, then Research methods and approaches that training of SMSs and DAs in rainfall can be adapted and applied to implement probability along with establishment of integrated watershed based research and rain-gauge sites at woreda or kebele development include participatory rapid levels could be established on a pilot appraisal techniques, visioning, system- basis to guide extension recom- atic benchmark surveys, simulation mendations. Other approaches to systems that integrate biophysical and weather forecasting and monitoring socioeconomic models (e.g., ILRI & Texas

10 A&M), and monitoring tools (e.g., Water landscape hydrology or sociology. Watch in Alabama, The Philippines, and Researchers and extensionists in ANRS Ecuador ). would benefit from formal training or experience in participatory research and Many of the intervention technologies to extension methods. Communities would improve components of the system exist: greatly benefit from training to develop for example, species and varieties for institutional capabilities to implement agroforestry and diversification of practices within watersheds. Local production, soil and water conservation governments and community groups will technologies (particularly water also need training and capability building conservation technologies developed for in participatory approaches. Linkages with vertisols by ICRISAT and others), and other departments or Bureaus (e.g., plant and animal health technologies. Health, Education, Water) need to be developed or strengthened for watershed- 5.2.2 Capability to generate new based research and development and technology. There was little evidence of mechanisms for cooperation across use of agroclimatic information or government or institutional boundaries analyses to guide research or extension in agreed upon. Human, physical, and the region. Remote sensing technologies financial resources for implementation of such as those used by FEWS could be integrated systems research and investigated for application of early development at a watershed scale, even detection of regional weather patterns to at a pilot level, are limited. guide extension recommendations. Research and SMS staff at various places 5.2.3 Extension capability. Investment in in the region include some agricultural participatory, watershed-based research engineers, but their capability to conduct is for the long-term, because this type of the needed adaptive research or to research is new, not only in Ethiopia, but generate new technologies in water elsewhere. The pilot approach is conservation and use or small-scale appropriate at this time while irrigation and management appears methodologies are developed and limited. Research and extension soil and capacities are increased. water conservation programs focus strongly on soil conservation practices 5.3 Improved, Dissemination-Ready and may fail to capitalize on the water Genetic Material. Improved genetic conservation benefits of practices such as resources of both plants and animals are terracing and tied-ridges. essential in any effort to solve the food security problems of the region. In such an There is demonstrated understanding of effort, the genetic materials must be the need for watershed approach and suitable for the target ecological zones. commitment to pilot project planning in the region. An Ethiopian study team visited 5.3.1 Available technology. The range of watershed-based research sites in The available, improved and adaptable Philippines and Georgia. However, no cultivars or genetic stocks for the food formal training among the research deficit parts of the Amhara region varies centers or extension systems exists in for field crops, livestock, and trees. The systems research, landscape ecology, crops grown in the region cover a wide

11 range of cereals, pulses, and horticultural limited. The bulk of the afforestation crops. For the major cereals, which are program underway in the region is based wheat, barley, tef, sorghum and maize, on planting Eucalyptus trees with improved cultivars such as ET13, HAR sporadic planting of Cupresses species. 604 (wheat), HB-42 and HB-120 (barley), Indigenous tree and shrub species have DZ-01-196 (tef), Meko, 76-T1-23, mostly disappeared, apart from protected Gambella 1107(sorghum), maize and isolated church compounds where (Katumani composite) are available. In some of the indigenous tree and shrub addition, there are cultivars in the species remain. Trials are underway at breeding and varietal release pipelines of some of the research and testing sites to EARO across most of the crops. Some identify suitable indigenous and exotic examples which were mentioned are tree species for various ecological three Striga resistant sorghum varieties conditions. Accelerated efforts are pending approval by the variety release needed to identify suitable tree species committee. The major pulses in the region for the diverse ecological zones of the are lentil, field peas, faba beans and region. chickpeas, while the major oil crops are noug, safflower and sesame. Availability 5.3.2 Capability to develop new of improved cultivars in these crops is technology. In the short term, screening limited, although indigenous varieties are of improved varieties from national and available in a wide range of genetic international sources in the different diversity. EARO and the IARCs (e.g., ecological zones would be the most CIMMYT, ICRISAT, CIP, CIAT, ICRAF) are practical and cost effective approach to the main sources of improved develop improved genetic materials. germplasm. However, over the long term, comprehensive breeding programs to The animal genetic resources in the meet needs identified by rural households Amhara region cover different species of would be necessary to meet the changing animals existing in diverse ecological needs of the region. zones. These include cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, donkeys, horses, mules, fish and 5.3.3 Extension capability. Currently, the bee colonies. Other species of animals contribution of technology generated by such as pigs are not common. The the research centers in the region to different species of animals are available extension efforts in the area of crop and in abundant numbers and diversity in the livestock improvement is minimal, mainly different agro-ecological zones. These because the centers are relatively new, animals are indigenous and have been inadequately staffed in terms of selected for adaptive traits in the diverse experience, and have inadequate ecological zones. Although some facilities. improved breeds of poultry, dairy and sheep are available, the overall availability 5.4 Field Crop Production. Cereals, of improved and adapted animal genetic pulses, oil crops and other field crops stocks is minimal. dominate the agriculture of the Amhara region. The main field crops in the Amhara In trees, shrubs and forage crops, the region are: availability of improved genetic stocks is

12 Cereals Pulses Oil crops tolerance to some of the stress factors. Examples are ET13, HR604, Enkoy, Barley Lentil Noug (Niger seed) Boohai, and Mamba for wheat; HB-42 and Wheat Field pea Safflower HB-120 for barley; DZ-196, DZ-354, DZ- 01-99, and DZ-CR-37 for tef; Katumani Tef Chick pea Sesame composite, A-511, BH-140, Alemaya Composite for maize; and 76-TI-23, Sorghum Faba bean Sunflower Gambella 1107, Dinkmash, Birmash, Alemaya 70, and ETS2752 for sorghum. Maize Cowpea Linseed The range of available improved cultivars Finger millet Rapeseed for pulses and oil crops is much narrower and in some cases, there are none Oat available. Some examples are Fogera-1 (noug), CS-20DK (faba bean), and Chilalo A wide range of both abiotic and biotic (linseed) Some of the improved cultivars stresses constrain field crops production such as Katumani maize and 76-TI-23 in the region. Among the major abiotic sorghum are early maturing and thus stresses are drought, waterlogging, frost, escape drought and produce stable yields and low fertility. The main biological in relatively short growing seasons. constraints are insects, diseases and Improved crop management technologies weeds. Some examples are: for stable and high yield production of crops are also available. Examples are the use of tied-ridges for moisture Insects Diseases Weeds conservation, the broad bed maker for improved drainage, row planting for more Aphids Rusts (leaf, Striga stem, stripe) efficient weed control and fertilizer Stem borer Smuts Parthenium application, intercropping for minimizing (Congress weed) pest damage and improving yield stability, Shoot fly Leaf blight Grasses legume-cereal rotation for improved soil Wollo-Bush Septoria Broad leaf fertility , pest control, and higher yield, and cricket crop substitution for shorter growing Pachnoda Scald Wild oats beetle seasons. Combinations of improved Termites Net blotch cultivars and appropriate management Migratory practices should give higher and stable pests yields from year to year. Scientists at the Weevils research centers have been working with Other storage scientists at EARO and ILRI to develop pests technologies for cultivation of waterlogged Vertisols. Among these techniques is a 5.4.1 Available technology. The method of using 80-cm beds separated by judicious management of abiotic and 40-cm furrows to allow adequate drainage biotic stresses requires the deployment of when the rate of rainfall exceeds the rate both genetic resistance and appropriate of infiltration of water into the soil. management practices. For some of the important crops mentioned above, there 5.4.2 Capability to develop new are improved cultivars in Ethiopia which technology. The three regional research have high yield potential and resistance/

13 centers have personnel who can develop integral effort to promote a market-based new technologies through participative economy. Diversified cropping systems, research for field crops production, pest including the production of cash crops, as control and storage. Further training, well as off-farm activities, are considered linkages to researchers within and outside by the ANRS Integrated Food Security Amhara region, and infrastructural support Program to be important mechanisms will be needed to increase the efficiency of used by households to cope with seasonal the Amhara region agricultural researchers food shortage vulnerabilities. Because the in order to generate new and appropriate ANRS economy is largely dependent technologies through participatory re- upon production of cereals and livestock, search. At present, collaboration with wider production of high-value vegetables EARO and ILRI scientists would be in the region can provide a viable beneficial to the region. mechanism to generate additional household income and to supplement 5.4.3 Extension capability. The three nutritional intake. research centers have been involved in demonstrating improved crop production Vegetables have not been grown to a and protection packages. Field days for large extent in Amhara region and per rural households are usually held to capita consumption is relatively low. introduce crop producers to improved However, small pockets of production technologies. Improved seeds are also have long existed, and minor consumption sometimes distributed by the research of a variety of species such as tomato, centers to farmers to make new cultivars cabbage, carrot, onions, shallots, garlic, available to producers. The extension potato and the green seed of several service also popularizes improved crop pulses exists. These crops have production technologies through traditionally been grown during the rainy implementing improved crop production season, or near riverbanks or springs packages on demonstration fields of rural where there is access to irrigation. households. The technical packages of Interventions that are required to raise maize and wheat usually cover improved vegetable production and consumption in seeds, fertilizer, pest control, and improved the ANRS include: raise consciousness management practices. Although the about the economic and nutritional value technical production packages have given of these crops; develop appropriate rural households’ higher yields, because of technology packages for the production, higher production costs and low market postharvest handling, and marketing of values, producers have not always these crops, based on currently available realized increased profitability. The information; conduct adaptive research to extension staff need much more technical introduce new potential species, varieties support and research information to be and technologies used in other more effective in their work. regions/countries; expand the land under irrigation for the production of vegetables 5.5 Vegetable Production and other high-value crops during the dry season or to mitigate periods of drought; 5.5.1 Available technology. The and conduct marketing research to promotion of income generating activities explore expansion potentials into local in the Amhara region is a part of an and export markets.

14 5.5.2 Capability to develop new 5.6 Other High Value Crops. Income- technology. The current ANRS capability generating cash crops and off-farm to implement available technology used in activities provide effective mechanisms for other regions and to develop and assisting households to cope with periods implement new technology is minimal. of food shortage. A wide diversity of The reasons are an inadequate research specialty high-value agricultural products infrastructure to conduct horticultural are already produced or have potential for research and the need for appropriately small-scale production in the region. trained and experienced research These include vegetables (Section 5.4), personnel. Such support is essential in the apiary products (Sect. 5.6), horticultural areas of germplasm evaluation, seed seed and seedling production (Sect. 5.7), production, fertility, irrigation, pest processed products (Sect. 5.10) as well management, postharvest management as fruits, herbs and spices, oil crops, and marketing. Nationally, EARO, and medicinals, botanicals, wood products for staff from other support agencies (such as fuel and construction, and non-woody the National Soils Lab), have the technical forestry products, sugarcane, cotton and expertise to provide support on several of fiber crops, among others. these areas, but specific expertise on vegetable production is clearly minimal. 5.6.1 Available technology. Indigenous Nevertheless, an extensive and available knowledge exists to ensure the production international technical knowledge base for of a variety of specialty agricultural the production of vegetables does exist. products in the region. Moreover, Agencies such as the International Potato technology exists, both in the country and Center (root crops), the Asian Vegetable internationally, which would improve the Research and Development Center, and productivity, efficiency,and ability to better CRSP would be instrumental in identifying market these products. Limitations that existing crops/ technologies applicable to currently prevent the expansion of these the Amhara region and for capability localized industries, and the income that building of ANRS research staff. households receive from these products, include: marked seasonal price 5.5.3 Extension capability. Organ- fluctuations; low productivity; poor izationally, the extension capabilities to postharvest practices, a lack of market raise awareness about new potential infrastructure (e.g., credit and financial vegetable enterprises and for transferring services), seasonal product consistency, “simplified” technology packages (blanket enterpreneurship, market knowledge, and recommendations, such as kind of seed, improved, efficient production practices. planting densities and fertilizer rates) are The following interventions are therefore established. However, considerable needed to develop market niches for capability building is required to upgrade particular products and to improve the the technological expertise of the efficiency of production and marketability extension staff (Subject Matter Specialists of high value crops for sale or export: and DAs) in practically all areas of the vegetable crop production, management ¥ System appraisals at local (woreda) and marketing process. This expertise will level to assess market/geographical be essential to support a horticulture opportunities to develop niche markets industry in the region. for particular products.

15 ¥ Market analyses studies to evaluate 5.6.3 Extension capability. Extension seasonal price fluctuations and capabilities to raise awareness about new volatility, seasonal market windows products and market opportunities and to and opportunities for inter-regional transfer technology are organizationally in trade and export. place, and the research stations are ¥ A synthesis of available information for relatively well staffed. However, con- each product in the form of technology siderable capability building is required to production packages. upgrade the technological expertise of the ¥ On-going research to improve the extension staff (Experts and DAs) in the productivity and market quality of area of production and marketing of these products on a variety of key specialty cash crops. topics including fertility, germplasm evaluation, pest management, 5.7 Seed Industry. A strong seed industry postharvest quality and management that provides high quality seeds of and value-added potentials. improved or indigenous crop germplasm ¥ Assistance in the development of in a timely manner is a prerequisite for the community marketing programs (such overall food security efforts of the Amhara as cooperatives). region. The current activities and area ¥ Available irrigation in some cases. coverages of the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise in the Amhara region is 5.6.2 Capability to develop new tech- insignificant compared to the overall nology. The current ANRS capability to regional demand for high quality seed for implement available technology and to all crops including cereals, forages, develop new technology, in terms of pulses, oil crops, vegetables and trees. physical Experiment Station infrastructure The research centers must play a lead and experienced research personnel, is in role in developing or obtaining breeder its initial stages of development and and basic seed, as well as in producing needs substantial improvement to fulfill foundation seed for their respective the needs of the Amhara region. Support zones. The research centers should also is needed in the topics listed above (under ensure good quality seed control in both section 5.6.1). Nationally, EARO conducts production and distribution the region. ongoing evaluation trials for a variety of Policy and quality control issues are the fruit, forestry, oil and other products. responsibility of the National Seed However, specialized research should be Industry Agency, and the ANRS must earmarked to focus on specific niche develop regional capacity regarding seed products and on particular technological regulatory policies, strategy and and market informational needs. enforcement. International research and development agencies could also be tapped to cover 5.7.1 Available technology. The avail- current informational and technological ability and effectiveness function of seed gaps in the production and postharvest production, processing, storage and management of most products. marketing in the Amhara region is minimal Considerable local market and production at present, and these functions should be research are necessary, however, to strengthened and expanded. Since develop appropriate localized technology comprehensive plans to establish or packages. strengthen the overall seed industry in the

16 region are essential prerequisites for a advanced seed-technology capabilities, sustainable food security effort, both the such as CIMMYT, ICRISAT, CIAT, public and the private sector should ICARDA, CIP, ICRAF, AVRDC and the participate in a complementary manner to CRSPs. establish and nurture a viable seed industry that serves the entire region. 5.7.3 Extension capability. Extension capabilities to raise awareness about The public sector could play the key role seed technology and for the dissemination to the development and production of of seeds to producers are organizationally breeder, basic and foundation seed stocks in place, and in most situations, farmers and take a leadership role in quality save their own seed and exchange seeds control. The private sector, in turn, could with their neighbors. The dissemination of be encouraged to use this technology to improved seed to farmers is at times produce, process, and market commercial restricted, however, by lack of availability seed. The extension service could and by the high production costs of seeds continue to assist and facilitate the for some crops, such as horticultural dissemination and marketing of crops. commercial seed. Showa Robit is an example of a private seed and agricultural 5.8 Livestock Production. Livestock inputs supplier who meets the demands of management includes the introduction of seed producers. Such suppliers should be new genetic material and types, rangeland encouraged to establish agricultural management, land-carrying capacity supply businesses throughout the Amhara improvement and enhanced forage and region. feed crop production.

5.7.2 Capability to develop new 5.8.1 Available technology. Tremendous technology. Currently, the capability to animal resources exist in the Amhara develop and establish a viable seed region, including cattle, sheep, goats, industry, both in the public and the private camels, fish, honeybee, poultry and sector, is minimal because of inadequate equine species, while the genetic investment in and attention to this composition of these resources have wide important sector. Also at the infant stage is variability. However, productivity of the the capability of the research sector to animal resources has not been effectively generate new seed based technology utilized, so a great need exists to improve because sufficient personnel with the productivity and conserve the available required experience are not in place. This animal genetic resource. In some limitation is especially critical for the instances, the introduction of genetic production of improved seed for high materials from outside the region, which value crops, such as potatoes and other might include exotic dairy breeds for cash crops. Support is needed at all improvement of the dairy sector and stages of the seed technology process, sheep breeds for improved mutton and beginning with the development of wool production, would be beneficial. breeder and basic seed to the processing, Availability of improved genetic materials storage, marketing and dissemination of could then be enhanced and expanded to commercial seed. Critical for this process benefit rural households through the are linkages with organizations that have selective and systematic application of

17 reproductive biotechnology, like artificial strategy to improve milk production insemination and embryo transfer. potential may be crossbreeding the indigenous zebu cows with exotic dairy Animal power: Almost all agricultural breeds, although any such effort needs to activities depend on animal power. In be an integrated one, since it would most woredas of the region, however, up require intensified animal production. to 75 percent of the farmers have either Technologies using improved genotypes, one or no ox, and the extension package feed resource development, feeding for cereal crops production does not systems and strategies, breeding and include any strategy to ensure the reproductive management, artificial availability of oxen to farmers at the right insemination, animal health management, time of the year, drastically affecting water resources development, manure agricultural production, particularly under handling and management, milk handling unpredictable environmental conditions. and hygiene management, milk pro- Other traditional arrangements (e.g., cessing and marketing are critical sharing, borrowing, pairing, renting) to components in the success of such an enable animal power also interfere with operation. Moreover, a number of policy the right time of land preparation and issues, such as land use, price, credit and cultivation. The zebu oxen are suitable for marketing, need to be addressed in order animal traction and, thus, do not need to create a conducive environment for the improved genetics. However, alternative success of this type of operation. sources of animal power other than oxen (e.g., horses, donkeys, cows) need to be Sheep and goat production: Enormous investigated, as do appropriate potential exists for improved sheep and implements associated with different on- goat production in the region, since the farm and off-farm operations. The use of cool tropics are exceptionally suitable for animal power in soil and water sheep production of both mutton and conservation activities, and the wool. Current efforts should be strength- technologies developed by ILRI and ened to encompass production, pro- EARO in this regard, need further cessing and marketing, particularly for examination. wool, while appropriate animal genotypes in adequate numbers are determined for Milk production: Zebu animals have been the different agro-ecosystems. There naturally selected for their ability to would still, however, be a strong need to survive stress rather than for their ability to develop a market-oriented breeding and produce meat and dairy products. As a feeding strategy for sheep and goat result, the milk production potential of production. these animals is generally lower than the improved dairy breeds. However, they are Poultry production: Although backyard hardy animals with relatively high disease poultry production is quite common in all and drought resistance, low feed and agro-ecological zones, modern poultry management requirements and high production for both egg and meat needs butterfat content. Improved milk pro- further intensification. Special attention duction in the region, particularly around should be paid to the access of urban centers, ensuring adequate supply dependable genetic material, feed of fluid milk, is needed. One possible resources, health services and markets,

18 and organizing and strengthening the augment the expansion of forage crops in processing and marketing component the region. should be made. 5.8.2 Capacity to develop new Fisheries: Lake Tana and other fresh technology. At present, the three waters in the region contain a variety of research centers focus on cereal crops fish with a great potential for fisheries research, lack a production systems development in the region. Strengthening approach and have a limited capacity to current efforts and developing fish develop new animal science technologies. farming, processing and marketing in The animal science sections are other natural and man-made water bodies maintained at a nominal level, and in are essential. some cases, only animal feeds and nutrition sections exist. Insufficient Rangelands management: Although the attention has been focused on research proportion of grazing lands is shrinking in facilities and research staff, and a strong many of the farming systems due to high need exists to assess the relevance and population pressure and a dearth of land suitability of technologies developed by use policy, communal grazing is a ILRI regarding genetics, management, common practice in many parts of the feed resources and feeding systems, region. These grazing lands, however, are animal power and farm implements. The overstocked and the land is overgrazed regional research system should be and degraded. Loss of biodiversity is of a strengthened to develop and advance major concern. Developing strategies to technologies in animal power, dairy improve the carrying capacity of grazing production, small ruminants production, lands, such as regulation of stocking rates poultry, fisheries and apiculture that are and preventing oversowing during the suitable to the diverse agro-ecological rainy season would improve these land zones in the region.. areas. 5.8.3 Extension capabilities. The exten- Improved forages and feed crops sion service’s main focus is on cereal crop production: As well as depletion of the production and natural resource man- feed resource base, improved forage and agement. At all levels, animal science feed crops production has not been extension experts are few and in most integrated into the farming systems. instances are heavily involved in Genetic materials suitable for the various implementing soil conservation and cereal agro-ecologies are available. For exam- crops extension activities. Benefit would ple, ILRI has a global collection of over accrue from additional staffing in animal 13,000 accessions of different forage science with strong links to research in genetic resources. The need exists to order that appropriate technologies for the quickly screen and identify suitable grass, rural household are developed. legume crops and multi-purpose tree Improvement of the Menz sheep for species and to develop strategies for mutton and wool production in on-farm integrating them into the farming systems. activities are encouraging and should be Developing seed production capacity and expanded, improved, and strengthened. availability of forage crops would increase Available technologies in animal power, the availability of seed and cuttings and dairy production, small ruminants

19 production, poultry, feed resources, production, handling, processing and fisheries, and apiculture need to also be marketing aspects. increased, encompassing the production- to-marketing continuum. Projects 5.9.1 Available technology. Even though involving follow up and expansion of there are a substantial number of bee breeding activities need to explore colonies in the different agro-ecosystems alternative supply systems involving of the region, and traditional honey farmers. Such activities might include production is a common practice, the mechanisms of farmer participatory indigenous apiculture knowledge has not delivery systems, such as “heifer in trust” been supported by adequate research or “passing the gift”, for expanded use of and extension efforts. Moreover, modern improved genotypes of animals. apiculture, including product handling, processing and marketing, has not been 5.9 Apiculture. Considering that honey- well developed and organized, nor has bee production is a relatively low input diversifying the production of honeybee operation and that the Amhara region is products, such as nectar production. one of the major honey-producing regions Improving the design of hives so that in the country, a large potential for beekeepers in the ANRS could extract the improvement exists. Honey production honey and wax without destroying them, occurs in all zones in the region, reflecting as is currently done, would greatly the suitability of many ecosystems in the increasing the productivity of honey and ANRS, as well as the existence of a long wax production. tradition of honey production. Current estimates indicate that over 692,000 5.9.2 Capability to develop new beehives in the region produce about 3.3 technology. Programs, staff and facilities thousand metric tonnes of honey annually. for apiculture research do not exist at the The estimated amount of wax produced is three research centers. It would be also substantial. Since over 95 percent of necessary to develop research center the honey is produced and processed by capacity to undertake apiculture research the traditional system,there exists in strategically selected locations. tremendous potential for improving both Meanwhile, available technologies the quantity and quality of honey and developed by the Holetta Apiculture honey by-products. It is thought modern Center in modern honeybee production, honeybee production techniques could processing and marketing could be increase honey yield by over 50 percent. appropriately packaged and delivered to The highest proportion of modern farmers in the region. Balancing natural honeybee production in the region is in the resources available to bees and the Western Gojam Zone, and according to human capability to develop and expand some farmers in the region, annual apiculture in the region needs careful income from sale of traditional beehive consideration. honey is estimated at 1500 Birr. Strengthening apiculture activities in the 5.9.3 Extension capability. The region would contribute to substantial extension system requires strengthening increases in rural household income, in modern honeybee production and although efforts to improve apiculture in processing, and a farmer’s training center the region would also need to examine the on apiculture, providing short-term training

20 in various aspects of apiculture, would be processing, such as methods to substitute invaluable. Also needed is advice on how sorghum flour for wheat flour in baked crop production systems could improve goods. For example, in 1997/98, EARO the quality of honey, and conversely how food scientists evaluated the food-making the honeybees would contribute to better qualities of thirteen sorghum varieties with crop production. Loss of biodiversity, different characteristics for Ethiopian food expansion of weeds such as “congress types (injera, kitta, nifro, genfo, tella and weed” and unregulated use of agro- kollo). EARO scientists also evaluated ten chemicals, which endanger honeybee finger millet varieties for food making production, are important considerations qualities, and popularized and promoted, to address. through lectures and training, a haricot bean variety, Roba, for five different food 5.10 Food Science types. In addition, EARO scientists transferred the following food tech- 5.10.1 Current technology. At the nologies: 1) bean food preparation meth- household level in the highlands of the ods to twelve women farmers at Melkassa Amhara region, grain is processed into during five days; 2) bean food preparation flour by dehulling and grinding, using methods and bean food tasting to about simple means such as mortar and pestle 100 field day participants at Melkassa and manual grinding stones. Processing Research Center; and 3) theoretical of agricultural products by smallholders training regarding bean food preparation offers an opportunity to add value to methods to thirty-five subject matter harvested crops and slaughtered animals. specialists. The Melkassa food science Value-added technologies which are not research group has also conducted capital-intensive and which are within the organoleptic testing of a wide range of financial means of smallholders could foods to determine consumer prefer- offer opportunities both to increase food ences. Establishing linkages between security and raise rural incomes. Food Amhara Regional Agricultural Research processing (e.g., simple mills) serving Centers and the EARO food science groups of households at the kebele level laboratories at Melkassa and Holetta could also decrease the time consumed at could potentially improve food security the household level in processing grains and nutrition of many in Amhara region. for food preparation. Large mills are located in larger cities such as Debre Zeit Food science research with livestock and to serve the needs of large baking development of technologies for milk and enterprises. This technology, however, is meat processing has been conducted for inappropriate to serve the needs of many years at ILRI and its predecessor, geographically dispersed small holders in ILCA. ILRI conducts research and food-insecure areas of the Amhara region. develops technologies for processing of milk both at the smallholder level and for Technologies are available in Ethiopia for larger-scale processing. Focusing on improved processing and preparation of smallholder processing of milk into butter food, including techniques for plant and and cottage-type cheese, ILCA has animal products. EARO has laboratories developed and modified a wooden internal at Nazret and Holetta which have been agitator that can be fitted to the usual clay developing improved methods of food pot used by the smallholder. This agitator

21 reduces churning time from an average of Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research 139 minutes to an average of 57 minutes. Institute, gain access to presently ILRI’s Dairy Technology Unit is based in available technologies. Building on these Debre Zeit, and one of its objectives is to linkages and with training, personnel of introduce more processing options and the Research Centers could develop the more efficient processing methods. Pear- capacity to do participatory adaptive shaped, woven containers (gorfa) are research and, in the long term, generate used for milk storage and souring as well technologies with a participatory process. as churning on the semi-arid Borana Plateau of Ethiopia. ILRI research has 5.10.3 Extension capability. At Adet quantified the importance of milk products Research Center, the team viewed a to rural households to assure con- demonstration potato “seed” storage sumption of essential vitamins and amino facility, and at two of the woredas, the acids which are absent in grain, team observed grain storage facilities confirming that a balance of milk and grain which are used for demonstrations. These is desirable in the diets of rural indications of extension capability in post- households. Drought, by decreasing avail- harvest technologies are encouraging, able forage, decreases milk production although the team did not find evidence of and thus decreases the availability of extension ability to transfer technology for vitamins and amino acids on which rural food preparation or processing. Emily household members depend, resulting in, Frank’s report of interviews at the or exacerbating vitamin and amino acid household level indicates that there had deficiencies in rural areas affected by been a national-level home extension variable and low amounts of rainfall. As program, separate from the farm resources become available, linkage of extension program, carried out by general ANRS research centers with food development agents in Amhara region. processing laboratories of EARO and ILRI This program included home gardening could contribute to food security of the techniques, family nutrition, family region in food processing and preparation. planning, and food preparation. According Nutritional issues in food-insecure areas to the report, those programs have been of Amhara region are complex and involve discontinued in favor of a “family-centered the production, processing and con- approach.” The Frank report indicates that sumption of crops, forage, and livestock. respondents viewed the present program as not providing adequate information 5.10.2 Capability to generate regarding nutrition, family planning, and technology. There is apparently no food preparation.. current capability at the three Amhara region research centers to do research on 5.11 Socio-Economic Factors. The processing and preparation of food. To ultimate goal of agricultural research is to better serve the needs of the food- generate improved technologies that are insecure woredas of the region, and the adopted by rural households. Socio- region as a whole, the Amhara Regional economic support in the research stations Agricultural Research Centers could should ensure the generation of initially develop food science research technologies that are appropriate for the capabilities, and, by linking with such conditions of rural households. A number organizations as EARO, ILRI, and the of factors may contribute to the non-

22 adoption of a technology showing promis- hold production conditions. Experiment ing results in research trials. These factors stations typically have access to machin- include household resource constraints, ery and/or paid labor to overcome risk, compatibility with household prior- production bottlenecks facing rural ities, and technical viability under households. Furthermore, the simple fact household production conditions. of having a fence around an experiment station may allow, for example, the control Resource constraints of a rural household of livestock that otherwise might damage can impede the adoption of a new late-maturing crops or tree seedlings. technology. An improved seed-fertilizer package that requires additional and 5.11.1 Socio-Economic Analysis and timely field preparation only feasible with Adaptive Research. It is difficult for two draught animals may not be adopted socio-economic analysis to foresee all the by a farm without access to this resource. obstacles to the adoption of agricultural Similarly, agroforestry tree planting that technologies by rural households based requires substantial labor early in the rainy on research station trials. When farmers season when household labor is occupied fail to achieve expected results, refuse to with planting subsistence crops may not implement a technology, or adapt the be adopted by households. recommended guidelines of a technology developed on the research station during Members of households living in extreme a participatory trial, it becomes easier for poverty often prefer lower but stable socio-economic research to identify the production over higher but variable above-mentioned farm-level constraints to production. The basic livelihood of farmers adoption (resource constraints, risk, barely producing enough to survive can differing priorities, technical viability). This be threatened by increased variability. enables the process of adaptive research. Agriculture in the Amhara region faces many risks such as drought, frost, pests, The experience of rural households price fluctuations, and input availability. implementing a technology gives insights New technologies may not be adopted by into how to make a technology more farmers if they increase risk. appropriate for farmer conditions. If, for example, a socio-economic researcher A technology may be effective, for notes that farmers in a drought prone area example, in decreasing soil erosion. or those without two draught oxen have However, if soil erosion is a long-term low rates of adoption of an improved concern of farmers in a given context, seed-fertilizer package, then research can households may put greater priority on begin to focus on adapting the technology technologies that increase production in so it is more resistant to drought and can the short term. Also, agricultural be used without access to draught production concerns may be secondary to equipment. Rural household members are issues such as access to potable water or not only the best sources of information improved family nutrition. about obstacles to adoption, they also are frequently the best source of suggestions A technology that performs well under about adaptations to make a technology experiment station conditions may viable. encounter problems under farm house-

23 5.11.2 Integrative Aspects of Socio- research trials is key to the process of Economic Research. Most recent generating technologies that will be research has focused on increasing adopted by farmers. The Integrated Food yields. However, if yield increases require Security Unit of the Amhara region has additional technology, labor and/or capital, conducted research eliciting rural the gains in output can be offset by households’ research and extension additional costs. Socio-economic analysis priorities. Household members them- therefore should focus on the impact of a selves identified criteria for determining new technology on net farmer income. wealth categories of households in their This analysis accounts both for the woredas. Priorities were identified based additional costs of raising yields as well as on wealth and gender and short, medium, the potential diversion of resources from and long-term research and extension other economic activities. activities were identified as potential solutions. This approach serves as an Intra-household analysis is also helpful to example of how to involve households in enable researchers to obtain a better the setting the research and extension understanding of the impact of a new agenda in order to ensure a greater socio- technology within the household (e.g., economic representation of households. women’s labor, child nutrition) and to match technologies with available The three research centers in the Amhara resources within households. Socio- region all include a socio-economic economic research could also include an research division. Currently, however, examination of the informal networks these divisions are understaffed and lack within a community or kebele. Under- individuals with sufficient training to carry standing how these networks operate can out the needed research to make adaptive, help in the process of organizing participatory research successful. participatory research as well as in disseminating new technologies on a 5.12 Capability and Structure of the farmer to farmer basis. Research System

Team building that brings together rural 5.12.1 Current Research System and household members, extension agents Future Plans. The capability to develop and researchers as well as individuals new technology is located mainly at the from diverse disciplinary backgrounds is three regional agricultural research centers also critical for the success of participatory (Adet, Sirinka, and Sheno). Each of these research. Socio-economic research centers has researchers with expertise and should analyze the most appropriate responsibilities across a range of mechanisms and institutional arrange- disciplines, such as agricultural economics ments for facilitating team building with and farming systems, animal production, individuals of diverse backgrounds and health, feeds and nutrition, agronomy make recommendations on how to best and/or crop physiology, crop protection, facilitate this process. field crops improvement (breeding and genetics), horticulture, soil science and 5.11.3 Socio-Economic Research water management, agro-forestry Capability. Socio-economic analysis in (resource management) and research- the context of adaptive, participatory extension. The Adet Agricultural

24 Research Center is located in the M2.5 investments should be addressed first and agroecological zone (moist, tepid to cool, then upgrades and expansion should be mountainous and plateaus) that serves 15 addressed. To increase efficiency, there is drought-prone woredas, as well as other a need for short-term and long-term woredas which are normally food-secure. training, improved access to commu- The center is located at 2200 m.a.s.l. and nication technologies, and development of includes 131 ha plus eight testing sites. Of a performance based reward system that the 26 researchers at the center, one has will improve morale and retention of a PhD, 10 have MS degrees, and 15 have scientific and technical staff. BS degrees, with a total staff of 163. The Sirinka Agricultural Research Center Across all centers, the research staff is was established as a research center in young and enthusiastic, and all expressed 1987 but was closed during the civil war the need for more senior, experienced and re-opened in 1995. It is located in the scientists who would provide leadership SM2.5 agro-ecological zone and serves and guidance to the junior scientists and to North and South Wollo, Oromia, and Wag- the overall program. The team’s visits Himra Zones. The center is located 1850 within the region identified the need to m.a.s.l., in a 900 mm precipitation zone provide academic training to raise the and manages a 30-ha sub-center at Kobo training level from predominately the BS at 1470 m.a.s.l. with 667 mm precipitation, level to more PhD and MS level scientists. and several additional test sites. It has This additional, long-term training is 156 technical and support staff, of whom necessary to achieve the regional objec- none have a PhD degree, three have MS tive of improved capability to develop better degrees, and 23 have BS degrees. Five technologies to support agricultural sus- are presently on study leave. The Sheno tainability and food security goals. The Agricultural Research Center is also assessments also identified the need to located in the SM2.5 agro-ecological increase the numbers of researchers in the zone, located at 2800 m.a.s.l., with 903 areas of economics, agro-forestry, and mm of average annual precipitation. The food science, as well as to develop new center consists of 142 ha plus six research centers in critical agro-ecological additional testing sites distributed across a zones. range of altitudes from 2500-3100 m.a.s.l. The current mandate has been restricted The capabilities to do research at all to the high altitude areas of N. Showa, but ARC’s would be enhanced by such factors is expanded to include additional areas. as more trained scientists (particularly The research staff consists of one PhD, senior scientists who are needed to direct five MS, 13 BS, two DVM, with two research), reduced employee turnover, researchers in training at the PhD level, better access to current scientific literature and one at the MS level. and improved communication infrastruc- ture (at present, no telephone or fax at The research capability needs to be Adet and lack of e-mail and Internet strengthened in several ways, including access at all sites), improved equipment, increasing the research efficiency of the instruments and supplies to conduct current system, along with strategic research, more vehicles and spare parts expansion and upgrade of the centers. In for vehicles which have broken down. Low general, the efficiency of current research salaries and lack of incentives were

25 identified as a problem in attracting and 5.12.2 Research linkages. Research retaining qualified research and technical centers should improve linkages across staff, as were isolation of the living disciplines within a center, linkage across conditions for researchers and inadequate the region between centers and support personal access to transportation, institutions, and linkage with other communication, recreation, schooling and Ethiopian, African, and other international medical services for families. Access to scientists. The linkage should occur on current journals and lack of commu- two levels: 1) informal scientist-to-scientist nications with scientists outside the center communications with a minimum of were also cited as impeding progress in restrictions, and 2) formal organization-to- doing research that contributes to food organization linkages which may require security. Expensive equipment items at better articulation of channels of each center were underutilized, or not communication and protocols for estab- used at all, because of lack of trained lishing agreements. technicians, inadequate supplies, lack of spare parts and inacces-sible repair From the team’s discussions with ANRS services. This indicates that strategic research staff, it appears that the centers’ planning and budgeting to maintain an research is organized along disciplinary appropriate balance between capital lines, rather than being oriented around expenditures for major equipment multi-disciplinary problem areas. Most of purchase and annual expenditures of the problems facing the people of the operating expenses could increase the Amhara region in producing food and efficiency of the research system. meeting household food needs transcend disciplinary boundaries and will require an The extension system to disseminate integrated systems research and available technologies is well-developed extension approach to identify new and structured. Currently, the extension technologies that can contribute to system is organized and relatively well- solutions of these problems. There is a staffed at the kebele, woreda, zonal and strong potential for interdisciplinary regional levels. Subject matter specialists research, because of the mix of assigned to the various levels are the disciplinary strengths that are located at main sources of technical information and each research center. However, the guidance for DAs, who are the basic current strengths in some key areas such operational units of the extension system. as animal production, natural resource The subject matter specialists assigned to management, and socio-economics the different levels of the extension appear to be weak compared to capability system need more experience and in agronomic sciences. Additional training training to handle the urgent and difficult in systems research design and problems facing rural households. methodology is needed in order that Although the extension system in the research conducted will feed into planned Amhara region is well-organized and watershed research and management adequately staffed in quantity, the activities within the region. technologies available to extension agents for dissemination need a Informal interaction to exchange substantial improvement. information pertaining to planning, methodology, and preliminary results

26 across the research centers exists but contributions and ensure that the USAID appears to be minimal. This is due to lack support is complementary to them and of communication facilities such as does not duplicate and overlap what they telephone, fax, email, and Internet are supporting. connection; geographic distance between research centers and limited travel and 5.12.3 Research-extension linkages. A communication budgets. Annual research major restructuring of Ethiopia’s research reviews conducted with the regional system took place in the mid 1990s, giving researchers and national commodity regional states responsibility in research research leaders with EARO provides a management. Decentralization of formal structure for interaction among research management from a federal scientists from the research centers, as system to regional research centers has well as with national researchers, encountered several challenges, one of extension, and end users of the research. which is the absence of backstopping in technical leadership which resulted in Universities and agencies undertaking inadequacy in generating technological agricultural and related research include innovations (Amhara National Regional the Alemaya University of Agriculture, State Bureau of Agriculture: Agricultural Addis Ababa University, Awassa College of Research Master Plan 1999). In this Agriculture, Mekele College of Agriculture, transitional phase, the regional the Institute of Biodiversity, EARO, government and the research centers Regional institutions (e.g., plant and animal have developed official mechanisms for health clinics, multiplication centers for program management and coordination, animals and plants) Ethiopian Institute of although much remains to be done to Health and Nutrition Research, Coffee and efficiently respond to the region’s food Tea Development Authority, and research security program. Strategies to establish systems in other Regional States. There is linkage among the centers and with the little evidence that the ANRS research national/international research organiza- centers have undertaken collaborative tions and to upgrade research capability, activities with the above institutions. infrastructure, and support services at the Likewise, minimal formal collaboration regional level need to be defined and exists between the regional research implemented. centers and the international agricultural centers (IARCs). National professional The regional and zonal Research and organizations provide the opportunity for Extension Liaison Committees (RELCs) informal scientist-to-scientist interactions have served as the mechanism to and networking, and establishment of coordinate research and extension regional chapters of such organizations programs. Linkages between research might increase networking opportunities. and extension need to be strengthened. Strategies are being developed to address The team is aware that several donor this need with the proposed creation of the organizations such as SIDA, the World Research Extension Advisory Councils. Bank, the Governments of Japan and the Another strategy that may be considered Netherlands contribute to various aspects is to build the capability of the DAs, since of strengthening agricultural research in they play an important role in articulating Ethiopia. It is important to consider these research and extension needs by working

27 with household members at the environments and, hence, may not be household/watershed level. The current adopted. Technological innovations have focus on blanket recommendations with to “fit” household livelihood and survival little flexibility to modify package strategies by reducing vulnerability to crop recommendations based on 1) household failure or livestock loss, improving conditions or 2) year-to-year variability in resilience particularly from environmental rainfall patterns has limited the shocks and increasing rural incomes. effectiveness of extension of technologies in drought-prone areas. The primary Second, participation paves the way for challenge concerning the development enlisting household members’ commit- and adoption of technologies to improve ment to the goals of the research/ food security in the ANRS will be to extension project. When they have a undertake a transformational change sense of ownership of the project, they from a supply-driven system of extension could serve as valuable agents of change, to a demand-driven system that allows for disseminating information as well as smallholders to exercise choice in community mobilization. Tapping into selecting technological options to meet informal local social networks could be household objectives within their useful in planning extension strategies. resource limitations. Because of the complexity of issues surrounding food Third, household members are the security in the Amhara region, a primary users of technology, information, concerted effort among government and other resources. By interactively agencies such as health, education, involving household members in research water, environment, and agriculture will and extension, they can gain the be needed when problems are addressed capability to evaluate current practices, at the watershed level. Inter-agency options and visualize the outcomes of cooperation to support information implementing a practice or a technology. exchange, resource sharing and joint action are among the many mechanisms 6.2 Facilitating Stakeholder Partici- to facilitate this synergy. pation. Participatory research and extension is not a novel idea in Ethiopia’s research and extension system. While 6.0 BUILDING A PARTICIPATORY there is awareness and effort to use a RESEARCH PROCESS participatory approach in on-farm exper- iments/demonstrations, improve-ments 6.1 Why Participatory Research? There could be introduced to maximize intended are three practical reasons for involving benefits to stakeholders and households. stakeholders, including rural households, in research and extension. First, Household participation is critical in the technologies are not reaching a wide range following stages of research and of households. A uniform set of techno- extension: 1) on-farm diagnosis, 2) logical packages may not be appropriate to identification of possible solutions, 3) rural households’ specific objectives or design and implementation of interventions may be inappropriate to their unique social, and solutions, 4) verification, and 5) economic, cultural (including indigenous monitoring and evaluation. Realistic knowledge systems) and biophysical mechanisms are needed to:

28 ¥ Include a wide range of stakeholders: delivery of research impacts and builds individuals, groups or organizations confidence on using a participatory who have influence or can have an approach to research impact, either positive or negative, in ensuring food security in the region. Facilitating rural household participation in ¥ Fully involve stakeholders and rural research and extension involves a high households through their organizations. degree of transaction costs and flexibility. ¥ Strengthen the research and extension It demands continuous interaction with system so that they are bottom-up, households, genuineness to learn with demand-driven, and based on in-depth them, and sensitivity to their conditions. diagnosis of the agroecosystem. Participatory research provides an ¥ Facilitate regular researcher-extension enabling mechanism for households to agent-household interaction in on-farm exercise choice. It requires clearly trials. articulated institutional arrangements, ¥ Consult household members individ- defining the roles and responsibilities of ually in on-farm trials, but also provide stakeholders and implementors as well as a forum for them to meet as a group flow of information, to strengthen the with researchers and extension agents linkage between research, extension and to facilitate feedback and information households. Using a participatory exchange. approach to research and extension ¥ Strengthen mechanisms to promote a promises to introduce innovations in timely, two-way feedback across research methodology and develop mod- hierarchical levels. els that could be applied in other woredas, ¥ Involve the private sector and non- zones, and regions of the country. farm groups in the delivery of inputs and other services that are currently under the responsibility of government 7.0 ACTION PLAN line agencies. This will hopefully stimulate and diversify the rural The action plan consists of five parts. The economy as well as provide off-farm first action plan concentrates on adopting income generating opportunities. an adaptive participatory approach to ¥ Build capability among development increase research efficiency and benefits agents to appreciate and support to households. This approach is designed participatory approaches to research for immediate implementation and early and extension results. Guiding principles for designing ¥ Establish periodic participatory and implementing participatory adaptive monitoring and evaluation systems to research are offered as well as examples monitor outputs and measurable of results produced by adoption of this indicators of impacts, defined and approach. agreed upon by the stakeholders. ¥ Employ social scientists in research The second action plan is designed to and extension who have an apprecia- increase research efficiency and output of tion for participatory research and researchers. Short-term training and long- gender issues in development. term higher education are the primary ¥ Establish a performance-based reward means to raise staff performance. Since system that offers incentives for the absence of researchers for training

29 and education will create critical personnel Agriculture, Amhara region Integrated shortages, the immediate implementation Food Security Unit, Research Centers, of participatory adaptive research to NGO’s and other relevant institutions, sustain and even increase technology by should be involved in the prioritization, farmers is needed. planning and implementation process.

The third action plan focuses on Further key principles of participatory modernizing computerized information research are listed as follows. retrieval and communication capacity of the research centers. This plan is given a ¥ Immediate attention should be given to higher priority than to increase the number adapting existing technologies to local of library holdings, owing to the swift conditions while longer term research obsolescence of information. capabilities are being enhanced. ¥ Research trials should be concen- The purpose of the fourth action plan is to trated on households’ fields and be modernize the research laboratories with managed by household members adequate equipment and supplies to under farmer conditions. support the design, implementation and ¥ Trial sites should be representative of monitoring of applied research. agroecological conditions and stake- holder-identified problems. The fifth action plan calls for the ¥ Research trials should include a systematic, georeferenced biophysical representative cross section of rural and socioeconomic characterization of the households, based on factors as Amhara region, since the principal aim of availability of resources, education and agricultural research is to match the gender. biological requirements of crops and ¥ Households, through their organiza- livestock products and practices to the tions, and other stakeholders, should resource characteristics of households be systematically included in setting and the physical attributes of their land. A research priorities, as well as in the georeferenced database on socioeco- monitoring and evaluation of the nomic condition and physical land research trials. attributes will facilitate technology transfer ¥ Rural households should be able to to all locations in the region and is choose from a series of technology essential to scale up technology adoption options. Each technology option from a few participating farmers to the should allow for flexibility in implemen- kebele, woreda, zone and regional level. tation. For socio-economic analysis, although yields are an important A more detailed description of the five component of profitability, the focus of action plans follows. technology evaluation should be on profitability and the impact on net 7.1 Action Plan 1. Institutionalizing household income. Adaptive, Participatory Research. The ¥ Finally, while participatory research guiding principle of participatory adaptive requires that household members be research in ANRS is that all concerned involved in setting research priorities, stakeholders, including rural household there are a number of priorities that are organization representatives, Bureau of so frequently repeated by so many

30 individuals that researchers and soil. It is worth noting that the fertilizer households can immediately begin to recommendation for most, if not all of design and implement trials in areas Ethiopia, does not include potassium. where the problem stands as a major While the potassium levels may have bottleneck to achieving food security. been adequate several decades ago, that may no longer be the case, and now low An example of a rural household-identified potassium levels could be contributing to priority is the desire to reduce yield loss frost damage and low yields. from frost damage. Wheat crop in the highlands of the Amhara region that Another example of participatory adaptive appear healthy and vigorous have often trials involves finding technologies that been rendered sterile by frost. Rural reduce the dependence on manure as households express concern that frost fuel, thereby allowing this source of damage is occurring more frequently now organic fertilizer to be reincorporated into than in the past. They believe that the fields. Simple improved stoves fitted to region is undergoing temperature traditional cooking pots have been shown changes and they would like frost- to reduce fuel consumption needs by 30- resistant varieties to be developed. While 50 percent as well as substantially speed frost-resistance in wheat and barley may up the cooking process. Solar cookers be developed by breeding, it would be have also shown potential as an many years before such varieties can be alternative source of energy for food released. preparation. Fast growing trees such as leuceana that have the properties of The purpose of adaptive participatory regrowth after cutting can by planted in trials is to find solutions to problems such strategic areas to reduce erosion as well as frost damage, that can be implemented as supplying a renewable source of in the next cropping season. For example, fuelwood. By reducing the fuel needs as it is known from work conducted well as providing alternative sources of elsewhere in the world that frost damage energy, the dependence on manure for can be substantially reduced by providing fuel can be minimized. In addition, simple adequate amounts of potassium to grain improved corrals that serve as collection crops. A simple trial can be installed which points for manure can further increase the compares yield and profit from trials availability of this source of organic matter employing conventional farmer practice to be reincorporated into crop fields. with and without the addition of potassium. If the results are negative, the The example of alternative fuel sources household’s losses will be minimal if little and improved stoves also illustrates additional labor was required to install the important gender issues that can be trial and the fertilizer cost was borne by addressed by adaptive, participatory the research unit. research. A substantial amount of many rural women’s time is taken up by fetching But if the result is positive, as it might very firewood and cooking. By reducing fuel well be, it will show that the increased needs, providing readily accessible incidence of “frost damage” is not related alternative energy sources and to a gradual lowering of air temperature decreasing cooking time, women’s labor but to declining levels of potassium in the can be spent in other activities, such as

31 quality time with household members, them so that the advisors are made aware recreation, off-farm income generation, or of problems and conditions in the region. horticultural production to improve family Student advisors can also serve as nutrition and to sell as a cash crop. mentors to prospective students, as well as a source of answers for questions The examples cited above illustrate the raised by local researchers. Since the need to be creative in designing adaptive quality and relevance of a student’s trials with rural household members. The research depends on his or her advisor’s trials must be inexpensive and easy to appreciation and understanding of install, monitor, and evaluate, and produce conditions to which the student will return, good results quickly. the simultaneous education of students and their advisor should add to the 7.2 Action Plan 2. Training, Mentoring relevance of higher education. and Higher Education. Short-term training to acquire specific skills such as While trainees are away from their applying analytical methods, operating research centers for training for extended new instruments and computers or period, or where mentoring is needed in conducting on-farm adaptive trials must selected areas of research for young run parallel with long-term efforts to scientists, the employment of technical increase the number of researchers with assistance could be very useful. Senior advanced degrees. Short-term training, scientists serving as mentors or experts in whenever possible, should be conducted selected areas could come either from under conditions normally encountered by local or international sources. Locally, the researcher. The aim is to reduce retired Ethiopian scientists, who have dependence on sophisticated laboratory decades of experience and may be equipment and to rely on adapting existing available, could be a very valuable equipment to achieve the desired results. resource of expertise for this purpose. If senior scientists from abroad are desired, Mentoring of young and inexperienced the CRSPs collectively could be a researchers by locally-stationed experts valuable source of expertise and provide from the national and international local scientists opportunities for agricultural research centers can make up collaborative research. In any case the for the lack of senior researchers with need for mentoring or technical assistance leadership capabilities. The purpose of and its implementation should be mentoring is to give direction and purpose determined in a participatory manner by to young researchers and the work they all stakeholders. produce. 7.3. Action Plan 3. Modernizing Long-term higher education serves as the Computer and Communication foundation for achieving excellence in Technology. The gap in computer and research. It is expected that young communication technology between researchers enrolled in advanced research centers in the Amhara region research institutions will return to their and advanced research institutions is centers to conduct their research. huge. Researchers at advanced research Provisions should also be made for the institutions have access to the global students’ research advisors to accompany knowledge base and achieve high

32 research efficiency by their ability to ineffective way to correct yield-reducing, communicate nearly instantly with nutrient deficiencies. The law of the researchers around the world. limiting warns us that applying nitrogen or Researchers in the Amhara region must phosphorus to a soil lacking in potassium exploit this technology to enable them to or any one of the 16 essential nutrient perform useful applied research based on elements will do little to increase yield and sound understanding of biophysical and render investments in fertilizer socioeconomic processes. unprofitable. A modern research labora- tory is essential to diagnose the cause A modern communication system will also and magnitude of problems farm enable research centers in the Amhara households face. Development agents region to coordinate their work, reduce need diagnostic services to help them duplication of effort, develop annual work design, install and monitor on-farm, plans and communicate results of on-farm adaptive trials. Without a proper adaptive trials to others. diagnosis, on-farm, adaptive trials are reduced to slow, expensive and Installation of a modern computer and unreliable, trial-and-error research. communication system does not necessarily guarantee effective use of the A modern research center should be able system. Short-term training will be to analyze large volumes of samples necessary for on-station staff, but submitted by development agents, returning students from advanced interpret the analytical results and institutions can further encourage communicate them to development researchers to rely not only on local agents anywhere in the region in a timely knowledge, but also on the global manner. It is also true that no research knowledge base now accessible to users center can generate new technologies for of the Internet. adoption by farm households without access to diagnostic services. 7.4 Action Plan 4. Modernizing Research Facilities and Supply 7.5 Action Plan 5. Creating a Delivery System. Helping households to Georeferenced Spatial Data Base. A deal with problems requires that each new technology successful in one location prescription to cure a problem is preceded is likely to succeed in other locations with by a proper diagnosis. Recommending a analogous socioeconomic and biophysical prescription without a thorough diagnosis characteristics. This method of technology can be likened to a doctor who prescribes transfer by analogy requires that all sites aspirin for all headaches. Top-down within the Amhara region with similar transfer of technology from research characteristics be identified. If the site centers to farm households prescribes characterization data are georeferenced one cure for all households. A good and displayed using a geographic example of this situation is the fertilizer information system, that would instantly component of technology packages show the real extent over which the distributed by the ANRS Bureau of technology could apply. A technology, no Agriculture. For each crop, there is one matter how outstanding, is of little value if rate of phosphorous and nitrogen for all no analogous sites to receive the households. This is a wasteful and technology exist.

33 While participatory adaptive research ¥ Frost—Farmers seem to believe that increases adoption among participating the frequency of frost damage in cereal households, it is not designed to transfer grains has been increasing over the technology to other analogous locations last few years. This belief, however, in the region. A large-scale, does not seem to be supported by georeferenced data base will enable temperature data from the region. One extension agents to abandon slow, explanation for frost damage is expensive and unreliable trial-and-error potassium deficiency in the cereal technology transfer in favor of technology crop. There is evidence that potassium transfer by analogy. Improvements in is involved in cold hardiness. Because research facilities, staff education and potassium is a very soluble ion, high adoption of participatory research will do potassium levels increase solute little to alleviate poverty or raise rural concentration and lower the freezing incomes unless the capacity to point of water in plant tissue. disseminate proven technology to other, similar locations in the region is in place. It is recommended that with and For example, the transfer of technology without potassium trials be conducted by Sasakawa Global 2000 to other in areas where farmers have locations in the region or country can be experienced severe yield loss from dramatically improved by limiting transfer frost damage. to analogous sites. Technology transfer from its site of origin to other locations If potassium is deficient in the soil, with dissimilar socioeconomic and adding it will not only reduce frost biophysical characteristics remains an damage but may also increase the expensive obstacle to agricultural devel- crops resistance to insects and opment. diseases.

As in all on-farm trials, success will not 8.0 TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMMEDIATE only depend on yield increases, but ON-FARM TRIALS primarily on the farmers’ decision to adopt the technology. Participatory research requires that researchers, development agents and ¥ Drought—Rainfed agriculture is risky household members all have equal say in because drought can wipe out defining the purpose of on-farm trials. The investments in fertilizer, seed and technologies for immediate on-farm trials labor. For this reason, many listed below were not selected by a households choose not to invest in participatory procedure, but were chosen yield increasing inputs. There are two because farm households have repeat- ways of reducing the risk of yield loss edly asked for help in these areas, without from drought. The first way is to select success. Problem areas identified by farm drought tolerant and/or drought- households include yield loss from frost, escaping cultivars. Drought-escaping drought, soil erosion, pests, soil fertility, cultivars do so by producing few tillers and water logging. Technologies to in dry seasons, thereby enabling a combat or avoid the six problem areas are smaller biomass to compete for the given below. lower amount of available water. In

34 drought years, drought-escaping crops tillage are tested on farmers’ fields they will produce low but dependable yields. should be evaluated for their water- In good, wet years, drought-escaping conserving and soil-conserving func- cultivars produce many tillers to exploit tions. the larger volume of plant available water. On-farm trials with drought- A third way of reducing soil erosion is tolerant and drought-escaping cultivars to plant vertiver grass along contours. will demonstrate whether the negative This grass is well known to researchers effects of drought can be diminished. in the region, but for some reason farmers have chosen not to use it or A second way to deal with drought is to are unaware of vertiver grasses decrease the fraction of rainfall that effectiveness in reducing soil loss. runs off the soil by increasing water intake rates. This can be accomplished ¥ Weeds—Early weeding is an important by tied-ridges and/or contoured-ridge cultural practice which must be tillage. The Ethiopian Agricultural followed by all farmers. Weeding 20-25 Research Organization has tested tied- days after emergence, supplemented ridging and found it to be an effective by a second weeding at about 40-45 means to control soil erosion and to days after emergence, is recom- conserve water in drought years. The mended. With proper and timely French in West Africa have shown weeding, increase in yield of maize and contour-ridge tillage increases the sorghum by about 1 ton/ha has been volume of water stored in soils and recorded. reduces surface runoff and soil erosion. Contour ridge tillage also ¥ Congress weed—A new weed called enables a farmer to divert excess water congress weed is invading the region. into ponds for irrigating high value It has been suggested that the seeds crops and providing water for livestock. of this weed arrived in the emergency food supply shipped from Australia. Using improved drought tolerant/ Because it is well-adapted to escaping cultivars of cereals and conditions in the region and is legumes can contribute significantly to unpalatable to livestock, a possibility improved and stable yields. A list of exists that this huge annual biomass such crops and cultivars are available production can be put to good use. The from EARO. Collaboration between technology for adding value to a pest EARO breeders and agronomists has (congress weed) hinges on harvesting led to the development of these the weed before it seeds and to use the cultivars. harvested weed as a mulch. In arid regions, EARO has shown that yields ¥ Soil erosion—A common way of can be doubled by mulching the reducing water erosion of soil is by surface with basaltic cinders. This shortening slope length. Contour-ridge practice has not spread because the tillage is based on this principle, so is cost of transporting cinder makes it too tied-ridge tillage which reduces slope expensive for use by farmers. length to the dimensions of the tied Congress weed, on the other hand, is ridges. If tied-ridge and contour-ridge already there on the farm and can be

35 used as a mulch during the growing From on-farm trials, farmers will be season and as an organic soil able to compare yields and profits amendment in the next plowing cycle. between current practices of applying The aim is to transform a pest into a no fertilizer or, depending on the valuable resource. government’s fertilizer recommenda- tion, with yields and profits from the ¥ Striga—The parasitic weed, Striga, has plots receiving fertilizer based on been identified as one of the main diagnostic tests. constraints in sorghum production in the Amhara region. An integrated Another way to increase fertilizer use Striga management (ISM) technology efficiency is to place the fertilizer in a has been found effective elsewhere in narrow band near the seed. The current Africa. Using an ISM composed of practice is to broadcast seed and tolerant cultivar, intercropping with a fertilizer evenly over a field. This makes legume, planting in rows, hand weeding difficult and dilutes the weeding prior to flowering to deplete fertilizer. ILRI is currently experi- the Striga seed bank in the soil, use of menting with a combination seeder and modest levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and fertilizer applicator. It is animal drawn use of improved moisture conservation and should be affordable and beneficial practice such as tied ridges result in to most farmers in the region. significant yield improvements of sorghum. The combination seeder and fertilizer makes weeding easier between rows ¥ Soil fertility—Although application of and increases fertilizer use efficiency chemical fertilizers is known to by concentrating fertilizers near the consistently increase yield when seed. The beneficial effect of banding rainfall is adequate, few farmers use fertilizers is especially high at low rates fertilizers because fertilizer costs and of application. The reduction in time the risk of crop failure from drought spent on weeding and the increase in remain high. One reason for the high fertilizer use efficiency may be cost of fertilizer is that the same sufficient to create household demand fertilizer recommendation is applied to for this technology. all farms in the region. It is almost certain that non-optimum rates of ¥ Water logging—This condition is a fertilizers are being applied in the consequence of water runoff from majority of cases. Near-optimum higher ground into local depressions. fertilizer rates can be applied if The area affected by water logging diagnostic tests are conducted to should decrease with adoption of identify which of the major nutrients are contour-ridge tillage, tied-ridges and deficient in a field. Without a proper planting of vertiver grass. diagnosis, it is not possible to prescribe a cure for nutrient deficiency. The soil Even with the above practices, runoff analyses may need to be performed by will occur during heavy downpours, EARO initially, but the local units must and some means to capture the excess be upgraded to take on this task. water in village or household ponds should be considered. The stored

36 water can be used to irrigate high- young and inexperienced researchers value crops and provide drinking water might implement the program described in for livestock. this report. The food security situation requires immediate attention, but it will be ¥ Intercropping—Use of traditional crop several years before the region will benefit production practices result in very low from the planned long-term training and yield levels. Agronomists at EARO education efforts. One way to ensure that have shown that properly planned and the program functions properly from the executed agronomic practices, such as beginning is to enable regional intercropping cereals with legumes, researchers to work in concert with can give 50 percent yield increase over experienced counterparts from local, the sole crop, accompanied by the national, and international research added advantage of reduced weed and institutions. Many such institutions are pest incidence. already operating in the region, but the USAID/Ethiopia program fills a much ¥ Improved crop production practices— needed void in the area of strengthening Use of ERO-developed improved crop local capacity for participatory research in production packages, such as technology development, evaluation and improved variety, fertilizer, early dissemination. There are two areas where weeding, tied ridges, combined with the regional research units can benefit IPM-based crop protection can con- from collaboration with experienced tribute to significant yield increas-es. specialists. The first is in identifying Such packages should be adjusted suitable technologies, including new and tailored for the specific ecological livestock, crops, varieties, products and condition of each area. A blanket practices for local testing. Experienced recommendation of a uniform package researchers bring to the region an can not work under all conditions of the understanding and appreciation, which Amhara region. young researchers often lack, of genotype by environment interactions, and the art ¥ Alley cropping—Dry season feed and science of matching the biological shortage is a chronic problem in the requirements of crops and livestock to the Amhara region. Alley cropping maize physical characteristics of land. or sorghum with leguminous species, such as Sesbania sesban, Cajanus The second area where help is needed is cajan, Leucaena, can give up to three in matching the socioeconomic tons of biomass from the perennial requirements of a technology to the legumes, which can then be used as resource and cultural characteristics of the animal feed. intended customer. In the Amhara region, as elsewhere in the world, the biophysical has received greater attention than the 9.0 TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR socioeconomic aspect of agriculture. TECHNOLOGY IDENTIFICATION, ASSESSMENT, AND DISSEMINATION There is also need for assistance in integrating the biophysical with the There still remains the question of how the socioeconomic components through regional research units staffed with mostly interdisciplinary, participatory research.

37 Given the current situation, several 10.0 ANTICIPATED RESULTS AND subject matter areas require technical INDICATORS OF SUCCESS backstopping in most regional research units. These areas include livestock The purpose of the action plan is to management, pest management, crop strengthen the capacity of the Amhara management, soil fertility, soil and water regional food and agricultural research conservation, agricultural economics and unit to design and conduct adaptive participatory research. farmer-identified, on-farm research. The means to strengthen research capacity To be effective, one to two individuals includes: should be stationed in the region to support local staff, but primarily to work ¥ Institutionalizing participatory adaptive with regional researchers to identify research to transform a top-down, problem areas needing the attention of supply-driven technology transfer to outside experts. Dependence on outside one that is bottom-up and demand- technical services can be effective if there driven. is a large pool of specialists, experienced ¥ Training research staff to apply modern with developing country problems and information and communication tech- conditions, who can be called upon for nology to promote effective interaction assistance on a timely basis. Fortunately and communication with other for the Amhara region, EARO, the IARCs researchers, development agents and and the large pool of U.S. scientists households in the region and to enable involved with USAID’s Collaborative researchers to access the global Research Support Program can be called knowledge base needed to increase upon. research productivity and efficiency. ¥ Enhancing research productivity and The one advantage the CRSPs have over efficiency by upgrading research other research organization is that the facilities, modernizing outdated lab- CRSPs are research, education and oratory equipment and analytical extension institutions. For this reason, methods and ensuring a reliable supply when U.S. scientists are invited to assist of laboratory chemical supplies. in short-term technical assistance assignments, they should also be viewed The results stemming from implementing as potential advisors to prospective the action plan will be verified by four students from the region. The technical indicators of food security. These assistance effort should not be an end in indicators are quantitatively linked to four itself, but should be used as a basis for properties of sustainable agroeco- initiating long-term relationships between systems. The first indicator is increased U.S. universities and the people of the production and productivity. This indicator Amhara region. While it is for the regional is measured in terms of yield increases authorities to determine whether such (production) and increased profitability relationships develop, the CRSPs are (productivity). geared to operate in this way. The second indicator measures reduction in yield fluctuations (feast or famine) under the new research paradigm. The

38 coefficient of variation (CV) obtained from tion and productivity, increased stability, analysis of several years of regional increased resiliency, and increased production data will indicate improve- equitability, would measure the health and ments in production stability. A high CV sustainability of the region’s agroeco- indicates high instability and a low CV system. To attain food security, all four indicates progress towards elimination of indicators of sustainable agroecosystems famine. must show continued improvement to keep pace with population expansion. The The third indicator measures the capacity aim of the Amhara National Regional of the region’s agroecosystems to State Food Security Program is to ensure withstand and/or recover from stresses and that households have sufficient access to perturbations. Results of stresses on nutritious food either through agricultural Amharan crops include declining soil production or earning enough income to fertility, increasing human malnutrition and purchase it. increasing land degradation. Pertur-bations are catastrophic episodes such as hail, earthquakes and extremely high rainfall 11.0 SUGGESTED BUDGET events that occur once in 25, 50 or 100 CATEGORIES years. One does not need to wait 100 years to experience a 100-year rainfall event. It Proposed budget line items for imple- may occur next year and the Amhara menting the action plan. region must begin to prepare for such events immediately. This indicator 11.1. Institutionalizing Adaptive, measures the resiliency of the agro- Participatory Research ecosystem. Resiliency can be measured in terms of increased biodiversity, reduced 11.1.1. Researcher/development soil loss, hectares of reforested area per agent/farmer training workshops annum and reduced dependence on food aid. Increasing biodiversity is critical to 11.1.1.2. Travel improving household diets. Fruit and vegetable products need to be integrated 11.1.1.3. Perdiem into a farming systems dominated by cereal crops. 11.1.1.4. Training materials and supplies

The fourth indicator measures equitability, 11.1.1.5. Rentals which is the degree to which the benefits derived from the agroecosystems are 11.1.2. Consultants equally shared. This property can be measured by monitoring the mean 11.1.2.1. Travel household income and its variance. The aim is to increase household income and 11.1.2.2. Perdiem reduce the gap (variance) between rich and poor farmers. 11.1.2.3. Fees

The four indicators of an efficient research organization, namely, increased produc-

39 11.2. Training, Mentoring and Higher 11.4. Modernizing Research Facilities Education and Supply Delivery System

11.2.1. Training in laboratory 11.4.1. Research facilities techniques, such as use of instruments 11.4.1.1. Repairs

11.2.1.1. Travel 11.4.1.2. New construction

11.2.1.2. Perdiem 11.4.2. Laboratory

11.2.1.3. Training supplies 11.4.2.1. Repairs

11.2.2. Mentoring of young scientists 11.4.2.2. New construction

11.2.2.1. Travel 11.4.3. Equipment

11.2.2.2. Perdiem 11.4.3.1. Repairs

11.2.2.3. Fees 11.4.3.2. New equipment

11.2.3. Higher education in advanced 11.4.4. Assured maintenance services research institutions and supply of chemicals

11.2.3.1. Graduate student stipend, 11.4.4.1. Maintenance fees travel, expenses 11.4.4.2. Chemicals and supplies 11.2.3.2. Support for in-country research needed for degree requirement 11.5. Creating a Georeferenced Spatial Data Base 11.2.3.3. Travel and perdiem for advisor 11.5.1. GIS training 11.3. Modernizing Computer and Communication Technology 11.5.2. GIS hardware/software

11.3.1. Local area networks 11.5.3. High resolution satellite imagery

11.3.2. Hardware/software 11.5.4. Data storage and retrieval

11.3.3. Telephones 11.5.5. Data interpretation

11.3.4. Consultants 11.5.6. Retrieving, collating, and geo- referencing existing data 11.3.5. Access to internet 11.5.7. Consultant services

40 12.0 ANNEXES in the Southeast Asia Research Management at the University of 12.1 Research Assessment Team Wisconsin-Madison and conducts research with the SANREM Global Program/ Goro Uehara University of Georgia on assessing TEAM LEADER decision maker priorities in natural Professor of Soil Science resources management in Southeast Asia. Dept. of Agronomy and Soil Science 1910 East West Road, Sherm 101 D. Keith Cassel University of Hawaii at Manoa Professor Honolulu, HI 96822, U.S.A. Department of Soil Science E-mail: [email protected] North Carolina State University Tel. (808) 956-6593, Fax.( 808) 956-6539 3410 Williams Hall Box 7619 Dr. Uehara is director of the Soil Raleigh, NC 27695-7619, U.S.A. Management Collaborative Support E-mail: [email protected] Program (CRSP), scientific liaison officer to the International Institute for Tropical Dr. Cassel conducts research in applied Agriculture and member of the Board for and soil physics, soil conservation on International Food and Agricultural steeplands, tillage, irrigation, and Development. He is a member and fellow landscape processes. He is a member of of the American Association for the the Soil Management CRSP. He has Advancement of Science, American experience in land clearing, land Society of Agronomy, Crop Science reclamation, tillage, and soil management Society of America, and Soil Science research in Honduras, Indonesia, Peru, Society of America. Philippines, and Nicaragua. As a member of the graduate faculty he has supervised Gladys Buenavista numerous domestic and foreign graduate Visiting Scientist students. Dr. Cassel is a past president of Dept. Of Agriculture and Applied the Soil Science Society of America. Economics University of Wisconsin-Madison Frederick R. Cox Taylor Hall, 427 Lorch St. Emeritus Professor Madison, WI 53706-1503, U.S.A. Department of Soil Science E-mail: [email protected] North Carolina State University 3410 Williams Hall Dr. Buenavista=s areas of work include Box 7619 Rural Sociology, Participatory Research Raleigh, NC 27695-7619, U.S.A. for Development, Natural Resource Management and Planning, and Dr. Cox’s specialty is soil fertility, espe- Monitoring and Evaluation. She is cially in the areas of soil test evaluation affiliated with the Sustainable Agriculture and nutrient sorption. He has worked and Natural Resources Management extensively with a number of micro- (SANREM) CRSP. She coordinated the nutrients and macronutrients. His work implementation of SANREM in Southeast with phosphorus is the basis for that Asia from 1994-99. She currently serves section of the Nutrient Management

41 Support System. Dr. Cox is internationally Blacksburg, VA 24061-0334, U.S.A. recognized for his contributions to the field Tel. (540) 231-3516; Fax (540) 231-3519 of soil fertility and plant nutrition. He is E-mail: [email protected] currently involved in an internationally collaborative effort to develop a Dr. Brhane Gebrekidan is the Program computerized nutritional management Director of the Integrated Pest decision support system. Management Collaborative Research Suppport Program (IPM CRSP) managed Thomas W. Crawford, Jr. by Virginia Tech. He is a plant breeder by INTSORMIL-International Sorghum/Millet profession. Dr. Brhane has worked for Research Program both CIMMYT and ICRISAT for five years University of Nebraska-Lincoln each serving as a breeder and regional 113 Biochemistry Hall team leader for Eastern and Southern Lincoln, NE 68583-0748, U.S.A. Africa for each center. He has also served E-mail: [email protected] the former Alemaya College of Agriculture Tel: (402) 472-6032, Fax: (402) 472-7978 for about fifteen years as maize and INTSORMIL web site: sorghum breeder, leader of the Ethiopian http://www.ianr.unl/intsormil Sorghum Improvement Program (ESIP), and instructor of several undergraduate Dr. Crawford is Associate Program and graduate courses. Director of the International Sorghum and Millet Collaborative Research Support Jean L. Steiner Program, or INTSORMIL. He has con- US Department of Agriculture, tributed to development in Africa and the Agricultural Research Service Caribbean since 1984 as a soil scientist, J. Phil Campbell, Sr., Natural Resource co-director of a national agricultural Conservation Center research system, official managing 1420 Experiment Station Road economic and technical development Watkinsville, Georgia 30677, U.S.A. assistance, and manager of research. Dr. E-mail: [email protected] Crawford has done research in soil Tel: (706)769-5631, Fax: (706)769-8962 management, soil genesis and mor- phology, plant nutrition, agronomy, and Dr. Steiner has been a researcher with horticulture. He has managed projects USDA-ARS since 1983, directing her employing remote sensing and efforts towards soil and water conser- geographic information systems and has vation and water-use-efficiency for resided and worked in a number of African dryland cropping systems at Bushland, TX countries. He speaks French, Italian, from 1983-1993 and towards sustainable Portuguese, and Spanish. agriculture and watershed management in her current position since 1994. She Brhane Gebrekidan has served on the Technical Committee of Program Director, IMP CRSP the Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Office of International Research and Resource Management (SANREM) CRSP Development and is a Principal Investigator on a Virginia Polytechnic Institute and SANREM CRSP project to assess priority University concerns and information needs of natural 1060 Litton Reaves Hall resource decision makers across a wide

42 range of hierarchical levels, from farm to Management CRSP local, state, and national levels. She is E-mail: [email protected] Director of the Research Center that hosts the SANREM-CRSP Management Entity Dr. David Yanggen is an agricultural and and guides and coordinates the research of natural resource economist. His research 9 USDA-ARS senior scientists and has focused on fertilizer use, soil and manages the human, physical, and fiscal water conservation, deforestation, and resources that support the overall program. agroforestry technologies. He was an agricultural extension agent with the Hector R. Valenzuela Peace Corps in Mali, an assistant Associate Vegetable Crops Extension researcher on the USAID Food Security Specialist Project for African countries, and a visiting Department of Tropical Plant and Soil researcher at the International Center for Science Research on Agroforestry conducting University of Hawaii at Manoa research on the Alternatives to Slash and 3190 Maile Way, St. John 102 Burn Agriculture initiative in Peru. He Honolulu, HI 96822-2279, U.S.A. currently works in Quito, Ecuador with the Tel. (808) 956-7903; Fax (808) 956-3894 International Potato Center and Montana E-mail: [email protected] State University on the Trade-offs Policy Decision Support Model as part of the Dr. Valenzuela conducts applied research USAID Soils Collaborative Research and statewide educational programs for Project. He speaks fluent French, the production of commercial vegetable Spanish, and Bambara. crops in Hawaii. His areas of research involve the use of alternative production practices to improve nutrient and pest 12.2 ITINERARY management in the farm, including germplasm evaluation, the use of organic January 17, 2000 (Monday) nutrient amendments, habitat manage- ment techniques, no-till, and organic Team met at ILRI with USAID’s Dennis farming techniques. Dr. Valenzuela has Panther, 9:30-10:15 AM been involved in short-term international assignments in Nicaragua (seed produc- Team met with ILRI scientists, 11:00-1:00 tion technology, and promotion of export- International Livestock Research oriented horticultural industries), Japan Institute, http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/ (organic and sustainable farming), Dr. Garth Holloway, economic Western Samoa (pest control educational consultant; milk market consultant materials), and Vanuatu (seed production Abeba Misgina, ILRI research technologies). Dr. Valenzuela speaks technologist Spanish and Portuguese. Ms. Zelekawork Paulos, ag economist Dr. Azage Tegegne, animal scientist, David Yanggen economist; coordinator of ILRI’s input Agricultural and Natural Resource Dr. Samuel Benin, post doc, UCD, land Economist mgt study in Amhara Montana State University and the International Potato Center, Soil

43 Dr. Mohammed A.M. Ahmed, post doc; Meeting with EARO Research Directors, agriculural economist, Livestock 3:30-4:30 PM Policy Analysis Project, Oromia Ethiopian Agricultural Research region (IFPRI) Organization Dr. Simeon Ehui, ag economist; Dr. Demel Teketay, Director of Forestry coodinator, Livestock Policy Analysis Research. Project Tesfaye Zegeye, Director of Hugo Li Pun, resident director, ILRI Socioeconomics Department. Teklu Tesfaye, Director of Ethiopia Agriculture Research Research/Extension Link Dept. Organization, EARO Team met with Dr. Kidane Giorgis, Meet with Dr. Mike Roth, Director of the Director of Dryland Agriculture Research, BASIS CRSP-Social Sciences, 7:30-8:30 2:00Ð4:00 PM PM

Team met with Dr. Seifu Ketema, Director Field Trip Itinerary General and Dr. Abera Debelo, Deputy Jan. 20, 2000 (Thursday) Director General, EARO, 4:30-5:30 Traveled by air to Bahir Dar, Capital of Jan. 18, 2000 (Tuesday) the Amahara Region

Meeting with USAID’s Dennis Panther Jan. 21, 2000 (Friday) and Dr. Tadelle Gebreselassie, 10:30- 12:00 AM Bahir Dar, Amhara Region Amhara Regional Food Security Office, Meeting with CIMMYT representatives, 9:30-11:30 AM 2:30-4:30 PM Meeting with Mr. Yohanes Mekonen, International Maize and Wheat Head of the Food Security Unit in the Improvement Center (CIMMYT) Amhara Region, and Research and Dr. Thomas S. Payne, Regional Wheat Extension Directors and staff from Breeder/Pathologist, Eastern Africa and Amhara Region: Mr. Doug Tanner, Agronomist, Eastern Tadesse Amsalu, Research Coordinator Africa in Amhara Adamu Mola, Director of Sheno ARC Jan 19, 2000 (Wednesday) Zelalem Bayou, Food Security Office Amlaku Asres, D/Director, BOA Meeting at Swedish Embassy, Kindu Makonen, Director Sirinka ARC 9:30-11:30 AM Team met, with Johan Holmberg, Visit Adet Research Center, West Gojam, Ambassador and Vice President of the 2:00-4:00 PM Board of CIMMYT, and with Lars Met Agricultural Research Coordinator Leander, First Secretary. Leander briefed and Researchers from several the team about SIDA’s activities in the Departments. Visited labs for Soil Amhara Region. Chemistry, Entomology, Plant Pathology, and Animal Nutrition. Persons met included:

44 Henok Gebre Selassie, Soil Chemistry 1:30-3:00 PM Mulugetta Alemayehu, Livestock Visit with two rock terrace cereal/pulse Ayalew Kebede, Research/Extension (Lathyrus) farmers in Tach Gayint Melkamu Ayalew, Plant Pathology woreda, So. Gondar- one of the more Aklilu Agdie, Socio-Economics drought stressed areas in the region, Mr. Yigzaw, Horticulture 2,600 m elevation. One farmer was an adopter, Mr. Gelaw Wale, and the second Jan. 22, 2000 (Saturday) one was a non-adopter of the Extension technology packages. Also met with a Visit to the ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, local Development Agent (DA), Ms. Bahir Dar, 12:00-4:00 PM Maereg Abegaz. Met with program staff from several departments including: Agricultural 3:45-5:00 PM Economics, Extension Communication, Meeting at Extension Bureau Office, So. Agronomy, Livestock, and Extension. Gondar, meet with Extension Specialists. Persons met included: Amsanu Demissie, Discuss the following programs: Aynalem Gezahegn, Getachew Afework, Agronomy, Forestry, Credit, Extension Mebratie Ayalew, Seyoum Mezgebou, Communication, Horticulture, Irrigation, Tadesse Amsalu, Beamlaku Asres. Agroforestry, Natural Resource Management, and Watershed Jan. 23, 2000 (Sunday) management and Livestock production. Staff met included: Kokeb Bogale, Team travels by car from Bahir Dar to S. Mulugeta Geletew, Adlew Teshale, and Gondar Area Belay Tsega.

Jan. 24, 2000 (Monday) Jan. 25, 2000 (Tuesday)

9:30-11:30 AM 10:50 AM Visit farms in Village of Saly, So. Gondar, Visit Research Field site for Sirinka about 3,000 m elevation. wheat, teff, Research Center at Kone Village, Wadla livestock, Met demonstration farmer, Mr. Wareda, Wello, 2,800 m elevation. Wheat Anley Wassie, and neighboring sites with and barley screening and adaptive trials. a Woreda Level Administrator (Extension Also pulse and potato trials. Expert Mr. Desalegne Berhane) and with a development agent, Mr. Abebe Lakew. 11:30 AM Team divided into three groups for Visit Extension Office Site, Wadla surveys of 1) natural resources/erosion; Woreda. 2) cropping systems; and 3) household Meet with Extension Experts to discuss members. the following programs: Soil and water conservation, forestry, vegetable/horticul- 12:30 PM ture crops, livestock, irrigation, agronomy, Team stopped at Arb Gebeya, Tach watersheds, communication, and Gayint Woreda Capital, to visit the Friday research/extension linkage. Persons met Market. included: Ato Tadesse, Head of Wadla Woreda Development Office. Taderse Getahun, Agric. Development Officer,

45 Solomon B/Meskef, Bureau of Sirinka Agricultural Research Center Agriculture, and Belihu Mekonnen, Soil (SARC). Evaluation of 15 tree species for and Water Dept. high elevation adaptation. 3,000 m elevation. Jan. 26, 2000 (Wednesday) 10:00-10:20 AM 10:00 AM Estayish Field Test Center, 3,000 m Woleh Irrigation Project. With Mr. Kindu elevation. Team visits field test site for Makonen, SARC, discuss watershed barley, sheep & livestock (horse, cattle) management in Woleh Area, about 15 production. Will test garlic and potato, but Km south of Sekota, a 550 Ha elevation is too high for wheat watershed. Crops discussed included production. teff, barley, wheat, faba (horse) bean, field pea, Lathyrus, livestock including 11:45-12:00 AM goat skin disease problems, and Sanka. Visit of diversified crop farm site. diversified crops (carrot, cabbage, Irrigated onions, castor beans, onions, tomato, papaya, onions), grown around faba bean, coffee, gesho, and Olea river banks . africana tree..

12:00-1:45 PM 3:00-4:30 PM Meet with Extension Experts at Sekota Visit Sirinka Agricultural Research Center Irrigation Project, 2050 m elevation. (SARC), Sirinka, Welo, 1850 m elevation. Discuss the following programs: Meet with Kindu Makonnen (Officer in Extension, Natural Resource charge) and Center Researchers. Management, Irrigation, Planning, Agronomy, Pest Control, Horticulture, 6:00-7:00 PM Livestock, and Forestry. Staff met Visit Lenche Dima Watershed site near included: Solomon Melaku, Zonal Hara town, Gubalaftu Woreda in No. Coordinator; Asfaw Teferi, Extension; Welo Zone. Watershed is 1,500 Ha in Worku Indale, Agronomy; and Berhanu size. Major crops are sorghum, livestock, Teshager, Extension. teff, chickpea. Programs discussed included livestock (diseases), pests and Visit dam Irrigation Project in Sekota, and weeds, soil fertility/erosion, and other visit with one of target farmers. Crops: natural resources. barley, wheat, sesame, sorghum, tef, safflower; and under irrigation: corn, Jan. 28, 2000 ( Friday) potato and onion. Sorghum is dominant in the whole zone, but wheat and barley 2:30-4:30 PM predominate in this particular area. Visit the So. Welo Zonal Bureau of Agriculture Headquarters in Dessie. Meet Jan. 27, 2000 (Thursday) with Administrator and Extension Specialists. Programs discussed included 9:15 AM Livestock; Beekeeping; Land Visit Forestry Research Site at Boya Management; Food Science; Soil Elementary School Grounds, with Mr. Development; Plant Nutrition; Agricultural Kindu Makonnen, Officer in Charge of Economics, Watershed Management,

46 Integrated Pest Management (IPM), and Woreda Ag Council; Woreda Council Extension Communication. Persons met Member, Woreda BOA Extension Head; included: Yosef Tsegaye, Food Security Supervisor of the Bureau of Agriculture; Office, Dessie; Asres Kebede, Extension and with Extension Experts to discuss & Acting Head of Zonal Bureau of local food security programs. Discuss Agriculture, Kiros Tarekegn- Crop the following programs: Crop Protection, Protection; Hassan Mohammed, and Horticulture, Agronomy, Natural Resource Tigneh Damtew. Conservation, forestry, livestock, and soil fertility. Programs discussed with the 5:20- 6:30 PM Administrator of the Sheno Research Visit the Combolcha Plant Health Clinic. Station included: Crop breeding, livestock Serves 5 zones in East ANRS. Discuss breeding, crop protection, Horticulture, the following programs: rodents, water and soil management, animal entomology, storage pests, weeds, plant feeds, agric. economics, and research diseases, pesticide application, training and extension links. programs for staff from sister ANRS institutions, Integrated Pest Management, Staff met included: Shimelis Tibebu- and national/international linkages. Staff Head of Woreda Bureau of Agriculture; met included: Ato Indale, Head of the Tafesse Kassa, Zonal Food Security Combolcha Plant Health Clinic (CPHC), Officer; Yirdaw Alemu; Demissie Degifie; and Ato Yitbarek, Entomologist. Adamu Mola, Officer in Charge of Sheno Research Center; Alemayehu Bihonegn, Jan. 29, 2000 (Saturday) BOA Supervisor; and Kassahun Abate, Forestry. 9:00-10:00 AM Visit Employment Generation Scheme- 11:10-11:45 AM Soil Conservation Food Security program Visit on-farm sheep breeding research site near Combolcha, Adida Kebele, So. site conducted by Sheno Research Welo (South of Dessie). Meet with Zonal station livestock researchers, No. Shoa Food Security officer, with participating Region. farmers, and with chairman of the local Peasant Association. 12:00-1:30 PM Visit the Amed Guya Sheep Breeding 10:30-11:00 AM Center, No. Shoa. 2,900 m elevation. Visit with part-time bee-keeper farmer (an Discuss the breeding program and the off-farm income generating activity) on gene preservation of local indigenous Road to Robit. germplasm.

Jan. 30, 2000 (Sunday) 5:45-7:00 PM Visit the Sheno Research Station 9:00-10:30 AM facilities with the Center Administrator Mehal Meda, No. Shoa Region, ca. 2,800 and Researchers. Visit the following labs: m elevation. Visit the Woreda Bureau of Agronomy/Plant Physiology, Plant Agriculture at Mehal Meda. Meet with Pathology, Soil Chemistry Lab, and following personnel: Sheno Research Cereal Breeding. Station Administrator; Head of the local

47 7-9:30 PM Head of ANRS IFSU, to MEDAC, and to Team travels by car from Sheno Kurt Rochman, Dennis Panther, Karl Research Station to ILRI headquarters, Schwartz, Tadelle Gebreselassie, Kindu Addis Ababa. Mekonen, and other staff.

January 31 to February 9 February 10 & 11

Preparation of 1st draft of report Revisions to 1st draft of report upon preliminary feedback and 1st draft February 3 (Thursday) submission

2:00-4:00 PM Team presentation of 1st draft of report by Dr. Uehara to Yohanes Mekonen,

48 12.3 ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONS CONTACTED

Household Members First name Last Name Position/Comments Gelaw Wale Adopter Farmer, So. Gondar Anley Wassie Demonstration Farmer, So. Gondar

ANRS Adet Research Center, North Gojam First name Last Name Position/Comments Henok Gebre Selassie Soil Chemistry Dept. Mulugeta Alemayehu Livestock Dept. Ayalew Kebede Research/Extension Dept. Melkamu Ayalew Plant Pathology Aklilu Agdie Socio-economics Yigzaw Horticulture

ANRS Agriculture Research Ctr., Sheno First name Last Name Position/Comments Adamu Mola Officer in Charge, Sheno

ANRS Sirinka Agriculture Research Center First name Last Name Position/Comments Kindu Makonen Officer in Charge Solomon Benor Sorghum Breeder, SARC Wondimu Bayu Agronomist, Sorghum, SARC

ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, Bahir Dar, So. Gondar First name Last Name Position/Comments Amlaku Asres Deputy Director Tadesse Amsalu Research Coordinator Desalegn Berhane Woreda Level Administrator, Extension Expert Abebe Lakew Development Agent Maereg Abegaz Development Agent, Tach Gayint Woreda Amsalu Demissie Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters Aynalem Gezahegn Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters Getachew Afework Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters Mebratie Ayalew Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters Seyoum Mezgebou Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters Tadesse Amsalu Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters Beamlaku Asres Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters

ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, No. Shoa First name Last Name Position/Comments Shimelis Tibebu Head of Woreda, Bureau of Agriculture Yirdaw Alemu Staff Demissie Degifie Staff

49 Alemayehu Bihonegn Supervisor, No. Shoa Kassahun Abate Forestry

ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, Sekota, Woleh First name Last Name Position/Comments Solomon Melaku Zonal Coordinator Asfaw Teferi Extension Expert Worku Indale Agronomy Department Berhanu Teshager Extension Expert

ANRS Zonal Bureau of Agriculture, So. Welo First name Last Name Position/Comments Asres Kebede Extension & Acting Head of Zonal BOA Kiros Tarekegn Crop Protection Extension Expert Hassan Mohammed Staff Tigneh Damtew Staff

ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, Walo Area First name Last Name Position/Comments Tadesse Getahun Agric. Dev. Officer Tadesse Head of Wadla Woreda Dev. Office Solomon B. Meskef Staff, BOA Belihu Mekonnen Soil and Water Department

ANRS Extension Bureau Office, So. Gondar First name Last Name Position/Comments Kokeb Bogale Extension Expert, So. Gondar Mulugeta Geletew Extension Expert, So. Gondar Adlew Teshale Extension Expert, So. Gondar Belay Tsega Extension Expert, So. Gondar

CIMMYT (Centro Internacional para el Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo) POB 5689, Addis Ababa E-Mail: [email protected] First name Last Name Position/Comments Thomas S Payne Regional Wheat breeder/pathologist Douglas Tanner Agronomist, Eastern Africa

Combolcha Plant Health Clinic (CPHC) First name Last Name Position/Comments Indale Head of the CPHC Yitbarek W. Hawariat Entomologist, CPHC

50 Ethiopian Agriculture Research Organization (EARO) Headquarters, Addis Ababa E-mail: [email protected] First name Last Name Position/Comments Demel Teketay Director of Forestry Research Teklu Tesfaye Research Extension Link Director Tesfaye Zegeye Socio economics Dept. Director Seifu Ketema Director General, EARO Abera Debelo Deputy Dir. General, EARO Kidane Georgis Dryland Crops Research Director

Embassy of Sweden/SIDA Project POB 1142, Addis Ababa E-mail: [email protected] First name Last Name Position/Comments Lars Leander First Secretary John Holmberg Ambassador and VP of Board of CIMMYT

Food Security Office ANRS First name Last Name Position/Comments Yohanes Mekonen Head, Amhara Reg. IFSU Zelalem Bayou Staff, Amhara Reg. IFSU Yosef Tsegaye Food Security Office, Dessie Tafesse Kassa Zonal Food Security Officer, No. Shoa

International Livestock and Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa POB 5689, Addis Ababa E-mail: [email protected] First name Last Name Position/Comments Hugo Li Pun Resident Director Azage Tegegne Animal Scientist Samuel Benin Livestock Agr. economist Mohamed M.Ahmed Livestock Agr. economist Abebe Misgina Research Technologist Zelekawork Paulos Research Assistant Simeon Ehui Coordinator, Livestock Policy Analysis Project Garth Holloway Livestock Policy Analysis Project

51 12.4 LITERATURE REVIEWED proposal of the BASIS CRSP and Institute for Development Research Amare, Y., Y. Adal, D. Tolossa, P. Castro, (IDR), Addis Ababa University. 1999, P. Little. Undated. Preliminary findings October. 10 pp. from the community assessments in South Wello and Oromiya Zones of ______. Undated. Highlights on the Amhara Region, Ethiopia. 41 pp. study to launch pilot implementation of the national agricultural information Anonymous. Dryland agriculture research system. 28 pp. strategic plan. 1999. Ethiopian Agr. Research Organization. June 1999, 86 ______. FEWS Bulletin (various). pp. FEWS Project, ARD, Inc. Various.

______. Bilateral and multilateral ______. 1996. Lost crops of Africa vol. donors’ profile. 1998. Amhara Nat. 1: Grains. National Academy Press. Regional State Bureau of Planning and 1996. 383 pp. ISBN 0-309-04990-3. Econ. Development, Social Dev. Planning Dept, Bahir Dar. 1998 July. 133 pp. ______. 1996. Background information on the natural resources and agriculture ______. SIDA support to the Amhara of the Amhara National Regional State. National Regional State, 1996. Program 12 pp. Document (Final Revised). ANRS/Sida Cooperation in Rural Development, Bahr ______. 1996. Pastoral and agro- Dar. 1996 Nov. 30. 179 pp. pastoral research strategic plan. Ethiopian Agricultural Research ______. 1998. Institutionalization of Organization - Dryland Agricultural farmers participatory research in the Research. 1999, November. 67 pp. southern nations, nationalities and peoples regional state: Project proposal ______. Undated. Joint post graduate submitted to EC-Food Aid and Food program in tropical veterinary Security Programme. FARM Africa, epidemiology (brochure). Addis Ababa Addis Ababa. 1998 Sept. 37 pp. University (Ethiopia) Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Freie Universitat Berlin ______. 1999. Characteristics of Sites (Germany) Faculty of Veterinary Science. in Ethiopia & Eritrea (wheat 10 pp. agroecological zones). CIMMYT GIS CD- Rom program. 1999. 3 pp. ______. 1999. Ethiopian research - extension - farmer linkages strategy, ______. 1999 Annual Report: Volume I. The Federal Democratic INTSORMIL, Sorghum/Millet CSRP. Republic of Ethiopia Agricultural INTSORMIL Pub. 99-6. 1999. 194 pp. Research and Training Project. 1999, February. 35 pp. ______. 1999. Case studies on factor market constraints in the context of ______. 1999. Amhara National regional food security and income growth Regional State (Region 3) January 1999 in the Amhara Region (3), Ethiopia (a - July 2001. Integrated food security

52 program. Amhara National Regional Economic Development Bureau. Bahir State Proposal to the European Dar. June 1999. 118 pp. Commission. 36 pp. Badiane O. And C.L. Delgado (eds.). A ______. 1998. Special report - 2020 vision for food, agriculture, and the FAO/WFP Crop and food supply environment in Sub-Saharan Africa. assessment mission to Ethiopia. Global International Food Policy Research Information and Early Warning System Institute, Discussion Paper 4 (Food Ag on Food and Agriculture - World Food and the Environment). Jun-95. 56 pp. Programme. 1998, December 21. 28 pp. Belachew, M. and E. Frank. 1999. Trip ______. 1997. Market analysis note #2, report - Discussions with women farmers The response of Ethiopian cereal in four selected watersheds of Amhara markets to liberalization. Grain Market Region, September 18 - 25, 1999. U.S. Research Project, Min. of Econ. Dev. and Agency for International Development. Coop. 1997, January. 6 pp. 1999, Sept. 13 pp.

______. 1997. Market analysis note #3, Buresh, R.J., P.A. Sanchez, and F. The deregulation of fertilizer prices: Calhoun. 1997. Replenishing soil fertility Impacts and policy implications. Grain in Africa. Soil Science Soc. America. Market Research Project, Min. of Econ. 1997. 251 pp. ISBN 0-89118-829-0. Dev. and Coop. 1997, January. 7 pp. CEDEP-Consultants. 1999. Agricultural ______. 1997. Market analysis note #4, Research Master Plan, Vol. 1, Main Meeting food aid and price support Report (Final). Amhara National Regional objectives through local grain purchase: State. 1999 Sept. 146 pp. A review of the 1996 experience in Ethiopia. Grain Market Research Project, Delgado, C.L. 1995. Africa’s changing Min. of Econ. Dev. and Coop. 1997, agricultural development strategies: Past March. 6 pp. and present paradigms as a guide to the future. International Food Policy ______. 1998. Market analysis note #5, Research Institute, Discussion Paper 3 Revisiting grain movement control and (Food Ag and the Environment). Jun-95. taxation in Ethiopia: A policy brief. Grain 25 pp. Market Research Project, Min. of Econ. Dev. and Coop. 1998, January. 7 pp. Donovan, G. and Casey, F. 1998. Soil fertility management in Sub-Saharan ______. 1998. Market analysis note #6, Africa, World Bank Technical Paper No Food aid targeting in Ethiopia: A study of 408. 1998. 60 pp. ISBN 0-8213-4236-3. household food insecurity and food aid distributions. Grain Market Research Dvorsky, J. R., J. Verdin, and G. Artan. Project, Min. of Econ. Dev. and Coop. 1999. Flood risk monitoring in the 1998, March. 6 pp. Greater Horn of Africa using daily rainfall estimates and a distributed parameter ______. 1999. Atlas of the Amhara soil water balance model. Am. Geophy. National Region. Ethiopia Planning and Union, 19th Annual Hydrology Days, 16-

53 20 Aug, 1999. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Inst. Agr. Research. 1998. 37 pp. ISBN Collins, Co. 970-648-022-6.

EARO. 1999. Annual Report 1997/98. Howard, J., V. Kelly, M. Maredia, J. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Stepanek, E.W. Crawford. 1999. Organization. 96 pages. ISSN 1016- Progress and problems in promoting high 7897. external-input technologies in Sub- Saharan Africa: The Sasakawa Global Frank, E. 1999. Gender, agricultural 2000 Experience in Ethiopia and development and food security in Mozambique. Dept. Ag Economics, Amhara, Ethiopia: The contested identity Michigan State Univ. Staff Paper No. 99- of women farmers in Ethiopia. U.S. 24. 1999 June. 14 pp. Agency for International Development. 1999, Sept. 20 pp. Howard, J., M. Demeke, V. Kelly, M. Maredia, and J. Sepanek. 1998. Can the Franzel, S. And H. Van Houten. 1992. momentum be sustained? An economic Research with farmers: Lessons from analysis of the Ministry of Ethiopia. CAB International. 1992. 303 Agriculture/Sasakawa Global 2000’s pp. ISBN 0-85198-814-8. experiment with improved cereals technology in Ethiopia. Grain Marketing Gemebo, T. D. 1999. Report on the Research Project/Michigan State assessment of nutritional problems and University, Sasakawa Global 2000, Min. identification of potential interventions in of Agric. Dept. of Ext. and Coops., Amhara National Regional State. U.S. Ethiopian Ag. Res. Org. 1998, Agency for International Development. September. 43 pp. 1999, December 2. 113 pp. Institute of Agricultural Research. 1997. Gizaw, S., K. Mekonnen, and L. Desta Annual Report 1996/97. Institute of (eds.) 1999. Lenche Dima integrated Agricultural Research. 1997. 73 pp. ISBN watershed development project feasibility 1016-7897. study report. Amhara National Regional State. 1999, May 24. 88 pp. Institute of Agricultural Research. 1999. Annual Report 1997/98. Institute of Hailu Regassa, A.K.S. Huda, S.M. Agricultural Research. 1999. 96 pp. ISBN Virmani. 1987. Agroclimatic data 1016-7897. analysis of selected locations in deep black clay soils (vertisols) regions of Institute of Agricultural Research. 1997. Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Annual Report 1995/96. Institute of Research,, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Agricultural Research. 1997. 80 pp. ISBN ICRISAT, Patancheru, A.P. (India). 143 1016-7897. pp. Institute of Agricultural Research. 1996. Hailye, A., H. Verkuijl, W. Mwangi and A. Annual Report 1994. Institute of Yallew. 1998. Farmers’ wheat seed Agricultural Research. 1996. 74 pp. ISBN sources and seed management in the 1016-7897. Enebssie Area, Ethiopia. CIMMYT and

54 Jayne, T.S. and D. Molla. 1995. Working Ransom, J.K., A.F.E. Palmer, B.T. paper #2. Grain Market Research Zambezi, Z.O. Mduruma, S.R. Project, Min. of Econ. Dev. and Coop. Waddington, K.V. Pixley, and D.C. Jewell 1995, September. 34 pp. (eds.) 1997. Maize productivity gains through research and technology Jutzie, S.C., I. Haque, J. McIntire, and dissemination: Proc. 5th Eastern and J.E.S. Stares (eds.) 1988. Management Southern Africa regional Maize Conf, of vertisols in sub-Saharan Africa. ILCA, held in Arusha, Tanzania, 3-7 June 1996. Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 435 pp. CIMMYT. 1997. 244 pp. ISBN 92-9146- 025-7. Mekonnen, K., S. Gizaw, and L. Desta (eds.) 1999. Yeku integrated watershed Rahmato, D., A. Mengistu, I. Christoplos, development project feasibility study and N.I. Isaksson. 1999. The ANRS/Sida report. Amhara National Regional State. Co-operation in rural development 1999, May 24. 81 pp. programme, Sept. 25-Oct. 23, 1999: Report of the 1999 Sida Technical Kidane Georgis, K. Undated. Supervising Team. SIDA. 1999 Oct. 82 Agronomic technologies for sustaining pp. crop production in the dryland areas of Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Tanner, D.G., T.S. Payne, and O.S. Research. 43 pp. Abdalla (eds.) 1996. The ninth regional wheat workshop for Eastern, Central and Middlebrook, P. Undated. Project Southern Africa, Addis Ababa, Oct. 2-6, summary and main conclusions - 1. 1995. CIMMYT/CIDA. 1996. 536 pp. Promotional Employment Generation ISBN 92-9146-007-9. Scheme (PEGS) - Amhara National Regional State. 74 pp. WMO. 1974. Agroclimatology of the Highlands of Eastern Africa. Proc., Tech. Molla, D., H. Gebre, T.S. Jayne, J. Conf, Nairobi, 1-5 Oct, 1973. WMO-No Shaffer. 1995. Working paper 389. Geneva, Switzerland. #4Designing strategies to support a transformation of agriculture in Ethiopia. Wagnew Ayalneh, A.K.S. Huda, S.M. Grain Market Research Project, Min. of Virmani. 1987. Analysis of agroclimatic Econ. Dev. and Coop. 1995, September. data of ILCA stations (Shola, Bebre- 26 pp. Berhan, Debre Zeit)) Intern. Livestock Center for Africa, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Murphy, H.F. 1968. A report on the fertility ICRISAT, Patancheru, A.P. (India). 95 pp. status and other data on some soils of Ethiopia, Exp. Sta. Bull. 44. College of Westphal, E. and J.M.C. Westphal- Agric., Haile Sellassie I Univ., P.O. Box Stevels. 1975. Agricultural systems in 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. 1968. 3 pp. Ethiopia. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation. 1975. Ofcansky, T.P. and L. Berry (eds.) 1991. 278 pp. ISBN 90-220-0556-9. Ethiopia - A country study. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. 1991. 310 pp.

55 12.5 ACRONYMS

ANRS Amhara National Regional State ARC Agricultural Research Center AVRDC Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center BOA Amhara Region Bureau of Agriculture BS Bachelor of Science 4-year undergraduate University Degree CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CIP Centro Internacional de la Papa CRSP Collaborative Research Support Program CV Coefficient of Variation DA Development Agent (ANRS Bureau of Agriculture) DVM Doctoral of Veterinary Medicine EARO Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization FEWS Famine Early Warning System GIS Geographical Information System IAR Institute of Agricultural Research IARCs International Agricultural Research Centers ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas ICRAF International Center for Research on Agroforestry ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semiarid Tropics ILRI International Livestock Research Institute MS Master of Science NGO Non-Governmental Organization PA Peasant Association PhD Doctor of Philosophy RELC Research and Extension Liaison Committee SIDA Swedish International Development Agency SMS Subject Matter Specialist(s) USAID U.S. Agency for International Development

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