Feminist Theories in the Sociology of Religion1

АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 17 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

УДК 316.2

CVITKOVIĆ I. ЦВИТКОВИЧ И.

FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION1

ФЕМИНИСТСКИЕ ТЕОРИИ В СОЦИОЛОГИИ РЕЛИГИИ

Abstract Аннотация

Sociology could not be bypassed by Социология не может не подвергаться the impact of feminist theories. Women’s влиянию феминистских теорий. Населе- population in religions. The increase of ние женщин в религии. Увеличение ин- interest in women’s religiousness on areas тереса к религиозности женщин в облас- of ex Yugoslavia. Why have women been тях, являющихся бывшими территориями ignored and marginalised by the society and Югославии. Почему женщины игнориро- the Church? What are feminist theories? Two вались и маргинализировались общест- kinds of feminist theories. Anthropocentrism. вом и Церковью? Что собой представ- An attitude of traditionalists to feminism. ляют феминистские теории? Два вида A woman in written religious sources. феминистских теорий. Антропоцентризм. How much has the stand view on the Отношение традиционалистов к феми- period influenced the position of women in низму. Женщина в письменных религиоз- religions? A woman in traditions of the Asian ных источниках. На сколько устоявшиеся and Far East religions. A woman in the взгляды определенного периода повлия- Abraham’s religions (Judaism, Christianity, ли на положение женщин в религии? Жен- Islam). When do feminist theories appear? щина в традициях азиатских и дальнево- Gender studies. Feminist theories in different сточных религий. Женщина в религиях religious traditions. What is required in Авраама (иудаизм, христианство, ислам). feminist theories? The position of a woman Когда появляются феминистской теории? in society and culture. A woman in the role of Гендерные исследования. Феминистской the religious leader. Feminist theology. The теории в различных религиозных тради- critics of feminist theories. циях. Что необходимо в феминистских те- Keywords: sociology; religion; woman; ориях? Положение женщины в обществе women’s religiousness; feminist theory; и культуре. Женщина в роли религиозного religious leader лидера. Феминистская теология. Критики феминистских теорий. Ключевые слова: социология; рели- гия; женщина; женская религиозность; фе- министская теория; религиозный лидер. 1 An extract from more comprehensive, unpublished manuscript. 18 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «социология управления» Н ТАТ

If a theory of secularisation had been a by [6, 154]. «Is the Church a woman or mi- «hit» topic in the Sociology of religion in the sogynist» – it is also a dilemma of [7, 45]? Or seventies of the last century, then feminist is it both? Is there any point and need to talk theories were surely such «hits» in the end about it? of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st Why do women make more than a half century. Naturally, we are interested in the of the interviewees of different religions? Is field of social sciences, more precisely, of the it perhaps a result of their unequal social po- sociology of religion. It is evident that neither sition (especially in traditional communities) the sociology of religion nor religious studies and religions and religious communities have could be bypassed by the impact of feminist offered them almost the only kind of some theories. Equally, nowadays, it is impossible participation in public life (like work in char- bypassing feminist perspectives in studying ity associations, missionary activities etc.)? religions. Therefore, the issue of their position and role Until the end of the 20th century, discus- in religious teachings and practice has its so- sions in the sociology of religion were reduced ciological (and not only that) rationale. There to how women were more religious than is a search for the answer to the issue of why men. Sociological researches were showing women are ignored and depreciated – start- a higher level of religious beliefs amongst ing from society to the Church. women and their higher participation in the Proponents of feminist theories ask: why religious practice. Even in the beginning of women participate that much in activities of the 21st century, there was repeatedly men- religious communities led by men. And not tioned in the sociological references that only that: it is about belief in male God. And, women are more religious than men accord- male leadership leads them not only in re- ing to many indicators of religiousness and in ligious communities but also in and out of different types of religious communities [1]. their families. An objection can be heard that It is estimated in the Adventist Church that not only religious communities are patriar- there are app. 70% of women followers of chal but also the sociology of religion itself that Church. – more men deals with it than women. Is it Even though men dominate in religious in which an explanation could be sought for leaderships, women still make the majority of that only at the end of the 20th and beginning population in all the world’s religions. They of the 21st century, the sociology of religion even make the absolute majority in some has been paying more attention to genuine newer religious groups and movements. It studying of the relation of women and the re- goes without saying that forms of women’s ligion? Within that, there were also feminist participation in religions are different. Women theories. are started to be attracted also by theologi- What are feminist theories? Those that cal studies. That trend can also be noticed are not that much informed consider that in areas of ex-Yugoslavia where there are feminist theories are some anti-male theories more and more women enrolling the studies directed against men, families (especially of theology (women make 30% of students of those traditional ones), that the theories are some theological faculties). those through which western values are in- At the beginning of the 21st century, an in- tended to be imposed to the rest of the world terest in research of women’s religiousness in the time of the globalisation and various have also increased in the area of ex-Yugo- modern means of communication. Those slavia [2; 3; 4; 5 etc.]. A topic – religions and that consider the above should be instantly women. Or, «the women’s issue» in religions. said that it is about an inter-disciplinary ap- «Are all religions misogynous?» – it is asked proach to the position and role of women in АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 19 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

society (writers, artists, sociologists, politi- as Catholics during the census (e.g. there cal scientists, theologians, anthropologists, were more men even amongst those with economists). According to some opinions, a «no religion» status). feminist theory was conceived in the field of There are conflicts between «tradition- literature (it promote women’s literature and alists» and «modernists» in many religious women’s culture). Therefore, feminist theo- groups about the issue of position, role and ries deal with the position of women in so- possibilities of women, not only in the re- ciety, culture, religion, production etc. Those ligious community but also in society. Tra- theories are against neither men nor religion, ditionalists think that the idea of equality of but against their interpretations and practic- men and women in religions is too secular es that bring women into unequal position and ideological and that it «violates» diver- compared to men. sity given by God. That attitude is hard to be There are two kinds of feminist theories: accepted by a sociologist, but perhaps not a) liberal ones, those that put emphasis on that hard for theologians who are tradition- individual rights b) radical ones, with em- alists. From the sociological point of view, it phasis on social solidarity. Gyno-centrism is important also to perceive to which extent (gyno – woman and centron – centre) can the social position of women has made influ- be posted somewhere within radical feminist ence on women’s status in the religious com- theories or woman-centrism that wishes to munity and vice versa – to which extent the perform the revitalisation of suppressed fem- religious community has made impact on the ininity. It would be said that it goes beyond society and the women’s position in it. the policy of gender equality. Is it because of stimulating the birth rate, It was indicated that feminist theories are in a wish to have births delivered to as many not anti-religious and anti-male theories but new believers as possible, that it has come to they are pointed against anthropocentrism, the degradation of women, their being turned male monopoly over priestly vocations and exclusively into mothers and house wives? A interpretations of religious teachings, which woman was excluded from the political pow- excludes women from that process. Anthro- er and social influence. Nevertheless, it is pocentrism reduces women to consumers, needed to have understanding for concerns customers of the religious culture. It per- of Jewish and Christian communities, espe- vades almost all aspects of the religious cul- cially in Europe and USA, for the fall of their ture, in particular in some Christian courses birth rate. Rabbi Shmuley Boteach writes that (story about Adam and Eve, Paul’s attitudes «The birth rate amongst Jews is on a such a to women, a myth on original sin and expul- low rate today that studies foresee that by sion from heaven etc.). All that has impacted 2030, the world’s Jewish population will be on a subordinate role of women not only in reduced from today’s 14 million to five or six the Church but also in society. millions of souls» [8, 168]. According to the gender structure of A woman in religious sources: Male sa- those that go to churches, it seemed in the credness (embodied through male supernat- 20th century that men walked out of church- ural beings) is common phenomenon in many es, leaving them to women. It is for sure that religions. Prophets and oracles of Abraham’s even today, clericalisation and excessive in- religions are men. Gods, not Goddesses, are stitutionalisation bring (especially young peo- connected to the creation of earth, restoring ple) away from the Church. However, there moral principles (Indra and Vishnu in Hindu- are examples different than the above. For ism, Olorun in the Yoruba, many tribal Gods). instance, there were more men than women There are men behind many of sacred scripts in Brasil (in 2010) that declared themselves and their expounding. 20 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «социология управления» Н ТАТ

There are many female deities in polythe- sexually impure during the entire time of their istic religions and some of those, like God- period, which is at least for seven days. How- dess Amaterasu in Shintoism, are at the very ever, there are some religions that used to top of the deities’ pyramid. Women’s holiness preach that only seven days after the ces- is especially emphasised in oriental social sation of women’s period, women can be cultures and religions. They contain referenc- considered pure. Arabs considered Tuesday es to «Mother of Nature», «Mother of Earth». as the day of blood. On that day, Hawwah/ In some cases, that worship is connected to Eve had gotten the first period. There are an- the virgin purity, motherhood (in Hinduism, cient customs saying that it is not good when Christianity), in other cases, it is connected a woman touches many things during her with the national identity (Goddess Kannagi, period. Australian women were forbidden to the symbol of the Tamil’s national identity). touch anything that is used by men and to There are similarities that can also be found walk the same way that men did. Pots that a in Christianity in which there is a cult of Moth- woman touched during her period used to be er of God and Virgin Mary, as the national destroyed in Uganda [9, 263]. protectress. «Ave Maria, the Queen of Cro- Written religious scripts contain a ban to ats» is the song dedicated to the Virgin Mary get close to a woman while she is having her that is known amongst Croats-Catholics. period i.e. while she is impure. And not only However, many religious traditions have that. Women are considered impure for ritual been misogynous for a long time. Those tra- acts exactly because of their period or a birth ditions were pointed at the role of women in delivery in many religious teachings. The family duties and rituals, and much less or presence of blood is what makes a woman even not at all at their search for religious vo- impure. The Old Testament does not only cations and spiritual perfections. It is enough say about «impurity» of women (when they to have a look at the theological literature that have their period) but also about the «impuri- has been printed by religious communities to ty» of men when they ejaculate. It is just that see the marginalisation, almost excommuni- this kind of impurity of men does not have cation of authoresses. any consequences for their status in a group. It goes without saying that the attitude Sikh guru Nanak asked those that consid- towards a woman as well as to her position er women impure and incapable of undertak- and the role in a religious community is not ing religious rituals why they negate women the same in each of religions and religious when great people and kingdoms originate communities. However, what is almost the from women. Why to negate a woman that same for al «traditional» religions and re- delivered our birth, to which we married, a ligious communities is the following stand woman who is our companion and a sym- view: the family is fundamental cell. There- bol of eternity of the human kind? Women fore, it is with no surprise that those religions in Sikhism take part in all religious activities. have directed women to performing their role Since their early years, women have been in the family (the status of a wife and a moth- taught that there are no differences between er). men and women (nevertheless, they are still Feminist theories place a question be- separated in a temple!). A Sikh will not touch fore sociologists: is a period crucial for ex- a woman in greeting her unless they are planation of women’s differences in living close relatives. Kisses are never shared in religions? Does it exclude women from ritu- an encounter on a public place. al activities and sacred space (sometimes it A woman is «sentenced» to isolation once also separates them from the family)? Ma- a month, during her period, also in Hinduism jority of religions considered that women are that equals women and men. In particular, it АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 21 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

is considered that it is a sin if a woman cooks, were many social and even legal limitations clear and enters a room where there is a for women: life in a house, a widow with, in sanctuary of the home during first four to five principle, no more marriages, low education- days of her period. That is why she can nev- al level of women etc. As soon as a woman er perform duties of a priest or a leader of the gets married in Hinduism, she is fully devot- religious community. However, on the other ed to the life of her husband. It is expected hand, Hinduism points at the importance of that she puts her husband’s needs before Goddesses: there are many temples built up hers. Hinduism teaches that a woman has in honour of Goddesses (so, a woman can to be always subordinated to the man – it be Goddess but cannot be the religious com- is her father in her childhood, her husband munity’s leader!), and not of Gods. in her maturity whom she always needs to It is said that a woman is «impure» (the treat as God, her sons in her elderly years. ban of taking part in rituals), it can be said Men (Brahmin) always used to be preach- sinful, after she delivers a birth. Does it mean ers of sacred scripts in Hinduism. Women that the delivery of birth is «impure», sinful are forbidden to know the Vedas or to teach as well? According to the feminist theory, the Sanskrit. Due to the fact that Hinduism was stated attitudes toward the period and deliv- more practised at home than in a temple, it ery of birth encourage gender inequalities determines more positive status of a woman in religious communities. Feminists point at in that domain. Nevertheless, a bonfire with a when a woman exudes blood is considered dead body is always set on fire by the oldest impure, while when men do the same (spill- son or a male relative by the side line of next ing Jesus’ blood or when undertaking circum- to kin. cision), it is considered differently (a symbol Traditional Hinduism underlines that par- of unifying, making the union with God). ents choose to whom they will marry their A woman in traditions of the Asian and daughter and which girl their son will get Far East religions: Hinduism is a living re- married. It can happen that bride and groom ligion with the most of the Goddesses. For meet for the first time on their wedding (that instance, Saraswati is patron Goddess of is from where the Hindu’s proverb comes: I knowledge which is particularly respected by did not marry a woman i love, but i love a students and teachers. Even nowadays, Hin- woman i got married). Parents practised to dus and Buddhists in Nepal pay respect to give their daughters who were minors, some- the chosen girl from the Buddhist family as a times even little girls, to marriage. «living Goddess». They consider her as a re- Incineration of widows has been practised incarnation of the powerful Goddess Kālī that in Hinduism for a long time. So, a woman is respected by both Hindus and Buddhists. used to give to her husband not only her love She withdraws herself from the position of but also her life by genuinely burning herself the «living Goddess» at the time of her first at the bonfire next to the body of her dead period. It can be read in Bhagavad Gita [10, husband (there was no the other way around 34] «Among women I am fame, fortune, fine practice i.e. to have a live husband burn him- speech, memory, intelligence, steadfastness self next to the body of her dead wife). That and patience». If a woman possesses each custom of genuine burning of widows was of the above mentioned features, then she is forbidden in 1829 but even after that, it was glorified. sporadically been practised. It goes without saying that worshipping For certain time, it was believed that a Goddesses does not necessarily mean that woman cannot achieve Nirvana. To achieve women in the tradition of Hinduism used to Nirvana, she should have first been born as have the same social status like men. There a man. 22 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «социология управления» Н ТАТ

Still, in order not to be unfair towards Hin- the act of delivery of birth is rejected. duism, it should be mentioned that women Amongst Sikhs, men and women can have a better position in Hinduism than in read Adi Gran'th freely and recite holy verses many other living religions. We can find yoni in their families or in public rituals and they which is a symbol of female genital organ in can also lead rituals within their communi- temples of Hinduism. That symbol has been ty. However, there are rituals led exclusively worshipped more than a male genital organ by men (those related to memorials of births (linga) for a long time. Not only that women and death of guru, rituals of transition). in Hinduism visit temples but they also take Jain course that practices nudity consid- part in religious rituals as dancers and sing- ers that a woman cannot be naked when in ers. There it can be seen that Goddesses move because of her inborn impurity and are still worshipped (especially in regions in physical characteristics and that she cannot which agriculture and rice farming are devel- achieve salvation before she is born as a oped). It most often refers to the Goddesses man in her another life. However, there are of fertility. some groups amongst Jains that consider Buddhism has neglected women in com- that it is also allowed to women to teach sa- parison to men. Initially, Buddha was against cred scripts. They have developed religious having women as nuns as by their preserving endogamy and girls get married immediately the cycle of birth, women impersonate greedi- after their sexual maturity. Men do not use ness for life. «As when an disease breaks into scents so as not to seduce their own wife. the field of rice that thrives, the same hap- The supreme deity in Shintoism is the pens when women approaches a science or Goddess of Amaterasu. The sanctuary in her an order, as there, a holy life cannot last for honour is located in the city of Ise. long» (Buddha). Later on, Buddha changed «Yin» and «Yang» represent the dark and that view. He founded the first women’s or- the bright aspect of Tao, female and male der’s community with certain conditions. His aspect in Taoism. «Yang» is a male reality, step mother was amongst those nuns. How- the male side of Tao, it is the centre in all ever, women’s orders’ communities started to things. «Yin» is the female side of Tao and slowly vanishing in some areas like Ceylon (in of reality. None of those two sides of reality the 11th century), Burma (in the 13th century). is supreme over the other. It is «Yin-yang» Today, such communities are still present in and never «yang-yin». Nowadays, it would Sri Lanka Thailand, Laos, Cambodia. In spite be said: «Ladies first». The female principle of that, bearers of hierarchical functions are is the one that comes first, and followed by men. the male one. At this point, it seems relevant The Holy Book of Sikhs, Adi Gran'th, pro- to stress that the ethics of Confucianism im- claims gender equality, and rejects centu- plies that every woman needs to learn how to ries old images of male domination. Sikhism become a good wife and how to take care of abolished the practice of incineration of wid- parents. Little girls are taught to speak quiet- ows next to their husbands’ coffins, rejected ly and in obey. the system of dowry and murder of female A woman in Abraham’s religions: Has the children (although, all that has not been en- attitude of religions toward a woman as a tirely eradicated until today). Equality of men temptress been important for the position of and women is advocated for in the theolo- women in Abraham’s religions (Ellen White gy of Sikhism. The blood that comes from a was building up that view in Adventism)? woman’s period is not something that is im- Isn’t the provision in Quran on covering in- pure but the result of the natural process of a timate parts and on clothing the product of female being. Also, a ritual impurity related to such view of a woman as a temptress? АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 23 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

According to the Old Testament, men day), delivered birth for continuation of the rule over women as it is the punishment for Jewish tradition and they were to build up the Eve’s disobedience. The Genesis contains habit and the need of their sons for studying references of a woman: «Pregnancy will Torah. multiply your pain, in sorrow thou shalt bring Based on scripts of the old Testament, forth children, and thy desire shall be for your can it be concluded that a woman is to be husband, and he shall rule over you» [3, 16]. looked at as someone that is less valuable There is a Jewish prayer: «Bless you, our than a man (who will predominate over her), Lord, because you did not make me be a pa- as a person that needs to be characterised gan, nor a woman, nor the ignorant!». by obedience? A woman is the one that has Since the 3rd century, Jews had started brought to disobedience and sin. Her obliga- separating women from men in Synagogues tions towards the family are posted before all and turning women away from reading To- her other duties. rah. The Old Testament gets us familiar with Is Christianity a misogamy religion that is a negative social status of barrens (Sarah, ruled/managed by men? When it comes to Rebecca, Rachel). It is said for them that they the attitude of Christianity towards a woman, were caught by the God’s punishment. Be- it seems as if Christianity continues with the cause of that, they had faced contempt and Jewish tradition. First there was a man, and humiliation in social relations. On the other then a woman; first there was a snake that hand, Miriam, Deborah, Judith, Esther were was deceived by a woman; first there was a those women that had taken part in public woman that fell into a sin; teaching sacred life. Michal is also mentioned (a symbol of a scripts is only for men. The authors of the wise woman) as well as Ruth that is charac- Gospel and Epistles are men, so should the terised by honesty. cause of such stand view of the New Testa- How was the social position of a woman at ment on women be perhaps sought in that the beginning of Judaism? A woman did not fact? have any inherited rights. Different from men, A woman in the Bible has a «multiple women could not even submit a request for identity». She is a mother and a wife; a girl- divorce. A husband could give a divorce letter friend and a fiancée; a daughter and a sister; (get) to his wife, but a wife could not do the a mistress and a Sybil; a widow and a maid; same to her husband. Talmud proscribes all a concubine, prostitute and a adulteress. the work which a wife needs to perform for The New Testament asks from a woman to her husband: reap, bake and wash, cook and love her husband (Titus 2,4); to respect him feed her child, make his bed and process wool (Eph 5,33); to be faithful to him (1 Cor 7,3- [10, 253]. Judaism is determined as per moth- 5); to submit to him (1 Cor 14,34, Eph 5,22 er, not after father. A woman must not study and 5,24; Titus 2,5 etc.); to live with him for a Torah, wear a prayer’s scarf (tallith), have a lifetime (Rom 7,2-3; 1 Cor 7,10). Christianity bandage with the script over her forehead, taught women to be obedient and submissive blow into saffron, build a cottage (suka), take towards their husbands as their «heads». To part in a group that makes minyan etc. Wom- conclude: women’s identities in the New Tes- en are exempted from the pilgrimage: «Three tament are reduced to the motherhood and times next year shall all your males shall ap- «coordinators» within the family life. pear before the Lord God» (Exodus 23.17). From the foremother, Eve had trans- As related to Jews, women took care of formed into the sinner in Christianity. From a religious purity of home, applied rules for nu- witness of the resurrection, Mary Magdalene trition, lit up candles before Sabbath (Satur- had turned into a sexual sinner. Junia, as a 24 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «социология управления» Н ТАТ

prominent female apostle (by the Romans), a woman, Mary of Magdala (Jn 20.15-17). distinguished herself as the Junius etc. Why While for Jews, only a man used to enter the should Eve be a symbol of something sinful community by the act of his circumcision, for because she wanted to taste an apple? Why Christians, also women would enter the com- should not that wish of hers be considered munity by the rite of baptism. The daughter as a wish for cognition? Is [11, 34] right when of Abraham is a woman. She may participate says that Christianity had initially been in in public prayers. opposition to intellectualism? «I praise you, Nevertheless, although Jesus did not Father, Lord of heaven and earth, because choose any woman amongst the twelve thou hast hid these things from the wise and apostles, the women were there, through his understanding and revealed them to babes» whole life until his suffering (Mary Magda- (Matthew 11:25). lene, Martha, Elizabeth etc.). Moreover, ac- A few women are mentioned in the Bibli- cording to the Gospel of Thomas, and Mary cal narratives about Jesus: Elizabeth (mother Magdalene and Salome are among the six of John the Baptist); unknown woman by the (rather than twelve) of Jesus' first disciples. well whose name is not mentioned; Tabitha And Mark confirms that women are among (symbol of the Christian charity); Susanna those who follow him: «There were also (benefactor of Jesus and his disciples); Lydia women ... Mary of Magdala, Mary, the moth- (gives her home for a gathering of followers er of James the younger and of Joses, and of Jesus); Junia (Paul hailed her as the most Salome ... then many others» (Mark 15.40- prominent among the apostles); Phoebe 41) (called a servant of the Church); Virgin Mary Jesus appeared to women after his death, (mother of Jesus); Mary Magdalene (which and they were the first messengers of his some claim to be the closest of women with resurrection («... first appeared to Mary Mag- Jesus); Martha (sister of Lazarus); Veronica dalene» - Mark 16:7). It was scandalous for (what is said for her is that Jesus had ap- Jews to talk with a woman in a public place. peared on her veil). And Jesus, who was Jewish, had talked with The name of Mary Magdalene is of- the Samaritan woman at the well (John 4.7 to ten mentioned In the New Testament, who 9). He treated women (Mk 1: 29-31; 5.2 to 42 seemed to have played an important role in and from 7.25 to 30). Given the time in which the early Christian community. After the res- he had acted and how he had acted (in vi- urrection of Jesus, Mary Magdalene is not olation of the socio-religious attitudes about mentioned any more (in the Book of Acts and women), advocates of the feminist theories the Epistles). Obviously, with Jesus, there among Christian women can celebrate Je- were no restrictions for women in the com- sus as their precursor. munity. Those restrictions would have later M. Weber believed that one of the rea- been imposed by Paul. sons for the success of early Christianity was God had become a man in the image of exactly the attitude to women. While other a man in Christian theology. But, there are religions have been very «masculine» and some novelties compared to the Old Testa- excluded women, Jesus is constantly in the ment. While the Jewish Old Testament tra- «surrounding» of women. They follow him, dition did not consider that a woman could he heals them, they want to anoint his body, be a witness, according to the New Testa- he has first appeared to them etc. Even the ment, women were the first witnesses of Church itself is called the «Holy Mother» Christ's resurrection. After the resurrection (feminine). Jesus had not first appear to a man but to Paul mentions Lydia, Damara, Phoebe, АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 25 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

Evodia, Cynthia in his letters. It could be ex- in such way, mentioned in Qur'an. pected from his message to the Galatians A woman is not allowed to catch the eye where he says, «no longer male nor female» of foreigners by its embellishment and flirt- (Gal 3:28) that the Church has overcome ing, but must keep her beauty and attrac- gender differences. Unfortunately, it did not tion only for her husband. She should dress happen. History of Christianity, however, modestly and decently. She should not put a shows that the dominant line of divisions was wig on her head (at the Traditions) because it the one with the focus on the men’s role. It is a delusion, and it is prohibited. The Quran turned out that Paul's letters were the basis lays down an obligation to a woman that after for the degradation of women in Christianity. the death of her husband, she needs to wait Is St. Paul determined the place of women in for four months and ten days to get married traditional churches by his attitude «that your again [2, 234]. women keep silence in the churches». «As Duties of a woman to her husband are: in all churches of the saints, women should not to avoid his bed, to fulfil the word that remain silent in the meetings» (1 Cor 14:34)? she has given, to treat his wishes worshipful- «It is unquestionable that his judgment, con- ly, that she does not leave home without con- ditioned by time, is coloured in a sexist man- sent with him, that she does not have a per- ner,» says theologian [12, 231]. son whom her husband does not like in their In pre-Islamic era, there were goddesses home. A woman should keep her husband's among the Arab tribes and they had songs reputation and his property. The mother of to celebrate the beauty of women. Never- the family is extremely honoured. In her hon- theless, the Arabs of the pre-Islamic period our, Muhammad said: «Paradise is located were not favourable to a woman. She was in front of the mother's feet». However, on owned, as a thing, by a man. In addition, the tombstone (gravestone), the name of the they had the custom to sacrifice virginity to father is written, not the one of the mother. the goddess, salacious Akora. Marriage was If Islam emphasizes the equality of men mere coincidence, and they married sisters, and women as human beings, it does not daughters, mothers. The birth of a female mean that Islam does not point at the diver- child was taken as disfavour of Gods. One of sity of their roles and functions in society. So, the tribes in Mecca had a practice of burying is, then, the gender inequality born there? female infants. Is the Quran unfair to women, not be- Historically, in comparison to the pre-Is- cause women do not go to the funeral, but lamic practice, the Quran brought substantial when it reduced the importance of her testi- progress in relation to the woman: it forbade mony to the measure of a man that is less in burying of alive female children in the sand, double (the witness can be one man and two reduced the number of women to four, gave women)? Can verse II, 282 – («I specify two some protection of women's rights in marriage witnesses, two men of yours, and if there are (form dowry to the possibility of preserving a no two men, then one man and two women, monogamous marriage). Unlike the Bible, who accept as witnesses; if one of the two of Qur'an does not know for an «original sin» as them forget, let the other remind her») – be related only to the woman. A woman in Islam used for theses on the inferiority or superior- is a manufacturer and a retailer (Khadijah was ity of one sex over the other? successfully engaged in trade). Let us not for- What is it with the behaviour of women get that one of the surah in the Qur'an (Surah in the public space? Hadiths warn that when XIX) is dedicated to Maryam (Mary). Analysts a woman goes to the mosque, she should warn that this is the only female name that is, not be perfumed and should not display her 26 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «социология управления» Н ТАТ

ornaments, those that adorn her as a wom- ing specialization within the social sciences an. Muslim women are required to cover has opened the door to spreading feminist themselves with a veil so as to hide them- theories at the end of the twentieth and be- selves from the eyes of others, except for the ginning of the XXI century. Feminist theories husband’s. According to Islamic teachings, and gender studies were created in western women do not shake hands with men except societies. Its roots are back in the Enlighten- those who are not allowed to marry them (fa- ment era. The very concept of feminism de- ther, brother, uncle). A woman will not even rives from Charles Fourier from the first half greet (salam) those men back. of the nineteenth century. Entry into the temple may be denied to Can we determine the start of feminism women. Thus, women in Bengal are banned by the first fights for women's right to vote from entering the mosque. Sometimes, as an and their social status? Historically, the first indicator of the poor status of women in Is- discussions took place on women's right to lam, the Taliban's practice of prohibiting the vote, and then extended to other issues. education of women, not allowing women to Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902) is one participate in public and political life is men- of the pioneers of the struggle for women's tioned, but the question is whether these at- rights in America. Her works were the inspi- titudes are the result of Islamic teachings, or ration for the feminist movement in Ameri- something else which should not necessarily ca. She was challenging the traditional male be close to the Islamic doctrine. authority. She had an analytic approach to Was Muhammad jealous? All could mar- studying of biblical passages which relate to ry widows, but it was forbidden that someone women. Based on that tradition, feminist the- marry his widows; the other women were ories have continued to point at specificities not obliged to wear the veil, and his were and diversities of women's religious experi- (when a woman wears it, isn’t it that no one ence. can see her face, eyes etc.?). And even if he Clara Zetkin (1857-1933) had that role was jealous, why should it be wondered, as in Germany and she was guiding the revo- he was a man after all. Can it be said that lutionary women's movement. Since 1907, the Prophet Muhammad was a defender of she was the Secretary of the International Al- women's rights: gender relations, right of liance of Women. Based on her proposal, the inheritance, prohibition of murder of female 8th of March was declared as the Women's children, women's equality with men before Day in 1910. God, right to property , the ability to testi- Some will locate the start of feminism fy (even though a voice of two women was to the appearance of an essay «The Sec- taken as the one of one man), prohibition of ond Sex» in which the French writer Simone violence in marriage? Of course, this does de Beauvoir advocated for emancipation of not mean that Islamic tradition did not have women, and their first sweep will put in the the views that we could describe as very bad middle of the twentieth century. for women (unlike men who can have up to The feminist theory emerges in the late four wives, women can only have one man; nineteenth century and then significantly de- a man can marry the follower of the Book velops in the mid and late twentieth centu- but a woman cannot marry to the follower of ry. Feminist theories come to the fore at the the book; a husband may hit his wife, but the end of the twentieth century, although ideas wife cannot do that to her husband; allowing of the equality of women, as we could see, rape of women prisoners etc.). are far older. The place of women in religious When feminist theories ensue: increas- teachings and communities becomes attrac- АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 27 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

tive to sociologists of religion (and even more Sex is a biological identity that women differ to female sociologists) only in the 60s of the from men. On the other hand, gender is a 20th century, and especially at the end of that term that refers to different roles that some century. At the end of the twentieth century, cultures, religious traditions, etc, attribute to researches of some previously almost taboo women and men. And it is in this area that topics such as homosexuality and religion the feminist movement is engaged: abolition (gay-lesbian issues within various religious of gender differences and inequalities im- traditions) have started. Some would say posed in society, even by religious traditions. that the beginning of the 21st century is the So, gender differences indicate differenc- period of post-feminism, and the emergence es between men and women. One could say of a period in which gender studies were in that these are biological tags which ignored the spotlight. the socialization and social context. Sex de- Gender theories: Ethnicity, class, social rives from biodiversity, and gender from the class, gender, race – all are terms that are socio-diversity. Experience shows that bio- commonly used in sociology. Why? Because logical sex is often one of the essential foun- it turned out that they are in direct correlation dations on which social roles and behaviours with the life chances of individuals in heter- are built. ogeneous societies. Sociologists divide all Masculinity / femininity are taught from population into two socio-biological catego- an early age. Female children follow the ries: men and women. Gender issue (with work of mothers and identify with those roles the given modalities «female», «male») is al- while male children follow the work, life and ways mentioned in sociological researches, behaviour of fathers and identify with that amongst general data on interviewees. role. Aren’t all of us encourage masculine / The term «gender» is not the word for feminine identities when we go to birthday «women». Gender is a socio-biological cate- parties of grandchildren or children from the gory relating to hierarchical relationships, une- neighbourhood and those of our relatives: qual access to power and resources. It should we will not bring a car for a gift to girls or a also make a distinction between the terms ball, bulldozer, but a doll, mirror and a comb «gender difference» and «gender diversity». with which girls will adorn their «Barbie doll». The word «diversity» is often found in recent We will buy a dress to a girl, and trousers to sociological literature, and its preservation is a boy. Gender notions and attitudes are de- highly ranked value of the European institu- veloped through socialization (family, school, tions, and their documents. The term «differ- church, group). We would say that gender ence» carries negative values, as opposed to identities are developed. Sex based studies the word «diversity». Gender diversities (plu- of religion deal with the analysis of sex dif- ral) should be encouraged rather than gender ferences in religion, and gender studies deal difference (singular). The difference empha- with social practice, position and role of men sizes the relation to gender issues in other and women in it. religious cultures and traditions. Whether we What about gender differences in socie- like diversity or not, all of us encounter with it ty? If one would judge by some external in- on a daily basis. Checking the value of every- dicators, one might mistakenly conclude that one's stand view is the attitude towards diver- they are behind us: both men and women sity. Not only to accept it, but also to ensure dress the same (like pants), talk about the that it develops. The right to diversity does not same topics, are educated in the same pro- mean diversity of rights. fessions, make careers in politics, science , There is a difference made between the culture, sports etc. Today, gender theories terms of sex and gender in feminist theories. set the issue of the equality of women in the 28 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «социология управления» Н ТАТ

family, education, workplace, participation in Thanks to feminist theories and gender decision-making, recognition, even in reli- studies, from being the object of study, wom- gious life. en became the subject of study in many reli- Although the gender studies began to gious traditions. A large literature on the sta- develop in the 70s of the last century, they tus of women in religious traditions written by were introduced as post-graduate studies, women has been generated. at the University of Sarajevo only in 2006/07 Feminist theories in religious traditions: school year. 44 women and five men have When it comes to religious traditions, we completed their studies by the end of the can find in them many examples of gender 2013. According to this data, these studies discrimination, but also praising women. are extremely «women's Studies». I con- It is therefore not surprising that contem- ducted religious studies at the University porary feminist movements have different of Sarajevo where they were introduced in approaches and focuses. They firstly point 2007/08. The discipline of Religion and race at marginal status of women in the world's is also taught within those studies. 20 wom- great religious traditions. They point out that en and six men completed those studies by the interpretation of sacred texts in current end 2013. theology has not sufficiently promoted equal- Let us mention here the women's stud- ity and dignity of women, but more of male ies, which, starting from the equal dignity of dominance (while relying on those parts in equality, deal with life and religiosity of wom- the scriptures that can be the basis for such en. Those studies were developed in the sec- an interpretation, and neglecting of other ond half of the twentieth century. Women's parts that would go in favour of the interpre- studies deal with researching of diversity of tation of equality and dignity of women). The women's religiousness in different cultures ceremonies are performed and interpreted in and religions; women's participation in reli- a way that they (largely) exclude women (in gious activities, religious leaders, women's some cases even their physical presence – involvement in new religious movements, Morning Prayer in Jews; funeral ceremony in etc. These studies show that men very much Jews and Muslims etc.). The ritual clothing interfere into women’s life: rapes, sexual har- usually is meant only for men (yarmulke and assments, debates about abortion, etc. tallit in Jews, Ahmadiyya in Muslims, miter Men’s studies of religion (after women's among Catholics etc.). studies, feminism and gender studies) are Some authors write about the Islamic and a new field of scientific researches. Those Christian feminist theories [13]. As if there are studies are mainly developed within west- no such theories in Judaism, Hinduism, Bud- ern European Christianity and Judaism. The dhism etc. Closer to the truth is that the last task of the men’s study is to contribute to decades are considered as those in which raising gender awareness on any aspect of it comes to the «feminization», not only of the position and the role of men in religious Islam and Christianity, but also of other reli- traditions. There are also problems of gay gions. Let's see, in short, how that looks like population in religious traditions. We would in which particular religious traditions. say that the men's studies deal with the male Feminist theories in Asian and Far East side of the religious experience. It is intend- religions are focused on criticism of tradition- ed to strengthen the male identity in religions al views on the role of women. The traditional of the West after the rise of secularism and practice of marriage in which parents make abandonment of religious local communities decisions about everything is exposed to the in churches and denominations (primarily in critique. There is also criticism of the dowry, Western Europe). and of still present practice of burning widows АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 29 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

on the pyre with the deceased husband (de- Which parts in the Bible face criticism of spite the legal prohibition). Feminists oppose feminism? Those that speak of obedience of the practice of aborting female babies. a wife to her husband; of Eve's temptation; Feminism in Buddhism is a modern chal- fragments of adulteresses which Jesus for- lenge to patriarchal views in that tradition. gives1 and of prostitutes (Jn 8, Rev. 17), etc. These ideas occur in Buddhism only at the The biblical God is a male God: King, end of the twentieth century. They point yet Judge, Father, Winner. From the very be- again to the importance of women's religious ginning of the Bible, the Book of Genesis, orders in early Buddhism. In late twentieth God is described as the Father (in mascu- and early 21st century, there was a renew- line). God was also described as a Son in al of female religious orders in many Asian Christianity, again in the meaning of a man. Buddhist traditions. Feminists rely on the It is interesting that «Pope John Paul I said Buddhist theory of empathy, elimination of at the beginning of his pontificate that God suffering, spreading of peace for the sake of could be very easily also shown as a woman, happiness of all living beings. Some will say because there is no sex! He also pleaded in that the feminist theory is a modern, contem- favour of contraception. A few weeks later, porary interpretation of Buddhism (modern- he died under circumstances that were never ism in Buddhism). It points to the violation explained» [6, 161]. of human rights which women face in many Feminists criticize the Christian concept Buddhist communities, as well as to their sex- of «female sin» related to Eve in Christiani- ual harassment and exploitation. Frequent ty. In addition to their criticizing the Christian practice of denying opportunities to women views on Eve (the symbol of sin, seductress, to educate themselves is also exposed to the death, licentiousness), they also criticize the critique. Christian interpretation of the Virgin Mary Feminist theories in the Abraham’s reli- as the New Eve (symbol of virginity, moth- gions: God is masculine and he has no wife erhood, which is offered as an ideal type of (or daughter) in monotheistic «Abraham’s» woman). religions. And just when feminism appeared Less radical advocates of feminism rec- in Judaism in the USA in the 70-ies of the last ognize the importance of the Virgin Mary as century, the question of sex of God has been a female character whom Christians worship asked. The interpretation that God created and turn to that character in their prayers, a man and a woman based on his image pilgrimages, beliefs. Thus, Mary’s devotion means that God is neither male nor female. emerges as an important aspect of a part of However, But it is still spoken about God in the feminist spirituality. masculine gender in ritual services. Advocates of the feminist theory reject Feminist theories assume that the Abra- the Christian view of marriage as an institu- ham’s religions, especially Catholicism and tion solely for reproduction. They criticize the Orthodoxy in Christianity, exclude women views of the female body primarily as an ob- from many parts of religious practices, as- ject of male desire. They reject the traditional sume that those religions are sexist, patriar- role of women in marriage, offering friend- chal, that do not take into account the con- ship and mutual partnership as a the model tribution of women throughout the history of of living together. religions etc. Of course, the feminist theory Feminists in Islam are focused on jus- is not only limited to the Christian tradition. tice and equality between men and women. Feminists also point at Judaism and Islam as being patriarchal and as those that support 1 Some will say: it was easy for Jesus to forgive to a subordination and oppression of women. woman who was the adulteress – she was not his wife. 30 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «социология управления» Н ТАТ

They point at the marginality of women in nomic inequality and not just at «women's the religious community [14]. Muslim fem- issues». Marxist-oriented feminists accused inists point out that many practices in the capitalism for an inferior position of women. Muslim world that are bad for women have Indeed, socialism in Europe of the twenti- no basis in the Qur'an (such as covering of eth century has fundamentally changed the women with burqa, circumcision of wom- position of women (although not enough): en, the murder out of «honor» etc.). They women were provided with possibilities for criticize the position of women in marriage, education, employment, political participa- citing the Koran («He creates for you, from tion, they were given the right to vote, etc. yourselves, women so that you rest next to The position of women in society and them» - XXX, 21). culture: Deleting the feminine from the Feminists amongst Muslims are con- sphere of the divine and religious has been stantly faced with criticism that their learn- transferred to deleting the feminine in public ing is based on western values that can be and social order. In fact, around the world, «devastating» to the Muslim world. They among members of different religions, the- point out that originally, Islam gave more ological interpretations have left their mark rights to women than they had in Christi- on the overall social status of women and anity (one surah, Surah XIX, in the Koran gender relations. Thus, religion has had, is devoted to a woman; rights of women to and still has, an important role in the social inheritance are regulated, which had been, discrimination of women. Many patriarchal at that time, unthinkable in the Christian tra- values contained in religious doctrines have dition etc.). Muslim theologians suggest that contributed to it. the problem of women in the Muslim world Is an inadequate position of women in is not lack of rights, but lack of education. comparison to men the specificity of only re- What is required in feminist theories? ligions and religious communities? Or is that Almost all of the patriarchal religious tra- also a characteristic of some other fields ditions have been exposed to the feminist such as science (except social sciences?) critiques. What is common to all feminists, and scientific research, politics etc.? regardless of which religious traditions they When we look at the area of science, originate from, is the request for review or in total, there is less women that pass their re-formulation of parts of sacred scriptures doctoral dissertations in relation to men. which deal with women's issues. The Faculty of Political Science, Universi- Initially, the feminist theory maintained ty of Sarajevo, has had 118 candidates that on issues of gender. Sexual violence obtained their PhDs from 1992 until 1 March against women, women's rights, particularly 2014, of which 25 are women. Faculty of Phi- the rights of women in their religious tradi- losophy in Sarajevo (the group of Pedago- tions are the subject of the feminism’s inter- gy and Psychology), has had 57candidates est. Later on, the issues that have attracted that obtained their PhDs from 1965 to 2013, the attention of feminists expanded (the is- out of which there are 42 men (73,7%). The sue of class and racial equality and women, first woman that obtained her PhD was in sexual orientation, gender issues). There 1983, and 14 women obtained their PhDs is also the issue of religious fundamental- in period of 1990-2013. Even in period of ism and its effects on the social position of 2010-2013, there were only 6 women and women. Feminist movements emphasize 3 men who obtained their PhDs. As if it is the importance of human rights, point at left for women to deal with various peace environmental problems, problems of eco- movements, environmental protection and similar, while the rest is considered a privi- АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 31 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

lege of men! There are areas in which there community, how much they can affect deci- are at least some percentage of female PhD sion-making, and how much they can thrive students (psychology, pedagogy, sociolo- in the hierarchy of religious communities. gy), while men are more prevalent among Women are given with roles that are physicists, engineers, managers. In Saraje- more of administrative nature in many reli- vo, Out of 1037 streets in Sarajevo, there gious groups than those of «the masters of are only 15 of them with names of women ceremonies». Is it just a matter of the tradi- [15, 72]. tion of performing the priests’ service that Sociologists have compared the status goes into favour of men? Or is it something of women and men in the work process. It else? It is hard to explain it by women’s «in- turned out that the «female jobs» are teach- ability» to perform that role. So, by which ers, librarians, kindergarten teachers, nurs- then is possible to explain it? By stereo- es, cleaners, maids etc. Men earn more types about women and her role in society money and are better paid for the same job that still prevail in religious ideologies? Is than women; they are more represented in the problem really in the fact that living reli- the political leadership and they are also gions are religions «male God»? more represented in decision making bod- In most Christian denominations, wom- ies then women. en are in the majority. As a rule, men decide But, let us back to the position and the on the extent of their participation in the de- role of women in the religious community: nomination (they are very influential in the This fact leads us to thinking about how «ecclesiastical bureaucracy»). Women are gender inequalities are associated with writ- also allowed to be members of many reli- ten religious sources, beliefs, rituals, theo- gious communities in Buddhism and Chris- logical teachings etc. Most of the religions tianity (but not in all courses, for example, it are founded by men; they dominate in reli- is not the case in Protestantism that rejects gious communities, amongst professors at religious orders). It did not help women to theological studies, religious leaders, heads come to power in the hierarchy of the reli- of religious communities. To tell the truth, gious community to which they belong. Only there are numerous nuns’ communities and in some sects and denominations, women women's organizations in religious commu- are allowed to perform the role of priestess- nities. But in most cases, nuns do not have es. To tell the truth, there is a small number of the same power in the religious community the Christian denominations in which wom- as the monks do, not even close to. en are in the leadership positions: Bishops, What would happen to the Church if a preachers, (rabbis n Judaism, they have the «feminist union» would organize a collec- role of the guru in some Hindu communities tive women’s boycott of the rite of Mass / etc.). liturgy, etc? Would church remain empty? It may be assumed that in the future, It must be admitted that, at the beginning small religious groups, those that accept of the XXI century, significantly more wom- the entry of priests in marriage, will easier en were in the role of religious leaders than accept a woman in the role of a priestess. in the past (some Christian denominations The Buddhist teaching is far more gen- elected them for priestesses and Bishops; der-neutral learning than the «Abraham’s» for gurus in modern Hinduism; for rabbis in religions. In Buddhism, the «problem» of some Jewish courses etc.). Even in commu- women is not bound by religious norms that nities in which women are enabled to per- much as it is bound to long historical dom- form the duty of religious leaders, it is still inance of men in the religious community. questionable what is their real impact in the Until the 11th century, Buddhists used to ac- 32 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «социология управления» Н ТАТ

cept women into their orders. In 1998, Bud- Anglican church). The first woman priest was dhist were formally established the women's initiated into Congregational Church (USA) order for Sri Lanka, Japan and India. They 155 years ago, and yet today, the number referred to the practice from the age of Gau- of priestesses in that church is below 1%. thama who was the first to accept women In 1859, Antoinette Brown became the first in the priesthood (only in the 11th century, priestess of the Congregational church in priestesses vanished amongst Buddhists in New York State [16, 108]. Episcopal Church India and Sri Lanka). in the USA (1974) accepted priestesses, After the World War II, Shintoism has and elected (2006) the first woman (Kathar- «opened the door» to priestesses. They ine Jefferts Schori) for Primate – Chairman perform a sacred dance offered to Kami in of the bishops. Otherwise, the church falls the temples. under the auspices of the Anglican Church. There is no ordination of women in the She was famous for her liberal attitudes re- Roman Catholic and Serbian Orthodox garding homosexuals and the possibility of Church. More than half of Catholics are their ordination to the religious leaders, so women. The question arises as to the equal- in 2003, she appointed Gened Robinson ity of women in the Church, although most for a bishop priest, who never hid his gay of the work is carried out there by women. orientation. The Anglican church communi- They can visit the sick, but cannot give them ty consists of 37 members, and only New a blessing. They can talk to people, but Zealand and Canada have women bishops, cannot confess. The Congregation for the while some other members accept women Doctrine, in «Inter insigniores» (1976) put as priestesses. forward the view that the Church does not Until 1992, women could be deacon- allow the ordination of women. However, in esses, but not priestesses (could perform a secret ceremony in the summer of 2005, the baptism, but could not bless nor take a new priestess was ordained. Earlier or- the wedding rite) in the Anglican Church in dained priestesses that the Roman Catholic England. Since 1994, the Anglican Church Church had excommunicated, were present began to ordain women priests. On that oc- at the ceremony of introducing the priest- casion, one hundred thousand Anglicans, hood. In principle, Catholic and all eastern unhappy with this act, passed in the Catho- Churches that claim for two-millennial tradi- lic Church. In Blackburn Cathedral in Lan- tion, excludes women from the priesthood. cashire during Sunday Mass, believers can Orthodoxy excludes any possibility that choose whether to accept the wafer of male women carry out any duties in the Church, or female priests. Already in 2008, there except that they may be nuns (and teachers were 23 women bishops in the Anglican of religious education at school). It is left to Church. Even in 2006, more women (213) be seen if the openness of modern Ortho- were ordained than men (210) in the Angli- dox theology to women to study it, will lead can Church. to radical changes in the position of women The Seventh-day Adventists is the de- in the. nomination founded by a woman (Ellen G. Feminists argue for the return to Jesus' White). Women's groups – such as the As- original teachings and practices of ear- sociation of women Adventists are organ- ly Christianity, claiming that women had ised. shared leadership with men in that period. Since 1832, women can perform the At the end of the twentieth century, wom- pastor’s service in the Lutheran communi- en became priestesses and Bishops in var- ties. Lutherans ordained three women for ious Protestant communities (including the priests in Denmark (1948). Maria Jepsen АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 33 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

(for the second time in 20021) was the first source (the Quran), the position and the woman elected for the bishop of the Luther- role of women are different in many coun- an Church in Germany. Swedish Lutheran tries that are considered to be Muslim (or Church (78% of the population in Sweden Muslims are those that make the majority). are Lutherans) approved the conclusion of The position of women has been particularly a homosexual marriage in 2009. Even one worsened in countries where Islamists came lesbian was appointed for a bishop of the to power (Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangla- Lutheran church in that country (2009). desh, Sudan etc.). Malaysia has introduced Women priests can be found in the Evan- a taxi service for women, and even since gelical-Methodist, Reformist, Metropolitan before, (2010) separate buses for wom- church of fellowship. Most followers of Can- en and railway wagons in pink colour only domble in Brazil are women. They are elect- for women exist [17, 47]. Discussions are ed also for the community leaders. In 1956, made about the practice of circumcision of the Presbyterian community in the United women, primarily in some African countries States has started introducing the practice (Sudan, Ghana, Kenya etc.), and about so- of posting women in leading posts in the called «murders out of honour». group. Of course, there are those who, like Was Aisha, the Prophet's wife, the first Nazareno, that do not allow women to hold female muftis in Islam [18, 129]? If so, why any spiritual function: they cannot hold wor- that practice has not been continued in Is- ship, preach, pronounce public prayer etc. lam? Have Muslim women, in times after Women rabbis can be found in all Jew- the Prophet, suffered the same fate as the ish courses except in the orthodox. Since one of the Christian women after Jesus? the beginning of the 70s of the last centu- While it has still not been thought of among ry, women have been ordained for rabbis in the Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina six the Reformed Judaism (first in the U.S. and women were appointed as assistant mufti in then in the UK etc). Over 50% of the stu- Turkey (2006). «In 1986, which is probably dent population at the rabbinical universities unique case in the world, without much hes- in the United States is made of women who itation, a woman was named as the warden are future rabbis. Reformed Jewish com- of a mosque in Skopje, authorized at the munity established equality between men same time to hold Friday prayers sermon» and women. Men and women sit together [19, 86]. in their synagogues. Women can perform Women founders of religious communi- all the rituals and roles (and the role of the ties are most often met in new religious move- rabbi since 1972). The conservative course ments in the second half of the twentieth cen- accepted that only in 1986. tury. They are women founders, prophetess, It seems that the debate on the position theologians, preachers. Of course, there are and the role of women in Islam is more often some movements that insist on traditional led at the West (often with a lack of under- gender roles. New movements based on re- standing of Islam) than in the Muslim world. ligious traditions of India (Hinduism and Bud- The topics are broad: violence against wom- dhism, such as the movement of Sai Baba, en, women's rights to education and work, Hare Krishna, etc.) in which women play an human rights, covering women, the murder important role, make a special attraction for out of «honour», etc. Some of these issues women in the West. are still taboo in some Muslim countries. Is the attitude towards women in new re- Although all Muslims refer to the same ligious movements the reason that women, 1 Lutherans do not have a central spiritual authority more than men, «cross» into these move- and bishops are elected for a term of ten years. ments? 34 СЕТЕВОЙ НАУЧНО-ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ ЖУРНАЛ АУЧНЫЙ РЕЗУЛЬ СЕРИЯ «социология управления» Н ТАТ

The feminist theology has arisen as can no longer ignore feminist theories have a reaction to the Christian theology that enter into force. Those communities need marginalizes women and that is sexist and a dialogue with feminism. In that dialogue, andocentric. It evolved in the 70s of the religious communities should be prepared twentieth century in Western Christianity, for different interpretations of the position and then in Judaism. Initially it dealt with and the role of women, not only in society, women's experience in the assessment of but also in religious communities. It can be religious teachings, the position of women assumed the modern world, that religious within religious traditions (which are mostly communities would necessarily need to male ones). Later on, they covered also is- abandon the principle of «male superiority» sues of language and artistic expression of within their structures. divinity, the position and the role of women Have we entered a period of post-femi- in religious group etc. nism, as Tourainie believes: «Identity is indi- Today, the feminist theology is not limit- vidualized ... to the area of sexuality, but in ed to the Christian religious tradition, and it the broadest sense ... These women are ex- is developed in the Jewish and Islamic re- plicitly turning to themselves, very little talk ligious tradition (as well as among Hindus, about men, do not like the word feminism as Buddhists etc.). Over the time, their criticism a political slogan, they are post-feminists» has been focused not only on the institution- [20, 3]. This would mean that equality be- al practice, but also on the doctrine of these tween women and men have accomplished. religions. From the focus on inequality of Can today, any society in the world, and any women in the religious community, it has religious community, offer enough evidence been moved to the fight for all marginalized that there is such equality of men and wom- groups (Afro-Americans, members of the en established in their environment so as to lower class, disabled etc.), not only within make feminism as an issue of the past? the religious community, but also in society. Criticism of feminist theories: Those References: women that advocate for the feminist theory do not seek the abolition of sex differenc- 1. Davie G. The sociology of religion. es (because it is impossible), but of gender London: Sage, 2007. ones. For that, it is not enough (although 2. Savić S. Feministička teologija. Novi it is important), to establish a legal gen- Sad: Futura publikacija, 2002. der equality, but also the real one. Political elites sometimes wonder why it is required 3. Anić R. Više od zadanoga – žene u cr- that there should be certain number of wom- kvi u hrvatskoj. Split: Franjevački institut za en in the parliament, government etc. when kulturu mira, 2003. the Constitution and the law is the same for 4. Ranković L. Žena – ikona crkve i blago all (except for the minorities?)? They do not sveta. Šabac: Glas Crkve, 2008. wish to see the reality: if there were no such demands and pressures on political elites, 5. Spahić-Šiljak Z. Propitivanje ženskih, women would have remained even more feminističkih i muslimanskih identiteta. Sa- politically marginalized. rajevo: Centar za interdisciplinarne postdi- Criticisms of feminist theories come plomske studije, 2012. from the most conservative in religious 6. Lenoir F. Bog. Zagreb: TIMpress, 2013. communities that would not change any- 7. Hamman A.G. rim i prvi hrišćani. Beo- thing in current religious tradition. However, grad: BukinBook, 1998. the period in which religious communities АУЧНЫЙ АУЧНЫЙ 35 Cvitković I.. РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ Н Н FEMINIST THEORIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

8. Boteach S. Košer seks. Zagreb: Profil, 2013. DATA 9. Frejzer Dž. Zlatna grana. Beograd: ABOUT THE AUTHOR BIGZ, 1977. Cvitkovic Ivan, 10. Talmud. Rijeka: Otokar Keršovani, holds a Ph.D. in sociology 1982. 11. Popper K. Otvoreno durštvo i njegovi and is retired Professor, neprijatelji II. Sarajevo: Pravni centar, 1998. member of The Academy of Sciences 12. Kuschel K.-J. Židovi – kršćani – mu- and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina slimani. Sarajevo: Svjetlo riječi, 2011. The Faculty of Political Sciences in Univer- 13. Ravlić S. Svjetovi ideologije. Za- sity in Sarajevo, Bistrik, greb-Podgorica: Politička kultura / CID Pod- gorica, 2013. 71000 Sarajevo, Bosna and Hercegovina 14. Mernissi F. Zaboravljene vladarice u svijetu islama. Sarajevo: Buybook, 2005. E-mail: [email protected] 15. Dani. Sarajevo, 2014. 16. Braun S. Hrišćanstvo. Beograd: Čigo- СВЕДЕНИЯ ОБ АВТОРЕ ja štampa, 2000. Цвиткович Иван, 17. Malezija: Željeznica, autobus i tak- si samo za žene, v. «Proporod». Sarajevo, кандидат социологических наук, 2012. профессор, член Академии наук и искусств Боснии и Герцеговины 18. Spahić-Šiljak Z. Žene, religija i politi- ka. Sarajevo: IMIC, 2007. Факультет политических наук 19. Pace E. Zašto religije ulaze u rat? в Университете Сараево, Бистрик, Zagreb: Golden marketing / Tehnička knjiga, 71000, Сараево, 2009. Босния и Герцеговина 20. Tourainie A. The interview given to E-mail: [email protected] «Jutarnji list». Zagreb, 2008.