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JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi:JASR 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASRJASR (print)(online) ISSN ISSN 1031-2943 1744-9014 doi: 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 JASR (online) ISSN 1744-9014

Contested Feminisms: Women’s Religious LeadershipContested and Feminisms: the Politics Women’s of Contemporary Religious Leadership andWestern the Politics Feminism of Contemporary Western Feminism

Kathleen McPhillips Kathleen McPhillips University of Newcastle University of Newcastle

Abstract Abstract Feminism is a relatively recent social movement of radical reform, emerging fromFeminism the mass is a relativelypolitical movementsrecent social ofmovement democratisation, of radical secularisationreform, emerging and liberalismfrom the thatmass swept political across movements the Western of democratisation, world from the seventeenth secularisation century and onwards.liberalism Thethat sweptfirst wave across of the organised Western feministworld from political the seventeenth action was century articu- latedonwards. in the The abolitionist, first wave temperanceof organised and feminist suffrage political movements action wasin America articu- andlated Europe in the inabolitionist, the mid-nineteenth temperance century and suffrage and culminated movements in inthe America Seneca Fallsand EuropeConvention in the of mid-nineteenth 1848 in New centuryYork State and whereculminated the women’sin the Seneca rights movementFalls Convention was born. of 1848Religion in Newwas Yorka crucial State in flwhereuence the in thewomen’s work ofrights first wavemovement feminists was enjoying born. Religion close tieswas toa crucialthe liberal infl uencemovements in the ofwork Protestan- of first tism,wave particularly feminists enjoying the Quaker close movement. ties to the However, liberal movements as modernity of Protestan-progressed intotism, the particularly twentieth the century Quaker and movement. secularism However, became as incorporated modernity progressed into state- into the twentieth century and secularism became incorporated into state- craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a primary part of first wave feminism in the nineteenth and early twentieth primary part of first wave feminism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from the 1960s second wave feminism embraced secularism and centuries, from the 1960s second wave feminism embraced secularism and situated religion as an inherently patriarchal institution, incapable of social situated religion as an inherently patriarchal institution, incapable of social change, and has yet to acknowledge the pivotal part that women’s religious change, and has yet to acknowledge the pivotal part that women’s religious leadershipleadership playedplayed inin establishingestablishing the groundsgrounds forfor contemporarycontemporary feministfeminist politics.politics. Recently,Recently, aa thirdthird phase of religious feminism,feminism, dedefifinedned asas post-post- secularsecular feminism, feminism, shiftsshifts thethe ground yet again toto openopen upup newnew possibilities possibilities of of engagementengagement betweenbetween religiousreligious and non-religious feminisms.feminisms. FollowingFollowing on on fromfrom thethe fifirstrst twotwo waveswaves of religious feminism,feminism, thisthis thirdthird phasephase holdsholds potentialpotential forfor countercounter hegemonichegemonic action inin transformingtransforming gendergender conservative conservative religiousreligious institutions,institutions, theologiestheologies and social practicespractices towardstowards more more inclusive, inclusive, potentiallypotentially transformative,transformative, religious cultures. ItIt alsoalso providesprovides spacespace forfor aa newnew articulation articulation ofof religiousreligious and secular feminist politics.politics.

Keywords

Feminism,Feminism, secularism,secularism, reform,reform, politics.

©© Equinox Equinox Publishing Publishing Ltd, Ltd, 415415 TheThe Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row,Row, Sheffield,Sheffield, S1 S1 2BX. 2BX. McPhillips Contested Feminisms 135 JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi: 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 JASR (online) ISSN 1744-9014 First Wave Feminism

…the secular women’s movement is the child, the grandchild, the great- grandchild of a movement inspired by devout Christian women concerned initially to right the wrongs of others. —Muriel Porter (1995: 221) Contested Feminisms: Women’s Religious ContemporaryLeadership Western and feminism, the Politics both secular of Contemporary and religious, was borne from the abolitionist, Westernsuffrage and Feminism temperance movements of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that swept across Europe and North America enacting colossal political stru ggles to bring universal citizenship, inclusion and freedom to aKathleen number McPhillips of disenfranchised groups, including women, working class men and enslaved African Americans. The historical struggles surroundingUniversity the of Newcastleexpansion of citizenship rights to those other than white men have been documented widely by feminist historians (see Phillips 2004) and as Phillips argues the early quest for sexual equality and rights continuesAbstract into contemporary times. In its earliest forms, first wave feminism called for equality between the sexesFeminism and focused is a relatively on the recent rights social of movementwomen and of radical girls reform,to education emerging (Porter from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and 1995:liberalism 210). thatMary swept Wollstonecraft’s across the Western famous world from essay the seventeenth A Vindication century of the Rightsonwards. of Women The fi rstpublished wave of organised in 1792 feminist is typically political positioned action was articu-as the first articulationlated in theof theabolitionist, case for temperance the uni versaland suffrage education movements of women in America and has becomeand aEurope central in textthe mid-nineteenth of the feminist century canon. and culminated in the Seneca In FallsBritain, Convention America of and1848 Australia,in New York many State of where the womenthe women’s who rights fought for movement was born. Religion was a crucial influence in the work of first humanwave rights feminists in enjoyingthe abolitionist close ties toand the suffrageliberal movements movements of Protestan- belonged to Christiantism, particularlychurches theand Quaker often movement. came fr However,om clerical as modernity families progressed (Porter 1995: 210-11).into the The twentieth Quakers century were and especially secularism becameactive incorporatedin pursuing into social state- justice agendas.craft, Somethe infl uenceof the of most religion articulate in the publicspeakers sphere against waned slavery and humanist and poverty ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a wereprimary Quaker part women,of first wave including feminism inLucretia the nineteenth Mott, and Susan early twentiethB. Anthony, Elisabethcenturies, Fry from and the Jane 1960 Addams.s second wave Sara feminismh Grimke embraced and hersecularism sister andAngelina are mostsituated often religion credited as an inherently with begi patrnningiarchal institution,the American incapable women’s of social rights movementchange, whichand has emergedyet to acknowledge from their the pivotal work part on thatthe women’s abolition religious of slavery leadership played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist (1995:politics. 211). Recently, For the a thirdGrimke phase sisters of religious their Quakerfeminism, faithdefined was as thepost- spring- boardsecular for theirfeminism, social shifts ju thestice ground work yet and again this to openwas upmade new possibilitiespossible becauseof Quakersengagement have abetween long historyreligious andof thenon-religious affirmation feminisms. of women Following as onspiritual leadersfrom and the speakersfirst two waves(1995: of 212).religious Elizabeth feminism, Cady this thirdStanton phase championed holds potential for counter hegemonic action in transforming gender conservative suffragereligious rights institutions, for women theologies in America and social and practices was instrumentaltowards more inclusive, in organising the Senecapotentially Falls transformative, Conference religious of 1848 cultures. where It alsoshe providespresented space a Declarationfor a of Sentimentsnew articulation that of religiousled to andthe secular formal feminist establishment politics. of the suffrage movement. Working with a committee of women Cady Stanton published

The Women’s Bible in 1895 (2013), which was effectively the ﬁrst Keywords published feminist interpretation of biblical commentary and which establishedFeminism, the secularism, gender bias reform, of politics.mainstream theological discourse.

© Equinox Publishing Ltd,Ltd 2016.415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. 136 JASR 29.2 (2016) JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi: In 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139Australia, the battle for suffrage and women’sJASR (online) rights ISSNbegan 1744-9014 earnestly in the 1890s and was granted in South Australia in 1895 and in principle by Federal Parliament in 1902 one year after Australia was federated and a national Constitution enacted (Oldfield 1992: 18). Many supporters of the suffrage cause were Christians, and women suffragettes included a number Contestedof prominent Feminisms:Christian women Women’s (1992: 28). Religious Catherine Helen SpenceLeadership was a vocal supporter and the of womePoliticsn’s suffrage of Contemporary in South Australia and was the first woman to Westernstand (unsuccessfully) Feminism for political office in the South Australian parliament (Swain 2014). She was also a theologian and preacher in the Unitarian Church. Like Spence, Vida Goldstein devoted her life to campaigningKathleen for the McPhillips rights of women including suffrage and she was the first woman to stand for the Australian Senate in 1903 (Wright 2014). She foundedUniversity and wasof Newcastle involved with numerous organisations concerned with the rights of women and authored some of the early important documents articulating the conditions of women’s lives.

She also helped found the firstAbstract Christian Science Church in Melbourne where she practiced and preached. WhileFeminism we can is a see relatively that womenrecent social who movement were acting of radical for reform,reform emerging in the public from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and sphereliberalism tended that also swept to acrossadvocate the Western for re ligiousworld from reform the seventeenth of their faith century organisations,onwards. it was The also first the wave case of thatorganised women feminist emerged political asaction figures was ofarticu- religious authoritylated in thetheir abolitionist, congregations. temperance For and example, suffrage movements the first inwoman America to be ordainedand Europein the statein the ofmid-nineteenth NSW and the century second and inculminated Australia in wasthe SenecaJoan Hore. She wasFalls aConvention member ofof 1848the Congregati in New Yorkonalist State Churchwhere the which women’s was rights founded movement was born. Religion was a crucial influence in the work of first on thewave principle feminists of enjoying self-governance close ties to andthe liberal thus movementssome congregations of Protestan- were quite tism,progressive particularly in the advocating Quaker movement. for social However, reform as modernity(Conway progressed 2015). Hore graduatedinto the from twentieth the centuryUniversity and secularism of Tasmania became andincorporated in 1919 into movedstate- to Sydneycraft, to thework infl uenceas an ofEnglish religion teacher in the public in a privatesphere waned girls’ schooland humanist where she ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a introducedprimary debatingpart of first classes,wave feminism then inconsidered the nineteenth something and early twentiethof a radical optioncenturies, for girls. from In 1931the 1960 shes second was or wavedained feminism into theembraced Congregational secularism and Church at Speerssituated Point, religion south as an of inherently Newcastle, patriarchal before institution, moving incapable to other of parishessocial in the Newcastlechange, and area has yet (Conway to acknowledge 2015). the Her pivotal focus part thatwas women’s understandably religious on leadership played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist runningpolitics. welfare Recently, programs a third phaseto reliev of religiouse the feminism,deprivations defined of as thepost- Great Depression.secular feminism,By the mid-1930sshifts the ground she yet had again returned to open toup Sydneynew possibilities to work, of and evidenceengagement from bothbetween O’Brien religious (1994) and non-religious and Conway feminisms. (2015) Following suggests on that Hore fromfollowed the fi rsta radicaltwo waves social of agendareligious feminism,that included this third caring phase for holdsthe poor, opposingpotential war for and counter educating hegemonic girls. action It broughtin transforming her into gender con conservativeflict with other religious institutions, theologies and social practices towards more inclusive, more potentiallyconservative transformative, members religious of the cultures. Congregationalists It also provides andspace she for moveda parishesnew on articulation a number of religious of occasions. and secular feminist politics. These important religious roots of the early feminist movement in

Australia have been poorly documented, despite a growing literature on Keywords feminist historical research, resulting in a weak understanding of the role that religionFeminism, played secularism, in ushering reform, politics. in the rights of women and the struggle that religious feminists engaged in to achieve inclusion in state and

©© Equinox Equinox Publishing Publishing Ltd Ltd, 2016. 415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. McPhillips Contested Feminisms 137 JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 Churchdoi: 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 structures. It is important to note thatJASR Christian (online) ISSN feminists 1744-9014 fought two patriarchies: the male state and the male Church hierarchy, and this produced for women a number of problematic contradictions and political impasses (Porter 1995; Sands 2008). It could be argued that the changing cultures of early twentieth-century ChristianityContested were in part Feminisms: a result of fi rstWomen’s wave feminists’ Religious reform agendas acrossLeadership sects, denominations and the and Politics churches. of ThisContemporary can be seen via the beginnings of the inclusionWestern of women Feminism in Church leadership positions, including ordination and preaching. First wave feminists were active not only politically, but also as Christian women who sought to radicalise their faith and Church as wellKathleen as poli McPhillipstical structures. They understood that religious tradition and public institution were both subject to the same historical and political contingenciesUniversity of Newcastlein which change could be effected. For these women, the alliance between faith and social action was a non- issue—their faith was the rationale for their political involvement and their morality was based on ChristiaAbstractn principles. Social activism had a theological dimension—their agendas for change covered structural, literaryFeminism and symbolic is a relatively dimensions recent social of movementwomen’s of lives radical (Porter reform, 1995). emerging from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and Firstliberalism wave thatfeminism swept across understood the Western that world the fromrights the of seventeenth women mustcentury be won acrossonwards. the cultural The first and wave institutiona of organisedl spectrumfeminist political and actionthat women’swas articu- public authoritylated incould the abolitionist,be premised temperance on their and religious suffrage ideasmovements and infaith. America The work of theseand earlyEurope activists in the mid-nineteenth was highly contested century and in culminatedboth wider in Christianthe Seneca culture and secularFalls Convention politics. ofIndeed 1848 inthe New idea York that State women where should the women’s have therights rights of movement was born. Religion was a crucial influence in the work of first suffragewave wasfeminists counter enjoying to closethe tiesEnlighte to thenment liberal movementsthinking of Protestan-the time that positionedtism, particularly men as thecultural Quaker agents movement. and However,women as modernitybelonging progressed to the sphere of nature,into the reproduction twentieth century and and child secularism care. becameHowever, incorporated there is into evidence state- that suggestscraft, thatthe insomefluence religious of religion groups, in the aspublic noted sphere above, waned did and provide humanist women ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a with primaryopportunities part of fiforrst religiouswave feminism leader in shipthe nineteenth and many and traditions early twentieth recognised the spiritualcenturies, effromficacy the 1960of women,s second wavefor exampl feminisme embracedin sainthood secularism (Carey and 1996: 112).situated In Catholicism, religion as anthe inherently religious patr authorityiarchal institution, of lay-women incapable was of socialrecognised in thechange, domestic and has sphere, yet to acknowledgebut men held the pivotalsway inpart the that public women’s realm religious (Massam leadership played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist 1996).politics. Recently, a third phase of religious feminism, defined as post- Swainsecular (2014) feminism, argues shifts the that ground women yet again sought to open leadership up new possibilities positions of in a varietyengagement of ways betweenand many religious women and non-religious found religion feminisms. a source Following of empower- on mentfrom that the prepared first two themwaves forof religiousleadership, feminism, whether this thirdit was phase given holds or not. Oftenpotential this involved for counter an hegemonic interpretation action in of transforming ‘key religious gender textsconservative in terms of religious institutions, theologies and social practices towards more inclusive, equalitypotentially and empowermenttransformative, religious which cultures.led them It alsoto develop provides aspace starkly for opposi-a tionalnew stance articulation to dominant of religious interpretations’and secular feminist (Swain politics. 2014: n.p.). As well, orders of women religious enjoyed significant independence and growth throughout Australia in the twentieth century. While being bound by a Keywords conservative theology of obedience, it was also the case that women reli- giousFeminism, were leaders secularism, in education reform, politics. and social welfare and some, like Mary

MacKillop, refused to be bowed by Episcopal agendas (O’Brien 1994).

© Equinox Publishing Ltd,Ltd 2016.415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. 138 JASR 29.2 (2016) JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi: The 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 approach that I have been following JASRis to understand(online) ISSN religion 1744-9014 as a particular kind of social institution, whose histories, theologies and contingencies require speciﬁc analysis. While some historians have argued that religion has functioned to curtail women’s social agency and leadership (Swain 2014), evidence clearly shows that there were, albeit limited, opportunitiesContested for women Feminisms: to exercise Women’s religious leadership Religious and effect changeLeadership in religious communities. and the Politics of Contemporary Western Feminism

Second Wave Feminism

…feminist secularism, likeKathleen all ideologi McPhillipscal secularism, is wilfully amnesiac about its religious history. —Kathleen Sands (2008: 318) University of Newcastle By the time second wave feminism began to emerge in the counter cultural movements of the 1960s, church membership numbers, as recorded in the Australian Census, had Abstractradically declined and secularism as a principle of public life was firmly established. Carey argues that the Feminism is a relatively recent social movement of radical reform, emerging Christian Churches were losing their central focus as the mainstay in the from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and lives ofliberalism families that and swept women across thein partWesternicular world (1996: from the113). seventeenth There arecentury complex reasonsonwards. for this—both The first wave national of organised and global—which feminist political are action discussed was articu- at length by a numberlated in the of historiansabolitionist, astemperance noted by and Carey suffrage (1996, movements especially in America Chapter 5) but forand the Europe purposes in the of mid-nineteenth this discussion, century I will and focus culminated on the in growing the Seneca strength Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights of secularismmovement as was both born. an Religionideology was and a crucial a public influence value in to the articulate work of finationalrst characterwave andfeminists foster enjoying a collective close ties sens to thee of liberal the movementspublic sphere of Protestan- as free from the intism,fluences particularly of religious the Quaker belief. movement. However, as modernity progressed By intothe the 1970s twentieth when century feminists and secularism began became organising incorporated for reforminto statein the craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist churches,ethics membershipcame to the fore of in religious political life. grou So,ps although had dropped Christianity to had less been than a sixty percentprimary of the part total of fi rstpopulation wave feminism (Carey in the 1996: nineteenth 114) and and early religion twentieth was of little nationalcenturies, interestfrom the (Singleton1960s second 2014 wave). feminism The ideological embraced secularismelements and of secu- larismsituated positioned religion religion as an inherently as an patrinnocuous,iarchal institution, atavistic incapable and staid of social tradition change, and has yet to acknowledge the pivotal part that women’s religious that hadleadership failed playedto modernise in establishing (Goldenb the groundserg 2014). for contemporary This was assisted feminist by the work politics.of early Recently, twentieth-century a third phase ofin religiousfluential feminism, social dethinkers,fined as post-including Freud,secular Weber, feminism, Durkheim shifts the and ground Marx, yet who again argued to open thatup new religion possibilities had ofmet its evolutionaryengagement end between and would religious diminish and non-religious and fade feminisms. away with Following the growth on of modernity.from the This first twoscenario waves ofdevalued religious feminism,and essentialised this third phase religion holds and potential for counter hegemonic action in transforming gender conservative establishedreligious the institutions, grounds theologies for a splitand social between practices secular towards and more religious inclusive, feminisms,potentially the impact transformative, of which affected religious thecultures. efficacy It also of providesreform agendasspace for ina both religiousnew andarticulation secular of religiousarenas. and It secularwas particularly feminist politics. damaging for religious feminists as they fought to change Church culture from within but lacked the support of secular feminismKeywords (Tulip and McPhillips 1998: 266). As Muriel Porter describes: Feminism, secularism, reform, politics.

©© Equinox Equinox Publishing Publishing Ltd Ltd, 2016. 415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. McPhillips Contested Feminisms 139 JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi: 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139Christian feminism, which does rightly and properlyJASR seek(online) the ISSNrenewal 1744-9014 of the churches, has remained loyal to its origins as a movement that sprang from the religious convictions of women who sought to serve God and humanity, but were denied vocations because of their gender. It deserves respect as a movement that has ﬁgured strongly in the struggle to free women from

entrapment. (1995: 223) Contested Feminisms: Women’s Religious HavingLeadership said that, the and rise ofthe second Politics wave offeminism Contemporary was momentous in ushering in social change agendas around women’s participation in public Western Feminism life, health and reproductive issues, the politicisation of domestic life and the rights of women and children. Early accounts of the oppression of women in Australian society by femini st authors such as Germaine Greer, Jocelyn Scutt and Anne SummersKathleen appeared McPhillips in the 1970s and galvanised thousands of women intoUniversity lobbying of Newcastle for programs of political change through secular legal processes that would acknowledge the impacts of sexism and ensure the rights of women were enshrined in law. Their work was a strong critique of the patriarchal nature of Australian society and it Abstract detailed the myriad ways in which women were marginalised in both publicFeminism and private is a relatively spheres. recent In social this movement powerful of articulation,radical reform, manyemerging women realisedfrom that the masspatriarchy political was movements a social of systemdemocratisation, not a natural secularisation law, andand could thus liberalismbe transformed that swept th acrossrough the political Western action. world from the seventeenth century onwards. The first wave of organised feminist political action was articu- Intellectually,lated in the abolitionist, second temperancewave feminism and suffrage had movementsa significant in America impact on Christianand Europe women, in theand mid-nineteenth specific forms century of feminism and culminated emerged in the from Seneca women’s strugglesFalls toConvention transform of sexism1848 in inNew the York Churches State where (Tulip the and women’s McPhillips rights 1998: 265).movement A rich wasfield born. of Religionfeminist was theological a crucial in fluencediscourse in the developedwork of first from womenwave struggling feminists enjoying to make close sense ties toof the their liberal faith movements in a patriarchal of Protestan- Church. tism, particularly the Quaker movement. However, as modernity progressed Womeninto themobilised twentieth into century church-based and secularism so cialbecame movements incorporated that into effected state- last- ing change,craft, the particularlyinfluence of religionin the Cathin theolic, public Anglican sphere waned and Unitingand humanist Churches. One ethicsof the came earliest to the groups, fore in political Christ life.ian So,Women although Concerned Christianity had(CWC), been aformed in Sydneyprimary partin of1968 first wavewith feminism women in thecoming nineteenth together and early from twentieth numerous centuries, from the 1960s second wave feminism embraced secularism and denominationssituated religion to as‘break an inherently the voicele patriarchalssness institution, of women incapable in the of churchsocial and publicallychange, speak and has about yet to acknowledgetheir concerns’ the pivotal (1998: part that266). women’s They religious produced a magazine,leadership Magdalene played in, establishingwhich was thepublished grounds fromfor contemporary 1973–87 andfeminist provided an importantpolitics. Recently, forum a thirdfor phasethe articula of religioustion feminism,of women’s defined experience as post- in secular feminism, shifts the ground yet again to open up new possibilities of patriarchal churches: engagement between religious and non-religious feminisms. Following on Muchfrom theof theirfirst analysistwo waves was ofdirected religious against feminism, the institutional this third phasechurch. holds While thepotential church for and counter Christianity hegemonic had actionplayed in a transformingformative role gender in the conservative development religious institutions, theologies and social practices towards more inclusive, of their religious experience, these women now felt pain and betrayal. They potentially transformative, religious cultures. It also provides space for a realised that their deep sense of inadequacy was a product of the new articulation of religious and secular feminist politics. dehumanising and misogynist constructions of women in the institutional practice of Christianity and the theologies and structures of the church. (Tulip and McPhillips 1998: 266)Keywords

The Feminism,public work secularism, of this reform, group politics. led directly to the establishment of the Commission on the status of Women of the Australia Council of Churches

© Equinox Publishing Ltd,Ltd 2016.415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. 140 JASR 29.2 (2016) JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 indoi: 1973 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 and it was the work of this CommissionJASR (online)that paved ISSN the1744-9014 way for the upsurge in feminist activism in the Churches in the 1970s and ’80s. Important new groups formed including the Movement for the Ordination of Women (Anglican), the Women-Church Movement (ecumenical), Women and the Australian Church (WATAC—primarily Catholic), Femi- nists in theContested Uniting Church Feminisms: (FUN) and theWomen’s Ordination Religious of Catholic Women (OCW).Leadership Issues of ordination, and the liturgical Politics language, of Contemporary participation in liturgy and church administration,Western access to Feminism positions of religious authority, and theological education were uppermos t. These agendas were running parallel with the reforms that feminists were fighting for in the secular world: changes to law, equalKathleen access McPhillips to education and jobs, reproductive rights and the recognition of domestic labour inequities. However, building alliancesUniversity between of Newcastle secular and religious women’s groups was often fraught with secula r feminists arguing that religious organisations were largely incapable of social reform and persuading religious women to leave. ManyAbstract did, and pursued reform outside of the Church. But as Kathleen Sands notes, the failure to come together meant that secularFeminism feminism is a relatively was recent often social unab movementle to acknowledge of radical reform, the emerging progressive from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and social vision and outcomes of Christian feminist work: liberalism that swept across the Western world from the seventeenth century [G]ivenonwards. its Theideological first wave secularism, of organised second-wave feminist political feminism action failed was for articu-a long lated in the abolitionist, temperance and suffrage movements in America time to build alliances with the second wave of religious feminism that from and Europe in the mid-nineteenth century and culminated in the Seneca the 1960s on had been reborn both in academic and religious institutions. Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights In seminaries and universities, feminists criticized and often reformed movement was born. Religion was a crucial influence in the work of first misogynistic religious symbols and teachings; in religious institutions they wave feminists enjoying close ties to the liberal movements of Protestan- worked for women’s ordination and liturgical reforms; and in both contexts tism, particularly the Quaker movement. However, as modernity progressed religiousinto the twentiethfeminists centuryadvocated and secularismfor women became in the incorporated wider society. into (2009:state- 318-19) craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist As ethicsargued came above, to the fore secular in political feminism life. So, seemedalthough Christianitysomehow had to beenforget a that primary part of first wave feminism in the nineteenth and early twentieth religiouscenturies, organisations from the 1960 ands second traditions wave feminismwere subject embraced to secularism the same and set of socialsituated and politicalreligion as contingencies an inherently patr thatiarchal all institution, social formations—including incapable of social feminism—arechange, and bound has yet to.to acknowledge That is, in there presentingpivotal part thatreligion women’s as anreligious unchang- ing, monolithicleadership played form, in itestablishing participated the groundsin the formysti contemporaryfication of feminist religion as politics. Recently, a third phase of religious feminism, defined as post- somethingsecular ‘other’feminism, to shifts cultural the ground life yet(Goldenberg again to open 2014).up new possibilitiesThis ideological of dimensionengagement of secularist between religiousphilosophy and non-religiouscontinually feminisms.positioned Following religion on as an unchangingfrom the tradition. first two wavesSands of (2009:religious 326)feminism, argues this thirdthat phasewhen holds feminists deploypotential religion for incounter the public hegemonic sphere action it inneeds transforming to be withingender conservativea discourse that religious institutions, theologies and social practices towards more inclusive, acts topotentially historicise transformative, religion and religious position cultures. it asIt alsoa cultural provides formation space for awhere traditionnew isarticulation seen as of dynamic religious and and secular characterised feminist politics. by processes of conflict and change. Such a discourse

…demonstrates concretely thatKeywords those cultural formations we call religion, like the cultural formations we call government—or for that matter those weFeminism, call feminism—are secularism, reform,complex, politics. ongoing, historical traditions, traditions of

conﬂict and change. (Sands 2009: 326)

©© Equinox Equinox Publishing Publishing Ltd Ltd, 2016. 415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. McPhillips Contested Feminisms 141 JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi: There 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 were of course occasional strategicJASR alliances (online) ISSNbetween 1744-9014 secular and religious feminists and a growing understanding by both movements that spirituality could be imagined outside of patriarchal institutional contexts. This was particularly assisted by the emergence of spirituality as a discourse of social practice and knowledge from the 1990s and fanned by movementsContested of globalisation, Feminisms: migration, Women’s consumerism Religious and the con- tinuingLeadership demise of religion and asthe culturally Politics meaningful of Contemporary to Australian citizens (Singleton 2014: 81-101).Western However, Feminism the impact of ideological secularism blinded feminism to its potential for deeper alliances and reform work. An example of this can be found in the work of literature scholar Elaine Lindsay (2000) whose bookKathleen Re-writing McPhillips God: Spirituality in Contem- porary Australian Women’s Fiction demonstrated that expressions of spirituality had been evidentUniversity in the of work Newcastle of Australian women writers for many years, but lay unacknowled ged and unexamined by secular feminist literary analysis.

Abstract

Feminism is a relativelyReform recent socialand movementRadicalisation of radical reform, emerging from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and Fromliberalism the 1980s, that swept feminist across thetheology Western developedworld from the apace seventeenth across century the USA, Europeonwards. and Theto afi rstlesser wave extentof organised Australia, feminist providing political action innovative was articu- women- centeredlated interpretationsin the abolitionist, of temperance biblical te andxts andsuffrage historical movements evidence in America as well as contestingand Europe the structuresin the mid-nineteenth of Church century organisations and culminated and inthe the dominance Seneca of Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights patriarchalmovement clerical was born. cultures. Religion In wasAust aralia, crucial from influence the inearly the work1970s, of fipowerfulrst accountswave feministsof the oppressionenjoying close ofties women to the liberal in Christianitymovements of were Protestan- published beginningtism, particularly with Barbara the Quaker Thierings’s movement. book However, Created as modernity Second progressed in 1973 (see for example,into the twentieth Franklin century and andJones secularism 1987; became White incorporatedand Tulip into1991; state- McRae- craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist McMahonethics came 1993; to theJoy fore and in Mageepolitical life.1994; So, althoughConfoy, Christianity Lee and hadNowotny been a 1995; Massamprimary 1996; part Paulof first 1999; wave feminismPattel-Gray in the 2000; nineteenth Tulip and and early McPhillips twentieth 1998: 268).centuries, The publication from the 1960 ofs secondIn Memory wave feminism of Her: embraced A Feminist secularism Theological and Reconstructionsituated religion of Christianas an inherently Origins patr iarchalby Harvard institution, scholar incapable Elisabeth of social Schüs- sler Fiorenzachange, and in has1983 yet becameto acknowledge a vital the text pivotal for Catholicpart that women’s women religious in particular leadership played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist as it politics.established Recently, clearly a third the phaseimportan of religioust role that feminism, women de fihadned playedas post- in the earlysecular Jesus feminism,movement, shifts providingthe ground yeta hers againtory to open of women’s up new possibilities association of with leadershipengagement and betweenagency. religious Jewish, and Christian, non-religious post-Christian feminisms. Following and Goddesson feministsfrom producedthe first two a wavesrich fi eldof religious of religious feminism, imagination this third andphase brought holds that potential for counter hegemonic action in transforming gender conservative to theirreligious congregations institutions, theologies and women’s and social groups. practices In towards Sydney, more women inclusive, battled for changespotentially in transformative,Jewish synagogue religious practice cultures. andIt also this provides led to spacewomen for readinga from newthe articulationTorah, marking of religious religious and secular festivals feminist for politics. their daughters and even- tually ordination (Tulip and McPhillips 1998: 268). Feminist theologies were themselves often contestedKeywords and interwoven with other projects of social change especially involving issues of race, ethnicity and class Feminism, secularism, reform, politics. politics (Joy and Magee 1994).

© Equinox Publishing Ltd,Ltd 2016.415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. 142 JASR 29.2 (2016) JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi: A 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139closer look at the main feminist organisationsJASR (online) in Australian ISSN 1744-9014 Christian churches from the 1970s clearly demonstrates the contingent nature of both religious organisations and feminist religious reform and it is clear that these were dynamic organisations with histories of contest and change. At a general level the reform movements (MOW, OCW, Women- Church, ContestedWATAC, Uniting Feminisms: Church FUN) Women’s can be positioned Religious as counter- hegemonicLeadership to the often-conservative and the Politics practices of of Contemporary Anglicanism and Catholi- cism in particular. At a Westernmore speci Feminismfic level, feminist organisations held different positions on issues and were engaged in vigorous relationships with each other, often challenging an d opposing agendas, theologies and positions (Tulip and McPhillipsKathleen 1998: McPhillips 265). For example, membership of groups such as WATAC, OCW and Women-Church often overlapped, but there were dissenting voicesUniversity which ofwere Newcastle critical of some of the positions and agendas of specific groups. For example, WATAC was established in 1984 by the Catholic religious orders of men and women and was inten- ded originally to engage CatholicsAbstract in encouraging the inclusion of women in Church life and raise awareness of discrimination against women (http://www.watac.net).Feminism is a relatively It recent became social anmovement incorporated of radical associationreform, emerging in 1993 from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and but, atliberalism its establishment, that swept across was the positioned Western world within from the the Church.seventeenth It iscentury still active in 2016.onwards. In contrast, The first thewave Sydney of organised Wome feministn-Church political group action deliberately was articu- posi- tionedlated itself in theas abolitionist,independent temperance to any andformal suffrage Church movements and formedin America associ- ationsand with Europe other in feministthe mid-nineteenth religious centurygroups and such culminated as the inKol the Isha Seneca Sydney Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights Jewishmovement women’s was group born. andReligion the wasOrthodox a crucial Christian influence inwomen’s the work association,of first and waswave far feminists more enjoyingadventurous close tiesin exploringto the liberal ritual movements and liturgy of Protestan- beyond the confinestism, of particularly traditional the liturgicalQuaker movement. forms (Tulip However, and as McPhillips modernity progressed1998: 268). 1 Sydneyinto the Women-Church twentieth century wasand secularismestablished became in 1985 incorporated by a group into state-of women craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist who explicitly wanted a space outside of Church influence. It followed the ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a formationprimary of partWomen-Church of first wave feminism groups in inthe the nineteenth USA in and the early early twentieth 1980s and over centuries,the next from fifteen the 1960 yearss second the waveinternational feminism embraced movement secularism produced and an impressivesituated body religion of as literature, an inherently hosted patriarchal international institution, andincapable local of events social and supportedchange, the and formation has yet to acknowledge of a feminist the pivotal politics part of that religion women’s in religious the public leadership played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist sphere.politics. Two Recently, prominent a third feminist phase oftheolo religiousgical feminism, activist-scholars, defined as Rosemarypost- Radfordsecular Ruether feminism, (1985) shifts theand ground Elisabeth yet again Schüssler to open upFiorenza new possibilities (1993), of wrote importantengagement theological between accounts religious andof thnon-religiouse movement. feminisms. Sandra Following Schneiders, on a prominentfrom theUS fiCatholicrst two waves feminist, of religious suggests feminism, that: this third phase holds potential for counter hegemonic action in transforming gender conservative Womenchurchreligious institutions, defines theologies itself as aand church, social i.e.practices as a community towards more of inclusive,religiously engagedpotentially and transformative, motivated people religious who cultures. are women-identi It also providesfied. Theirspace starting for a pointnew articulationis the experience of religious of women, and secular not anyfeminist particular politics. institutional religious tradition, although the movement originated among Catholic women

Keywords

Feminism, secularism, reform, politics. 1. Many of these innovative rituals are documented in the journal Women-Church: An Australian Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion.

©© Equinox Equinox Publishing Publishing Ltd Ltd, 2016. 415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. McPhillips Contested Feminisms 143 JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi: 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139moving beyond the goal of ordination intoJASR a self-understanding (online) ISSN 1744-9014 as an exodus community…from patriarchy. Their goal is the full personhood of women… (1991: 101)

Over the years that the Sydney group was active, it produced a bi-annual journal (1987–2007), met monthly, created and performed rituals that reflectedContested the lived embodied Feminisms: experiences Women’s of women, Religious re-imagined the languageLeadership and imagery and of divinity the Politics through artof andContemporary literature, participated in numerous public protests,Western held Feminismseminars and retreats and supported members in their various quests for change. They occasionally participated in public protest. For example, in 1995 during the visit of Pope John Paul II to Australia membersKathleen McPhillipsof Women-Church penned a Protest Creed and took it down to Hyde Park to read as the pope drove by in his Popemobile (White 2006).University of Newcastle During the 1990s MOW, WATAC and Women-Church organised a series of national feminist theology conferences, which brought together hundreds of women hungry forAbstract intellectua l, practical and ritual re-inven- tion. While the conferences were an important gathering point, the more radicalFeminism agendas is a ofrelatively including recent women social movement from non-Christian of radical reform, feminist emerging religious from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and groups,liberalism Aboriginal that swept women across andthe Western Goddes worlds groups from the were seventeenth subsumed century into the biggeronwards. issues Theof fiwomen’srst wave of ordination organised feminist and liturgicalpolitical action change was articu-(Tulip and McPhillipslated in 1998: the abolitionist, 269). temperance and suffrage movements in America In and1992 Europe a new in the association mid-nineteenth called century Women and culminated Scholars in ofthe ReligionSeneca and Falls 2Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights Theologymovement was was founded, born. Religion which was had a cruciala brief in flofuence bringing in the worktogether of fi rstwomen who wavewere feminists working, enjoying researching, close ties teachingto the liberal and movements living in of the Protestan- Asia Pacific region.tism, The particularly association the Quaker held movement. three conferences However, as modernity in Australia progressed and New Zealandinto theand twentieth founded century a journal and secularism called Seachanges. became incorporated This journal, into state- which is craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist managedethics cameby four to the academics, fore in political is life.sti llSo, active although and Christianity has recently had been published a Volumeprimary 7 (2016) part of withfirst wave essays feminism by postgraduate in the nineteenth students and early across twentieth the region. This centuries,demonstrates from the a small1960s butsecond ongoing wave feminism interest embraced in women secularism and religion. and Whilesituated reform religion within as an theinherently Churches patriarchal centered institution, around incapable increasing of social partici- pationchange, levels and for has women yet to acknowledge at parish theand pivotal administrative part that women’s sites, religious changes to leadership played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist liturgicalpolitics. language, Recently, asa thirdwell phaseas develo of religiousping women’s feminism, leadershipdefined as post-capacities particularlysecular feminism, via the ordinationshifts the ground of women, yet again ato numberopen up new of religiouspossibilities organisa- of tions engagementfailed to progress between towardsreligious andbeing non-religious more gender feminisms. inclusive. Following For exampleon , in thefrom 1970s the thefirst Presbyteriantwo waves of Churchreligious feminism,gave women this thirdordination phase holds rights, but potential for counter hegemonic action in transforming gender conservative then religiouslater rescindedinstitutions, theologiesthem in and 1995, social practicesleaving towards ordained more inclusive,women in a completepotentially quandary transformative, (Tulip religiousand McPhillips cultures. It 1998:also provides 267). spaceWomen for a in the Catholicnew articulationChurch continue of religious to and be secular stymie feministd by apolitics. male clerical elite that was entrenched in keeping women out of positions of responsibility and power (Schneiders 1991). TheKeywords Vatican resists the push for change and continues to promote a limited role for women in Church leadership, Feminism, secularism, reform, politics.

2. Online: http://www.wsrt.asn.au/.

© Equinox Publishing Ltd,Ltd 2016.415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. 144 JASR 29.2 (2016) JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 despitedoi: 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 the fact that in local churches it has becomeJASR (online) increasingly ISSN 1744-9014 clear that although women cannot be ordained, they are active across leadership roles at parish and diocesan level, particularly in the face of decreasing clergy levels and decreasing lay male participation. Even in Uniting and Anglican Churches where ordination has now been commonplace for well overContested 20 years, recent Feminisms: studies show Women’s that there Religious remain signi ﬁcant issues Leadershipof marginalisation and and the mistreatment Politics of of Contemporary women clergy (Bouma 2014; Thomson 2014). AsWestern Janet Scarfe Feminism states, changing the rules was not akin to changing the culture (2014: 52).

FeminismKathleen and Post-SecularismMcPhillips

In recent years the counter-hegemonicUniversity of Newcastle feminist movements in the Christian Churches have become dulled with issues of women’s religious rights addressed in most Protestant churches. The Women-Church organisation has folded, OCW hasAbstract closed and the MOW group maintain a small presence mainly in the Anglican Church. A small group of WATACFeminism members is a relatively continues recent to social meet movement in Sydney. of radical With reform, the advent emerging of ordi- from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and nationliberalism in most that Christian swept across churches, the Western the worldpolitics from of the women’s seventeenth religious century rights have onwards.shifted awayThe fi rstfrom wave women’s of organised reli feministgious leadershippolitical action to wasdebates articu- about the inclusionlated in theof womenabolitionist, clergy temperance in more and senior suffrage roles movements and the inrole America of women in otherand Europereligious in theorganisations mid-nineteenth suchcentury as and Islam culminated and inBuddhism. the Seneca With Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights continuingmovement falling was numbers born. Religion of women was a crucial and meninfluence attending in the workchurch of fi andrst the clericalwave child feminists sexual enjoying abuse close crisis, ties theto the future liberal ofmovements the Church of Protestan- as a public organisationtism, particularly with moral the Quaker sway movement. is in doubt. However, This as signals modernity a cultural progressed turn in the feministinto the twentiethpolitics ofcentury religion and awaysecularism from became the bigincorporated reform movementsinto state- to craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist new stylesethics cameof political to the fore engagement. in political life. So, although Christianity had been a Theseprimary new part styles of fi rstof waveengagement feminism arin ethe nascent nineteenth and and emerge early twentiethfrom the rise of thirdcenturies, wave from feminism the 1960 throughouts second wave the feminism 1990s embraced and 2000s. secularism Third and wave feminismsituated shifted religion the as focusan inherently from socialpatriarchal change institution, to identity incapable politics of social (Brown 2012:change, 265) andand hasthis yet coincided to acknowledge with thethe pivotal rise ofpart neo-liberal that women’s politics, religious which leadership played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist championspolitics. the Recently, rights aof third individuals phase of butreligious shies feminism, away from defi nedsocial as post-groups as the centralsecular feminism,force for shifts social the ground change yet again(Singleton to open up2014). new possibilities A post-feminist of backlashengagement in the earlybetween years religious of the and ne non-religiousw century affectedfeminisms. the Following trust of on young womenfrom and the led first to two the waves idea ofthat religious feminism feminism, was nothis longerthird phase needed holds as the potential for counter hegemonic action in transforming gender conservative rights religiousof women institutions, had beentheologies secured and social in thepractices 1980s towards and more ’90s. inclusive, It was also relatedpotentially to a fear transformative, about the religiousrising power cultures. of Itwomen also provides in the space public for asphere and subsequentnew articulation political of religious responses and secular (Blackmore feminist politics. 1997). A discourse of

‘derision’ articulated by conservative forces located feminism as the cause of social dislocation in unemployment,Keywords divorce, family breakdown and the perceived crisis in masculinity (1997: 76). Feminism, secularism, reform, politics.

©© Equinox Equinox Publishing Publishing Ltd Ltd, 2016. 415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. McPhillips Contested Feminisms 145 JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi: In 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 terms of religious developments, theJASR politics (online) of ISSNderision 1744-9014 can be glimpsed in a number of areas. The rise of a post-secular society denotes new roles for religious organisations in the public sphere, largely in the service of neo-liberal agendas of state and federal governments (McPhillips 2015). Indeed, the out-sourcing of social policy (including education,Contested health, age Feminisms: care, and disability Women’s areas) Religious to mostly Christian organisationsLeadership has re-engaged and the religion Politics in theof Contemporarypolicy sphere despite the continuing decline in churchWestern attendance Feminism figures. Conservative politicians such as John Howard and Tony Abbott have tied gender conservatism to religious values and sometimes enacted them in policy, resulting in the rise of the ‘religious politician’Kathleen (Maddox McPhillips 2005). In this new landscape of neo-liberal capitalism, religious organisations may be declining in terms of traditional membership Universitybut growing of Newcastle in economic and political clout. In particular, the outsourcing of social policy in education, employment services, health, aged care and disability services to mostly Christian organisations means that manyAbstract religious organisations exercise significant levels of political and economic power (McPhillips 2015). This brings with it someFeminism diffi cultis a relativelygender recent issues, social given movement that ofreligious radical reform, organisations emerging are from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and exemptliberalism from that anti-discrimination swept across the Western legislation world from andthe seventeenth thus able century to enact conservativeonwards. genderThe first politicswave of inorganised employment feminist practicepolitical action(Thornton was articu- and Luker 2009;lated McPhillips in the abolitionist, 2015). Ittemperance also opens and up suffrage a concerning movements level in America of discrimi- nationand against Europe inwomen the mid-nineteenth who fail tocentury me etand Church culminated ideals in the of Seneca femininity. Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights Thorntonmovement and wasLuker born. (2009) Religion note was thata crucial in a in numberfluence in of the cases work theyof first studied that camewave feminists before enjoyingthe Anti-Discrimin close ties to theation liberal Board movements for mediation, of Protestan- religious groupstism, were particularly legally the able Quaker to discrimi movement.nate However, against as lesbian modernity women progressed and single mothersinto thein employment twentieth century based and onsecularism the practice became of incorporated tradition. into state- craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist The growth of new alignments between the state and faith organi- ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a sationsprimary in a part neo-liberal of first wave framework feminism inis thenot nineteenth limited andto Australia. early twentieth Dhaliwell (2016)centuries, argues from that the the 1960 rises second of new wave forms feminism of state–faith embraced secularismrelationships and in for example,situated the religion multi-faith as an inherentlymovement patr iniarchal Britain, institution, privileges incapable men’s of socialexperience of, andchange, power and hasin, yetreligious to acknowledge organisations the pivotal and part embedsthat women’s forms religious of gender leadership played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist inequality.politics. Recently, a third phase of religious feminism, defined as post- Atsecular an international feminism, shifts level, the ground the yetrising again popularity to open up newof evangelical possibilities of funda- mentalistengagement Christianities, between religious sometimes and non-religious called muscular feminisms. Christianity Following on(Brown 2012:from 261), the fitendedrst two towaves reinforce of religious tradit feminism,ional gender this third roles phase with holds religious potential for counter hegemonic action in transforming gender conservative leadersreligious across institutions, a number theologies of conserva and socialtive practices denominations towards more emphasising inclusive, the theologypotentially of headship. transformative, Many religious would cultures. argue It thisalso providesis a backward space for stepa for women’snew articulation rights (Baird of religious 2015a; and Maddox secular feminist 2013). politics. The clerical sexual abuse issue which rose to public notice in the 1990s has had a significant effect on delegitimizing the moral authorityKeywords of churches, indeed religion, and further eroded confidence and trust in the ability of religious organi- Feminism, secularism, reform, politics. sations to ensure the safety of children (Keenan 2012).

© Equinox Publishing Ltd,Ltd 2016.415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. 146 JASR 29.2 (2016) JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 doi: The 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 idea that second wave secular feminismJASR held (online) onto—that ISSN 1744-9014 religion was hopelessly patriarchal—has certainly been weakened. And it may be the case that in this new era of capitalist neo-liberal political agendas new alliances between secular and religious feminisms are possible. For example, the question of marriage equality, which is currently being debated in AustralianContested communities, Feminisms: has split the religiousWomen’s vote, Religious with liberal Christi- anities Leadershipsupporting new and marriage the legislPoliticsation and of Contemporarymore traditional Churches taking a conservative stance.Western Indeed, Feminism Baird (2015b) suggests that the majority of Christians support marri age equality, despite their religious leaders arguing against it. This implie s that religious leadership does not enjoy the authority it recentlyKathleen held. McPhillips Feminists, whether religious or secular, are finding common ground across these issues. I argue that the mobilisationUniversity of femiof Newcastlenist social action is crucial to the articulation of areas of current discrimination against women in employment, equal pay, domestic politics, violence against women, reproductive health and marginalisation in religiouAbstracts organisations. In this continuing work, there are two issues that need to be addressed. The first is to continueFeminism to dissolve is a relatively the recent ideological social movement dimensions of radical of reform, religion/secular emerging in from the mass political movements of democratisation, secularisation and feministliberalism theory, that which swept acrosswill relieve the Western the tensionworld from between the seventeenth so-called century religious and secularonwards. feminists, The first waveand ofre-orient organised attention feminist politicalto the actiontreatment was articu-of women acrosslated all ininstitutions. the abolitionist, The temperance second is and to suffragedescribe, movements analyse inand America politically mobiliseand Europethe multiple in the mid-nineteenth narratives ofcentury alternative and culminated political in themovements Seneca in Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights religiousmovement traditions. was born. In effect,Religion feminism was a crucial needs influence to challengein the work theof fi rstidea of traditionwave as feminists only one enjoying voice close and ties the to story the liberal of one movements people andof Protestan- open this up to multiple,tism, particularly contested the voices.Quaker movement.This will makeHowever, visible as modernity the feminist progressed traditions alreadyinto present the twentieth in faith century traditions, and secularism as well became as the incorporated way in which into state- the state craft, the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist mobilises tradition for its own political purposes. In a very important way, ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a first waveprimary Christian part of fi rstwomen wave feminism provided in thea modelnineteenth for and political early twentieth engagement that mightcenturies, be usefulfrom the for 1960 feminists second struggles wave feminism today. embraced secularism and situated religion as an inherently patriarchal institution, incapable of social change, and has yet to acknowledge the pivotal part that women’s religious leadership played in establishingReferences the grounds for contemporary feminist politics. Recently, a third phase of religious feminism, defined as post- Baird, secularJulia feminism, shifts the ground yet again to open up new possibilities of 2015aengagement Submission between Is religious a Fraught and Mixed non-religious Message feminisms. for the Church. Following The on Sydney from theMorning first two Herald waves, February of religious 13. feminism, this third phase holds potential for counter hegemonic action in transforming gender conservative 2015b Even Among Christians There Is Support for Same-Sex Marriage. The religious institutions, theologies and social practices towards more inclusive, potentiallySydney transformative, Morning Herald religious, June cultures. 5. It also provides space for a Blackmore,new articulation Jill of religious and secular feminist politics. 1997 Disciplining Feminism: A Look at Gender-Equity Struggles in Australian Higher Education. In Dangerous Territories: Struggles for Difference Keywords and Equality in Education, edited by Leslie Roman and Linda Eyre, 75- Feminism,98. secularism, Routledge, reform, London. politics.

©© Equinox Equinox Publishing Publishing Ltd Ltd, 2016. 415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. McPhillips Contested Feminisms 147 JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 Bouma,doi: 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 Gary JASR (online) ISSN 1744-9014 2014 Twenty Years of Change? Women’s Ministry in the Anglican Church of Australia. St Mark’s Review 228 (May): 59-65. Brown, Callum 2012 Religion and the Demographic Revolution. Boydell & Brewer, London. Carey, HilaryContested Feminisms: Women’s Religious 1996Leadership Believing inand Australia: the APolitics Cultural History of Contemporary of Religions. Allen & Unwin, St Leondards.Western Feminism Confoy, Maryanne, Dorothy Lee and Joan Nowotny (eds.)

1995 Freedom and Entrapment: Women Thinking Theology. Dove Publica-

tions, Melbourne. Conway, Jude Kathleen McPhillips

2015 On the Track ofUniversity Radical ofReverend Newcastle Joan Hore. Unpublished article, University of Newcastle, Australia.

Dhaliwell, Sukhwant 2016 Multifaithism and Secularism in the UK. Unpublished article, University of Bedfordshire, England.Abstract

Franklin, Margaret Ann, and Ruth Sturmey Jones Feminism is a relatively recent social movement of radical reform, emerging 1987from the Openingmass political the Cage:movements Stories of ofdemocratisation, Church and Gender.secularisation Allen and& Unwin, liberalism Sydney.that swept across the Western world from the seventeenth century Goldenberg,onwards. Naomi The fi rst wave of organised feminist political action was articu- 2014lated in the Demythologizing abolitionist, temperance Gender and and Reli suffragegion within movements Nation-States: in America Towards a and Europe in the mid-nineteenth century and culminated in the Seneca Politics of Disbelief. In Religion, Gender and the Public Sphere, edited Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights movementby was Naomi born. Reilly Religion and Staceywas a Scriver,crucial in 248-56.fluence Routledge,in the work New of fi York.rst Joy, Morny,wave feminists and Penelope enjoying Magee close (eds.) ties to the liberal movements of Protestan- 1994tism, particularly Claiming the Our Quaker Rites: movement. Studies in However, Religion byas modernityAustralian progressedWomen Scholars. into the twentiethThe Australian century Association and secularism for the became Study ofincorporated Religions, Adelaide.into state- Keenan,craft, Marie the influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a 2012primary partChild of Sexualfirst wave Abuse feminism and inthe the Catholic nineteenth Church: and early Gender twentieth Power and centuries,Organizational from the 1960 sPower. second Oxford wave feminism University embraced Press, Oxford. secularism and Lindsay,situated Elaine religion as an inherently patriarchal institution, incapable of social 2000change, andRe-writing has yet toGod: acknowledge Spirituality the pivotalin Contemporary part that women’s Australian religious Women’s leadershipFiction played, Cross/Cultures. in establishing Rodopi,the grounds Amsterdam. for contemporary feminist politics. Recently, a third phase of religious feminism, defined as post- Maddox, Marion secular feminism, shifts the ground yet again to open up new possibilities of 2005engagement God between Under religiousHoward: and The non-religious Rise of the feminisms. Religious FollowingRight in onAustralian from the Politicsfirst two. Allen waves & Unwin, of religious Sydney. feminism, this third phase holds 2013potential for‘Rise counter up hegemonicPrincess Warrior action in Datransformingughters’: genderIs Evangelical conservative Women’s religious institutions,Submission theologies a Mere Fairy and socialTale? practicesJournal oftowards Feminist more Studies inclusive, in Religion potentially transformative, religious cultures. It also provides space for a 29(1): 9-26. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2979/jfemistudreli.29.1.9. new articulation of religious and secular feminist politics. McPhillips, Kathleen 2015 Whose Rights Matter? Women’s Rights, Anti-discrimination Legislation and the Case of ReligiousKeywords Exemptions. In Timothy Stanley (ed.),

Feminism,Religion secularism, After reform, Seculari politics.zation in Australia, 119-36. Palgrave, New York.

© Equinox Publishing Ltd,Ltd 2016.415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. 148 JASR 29.2 (2016) JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 McRae-McMahon,doi: 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 Dorothy JASR (online) ISSN 1744-9014 1993 Being Clergy, Staying Human: Taking Our Stand in the River. Alban Institute, Washington DC. Massam, Katharine 1996 Sacred Threads: Catholic Spirituality in Australia 1922–1962. UNSW ContestedPress, Sydney. Feminisms: Women’s Religious O’Brien,Leadership Lesley and the Politics of Contemporary 1994 Mary MacKillopWestern Unveiled. CollinsDove,Feminism Victoria. Oldﬁeld, Audrey

1992 Woman Suffrage in Australia: A Gift or a Struggle? Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge. Pattel-Gray, Anne (ed.) Kathleen McPhillips

2000 Tiddas Talking BusinessUniversity. ISPCK, of Newcastle Delhi. Paul, Camille

1999 Equal or Different? Women, the Papacy and Social Justice. John Garrett Publishing, Victoria. Phillips, Melanie Abstract

2004 The Ascent of Woman: A History of the Suffragette Movement. Little Feminism is a relatively recent social movement of radical reform, emerging from theBrown, mass political London. movements of democratisation, secularisation and Porter,liberalism Muriel that swept across the Western world from the seventeenth century 1995onwards. The The Christianfirst wave Origins of organised of Feminism. feminist politicalIn Freedom action andwas articu-Entrapment: lated in Womenthe abolitionist, Thinking temperance Theology, andedited suffrage by Maryanne movements Confoy, in America Dorothy Lee and Europe in the mid-nineteenth century and culminated in the Seneca and Joan Nowotny, 208-23. Dove Publications, Melbourne. Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights Radford,movement Ruether wasRosemary born. Religion was a crucial influence in the work of first 1985wave feministsWomen-Church: enjoying close Theology ties to theand liberal Practi movementsce of Feministof Protestan- Liturgical tism, particularlyCommunities. the Quaker Harper movement. & Row, San However, Francisco. as modernity progressed Sands,into Kathleen the twentieth century and secularism became incorporated into state- 2008craft, the Feminisms influence ofand religion Secularisms. in the Inpublic Secularisms sphere waned, edited and by Janethumanist Jakobsen ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a primary andpart Anneof first Pellegrini, wave feminism 308-29. in Du theke nineteenth University andPress, early London. twentieth Scarfe,centuries, Janet from the 1960s second wave feminism embraced secularism and 2014situated Changedreligion as Rules,an inherently Changing patr Culture?iarchal institution, The Ordination incapable of ofWomen. social In St change, andMark’s has Review yet to acknowledge 228 (May): 51-58. the pivotal part that women’s religious Schneiders,leadership Sandra played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist politics. Recently, a third phase of religious feminism, defined as post- 1991 Beyond Patching: Faith and Feminism in the Catholic Church. Paulist secular feminism, shifts the ground yet again to open up new possibilities of engagementPress, between New York. religious and non-religious feminisms. Following on Schüsslerfrom Fiorenza, the first Elizabeth two waves of religious feminism, this third phase holds 1983potential In for Memory counter hegemonicof Her: A Feminist action in Theoltransformingogical Reconstruction gender conservative of Christian religious Originsinstitutions,. SCM theologies Press, London. and social practices towards more inclusive, potentially transformative, religious cultures. It also provides space for a 1993 Discipleship of Equals: A Critical Feminist Ekklessia-logy of Liberation. new articulation of religious and secular feminist politics. Crossroad, New York. Singleton, Andrew 2014 Religion, Culture and KeywordsSociety. Sage, London.

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©© Equinox Equinox Publishing Publishing Ltd Ltd, 2016. 415 The Workstation, 15 Paternoster Row, Sheffield, S1 2BX. McPhillips Contested Feminisms 149 JASR 29.2 (2016): 134-149 JASR (print) ISSN 1031-2943 Swain,doi: 10.1558/jasr.v29i2.31139 Shurlee JASR (online) ISSN 1744-9014 2014 Religion. In The Encyclopaedia of Women and Leadership in Twentieth Century Australia. Australian Women Archives Project. Online: http://www.womenaustralia.info/leaders/biogs/WLE0444b.htm. Thiering, Barbara 1973Contested Created Second? Feminisms: Aspects of Women’sWomen’s Liberation Religious in Australia. Family LeadershipLife Movement and of the Australia, Politics Sydney. of Contemporary Thomson, Heather Western Feminism 2014 Taking Stock: A Survey of Women Ordained in the Anglican Church of

Australia. St Mark’s Review 228 (May): 1-50.

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White, Erin Feminism is a relatively recent social movement of radical reform, emerging 2006from the Women-Churchmass political movements Journal: Asof democratisation,It Was in the Beginning. secularisation Women-Church: and liberalism Anthat Australian swept across Journal the Western of Feminist world Studies from the in Religionseventeenth 39 (Spring):century 6. White,onwards. Erin, and The Marie first Tulip wave of organised feminist political action was articu- 1991lated in theKnowing abolitionist, Otherwise: temperance Feminism, and suffrage Women movements and Religion. in America David Lovell, and Europe in the mid-nineteenth century and culminated in the Seneca Melbourne. Falls Convention of 1848 in New York State where the women’s rights Wright,movement Clare was born. Religion was a crucial influence in the work of first 2014wave feminists Goldstein, enjoying Vida close Jane. ties In Theto the Encyclopaedia liberal movements of Women of Protestan- and Leadership tism, particularlyin Twentieth the Quaker Century movement. Australia However,. Australian as Womenmodernity Archives progressed Project. No into the twentiethpages. centuryOnline: and secularismhttp://www.wome became incorporatednaustralia.info/ into leaders/biogs/state- craft, the WLE0160b.htm.influence of religion in the public sphere waned and humanist ethics came to the fore in political life. So, although Christianity had been a primary part of first wave feminism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, from the 1960s second wave feminism embraced secularism and situated religion as an inherently patriarchal institution, incapable of social change, and has yet to acknowledge the pivotal part that women’s religious leadership played in establishing the grounds for contemporary feminist politics. Recently, a third phase of religious feminism, defined as post- secular feminism, shifts the ground yet again to open up new possibilities of engagement between religious and non-religious feminisms. Following on from the first two waves of religious feminism, this third phase holds potential for counter hegemonic action in transforming gender conservative religious institutions, theologies and social practices towards more inclusive, potentially transformative, religious cultures. It also provides space for a new articulation of religious and secular feminist politics.

Keywords

Feminism, secularism, reform, politics.

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