Karen Commitment. Proceedings of a Conference of Indigenous Livestock

The Karen Commitment Proceedings of a Conference of Indigenous Livestock Breeding Communities on Animal Genetic Resources

LEAGUE FOR EAST AFRICA PASTORAL PEOPLES The Karen Commitment

Proceedings of a Conference of

Indigenous Livestock Breeding Communities

on Animal Genetic Resources

Karen, Kenya, 27–30 October 2003 Imprint

Published by German NGO Forum on Environment & Development Am Michaelshof 8–10 53177 Bonn, Germany Phone: +49-(0)228-35 97 04 Fax: +49-(0)228-92399356 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.forumue.de

Editors Ilse Köhler-Rollefson Jacob Wanyama

Workshop documentation Kamwati Wango

Copyediting and layout Paul Mundy, Bergisch Gladbach, www.mamud.com

Cover photos Top: herders in Mongolia Middle: Ankole cattle, Uganda Bottom: Raika woman with sheep, India All photos courtesy of workshop participants

Printed by Knotenpunkt

Bonn, Germany, 2003

2 Contents

Contents

Foreword ...... 5

Acknowledgements ...... 7

The Karen Commitment on pastoralist/indigenous livestock keepers’ rights ...... 8

Workshop insights and recommendations ...... 9

Part 1 Setting the scene ...... 11

Opening ...... 12

Indigenous livestock breeding communities and farm animal genetic resources in the context of global development trends .... 14

Indigenous knowledge about animal breeding ...... 17

Part 2 The role of livestock and breeding: Community presentations ...... 20

Kawahla, Eastern Sudan ...... 20

Somali, Kenya and Somalia ...... 21

Karamojong cluster, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Sudan...... 21

Karamojong, Uganda ...... 24

Maasai, Kenya and Tanzania...... 29

Boran, Southern Ethiopia and Marsabit district, Kenya ...... 32

Bahima, Uganda ...... 34

Orog Nuur, Mongolia ...... 41

Raika, Western India ...... 43

3 Contents

Livestock breeders, Tamil Nadu, southern India ...... 45

Fulani, Burkina Faso ...... 51

Akamba, Kenya ...... 51

Mbororo, Cameroon ...... 52

Part 3 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs ...... 54

Status of indigenous livestock breeds in Kenya ...... 54

Regulatory and legal options for the protection of the rights of traditional livestock keepers and breeders ...... 58

Promotion of livestock genetic resource diversity in Kenya ...... 64

Indigenous livestock breeds and intellectual property rights ...... 65

Global status of research in indigenous livestock breeds ...... 77

An international farm animal genetic resources treaty? Lessons from negotiating the seed treaty...... 79

Part 4 Working groups...... 82

Participants ...... 90

4 Foreword

Foreword

Jacob Wanyama ITDG–East Africa

Ilse Köhler-Rollefson League for Pastoral Peoples

astoralists and other indigenous live- The Convention on Biological Diversity, stock breeding communities have de in its Article 8j, also calls for recognition of PP veloped a large number of farm ani- the vast amount of in-situ conservation mal breeds with unique genetic adapta- carried out by traditional communities. This tions. In times of widespread, indiscrimi- call is reflected in Part III of the Interna- nate crossbreeding or substitution with ex- tional Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources, otic breeds, these marginalized people on ‘farmers’ rights’. The concept of Farm- have acted as custodians of pure breeds ers’ Rights is based on the past, present that represent the result of many genera- and future contributions of farmers in con- tions of traditional knowledge and active serving crop genetic diversity. This provi- genetic manipulation for certain culturally sion entitles farmers to the right to save, defined criteria. It is now acknowledged use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed, that these breeds are often endowed with to participate in decision-making, and in very desirable genetic traits, such as dis- the fair and equitable sharing of benefits ease resistance, fertility and general fitness, arising from the use of plant genetic re- which are not present in the genetic make- sources. up of high-performance animals. In the envisioned animal treaty, the In general, these breeds are not pro- equivalent to Farmers’ Rights would be tected by any intellectual property regime. ‘Livestock Keepers’ Rights’. This term was This renders them vulnerable to biopiracy, proposed and discussed during the NGO/ since scientific and commercial interest in CSO Forum for Food Sovereignty held par- their genetic components is set to intensify. allel to the World Food Summit in June Breeding for disease resistance and genetic 2002. disease control is regarded as a promising new avenue in livestock production in What should such Livestock Keepers’ view of the fact that many disease-causing Rights entail? This is a question that must organisms – worms, bacteria, viruses, and be debated and answered above all by the protozoa – are becoming increasingly re- prime stakeholders themselves – by the sistant to drugs and vaccines. many pastoralist and indigenous livestock- keeping communities. This was one of the Indigenous livestock breeders, as hold- main reasons for ITDG-EA and LPP to co- ers of the rights over these biological re- operate in organizing an international sources, thus represent prime stakehold- workshop to bring together as many rep- ers in the emerging debate about legal and resentatives as possible from these com- regulatory frameworks for the sustainable munities and to facilitate discussion be- use of farm animal genetic resources, in- tween themselves and with selected re- cluding a ‘breed treaty’, as pendant to the source persons. The workshop had the fol- International Treaty on Plant Genetic Re- lowing goals: sources.

5 Foreword

• To raise awareness among indigenous Thanks to the participation of a large livestock-breeding communities about number of representatives from indigenous international developments and the glo- livestock-breeding communities, the work- bal agenda with respect to livestock. shop was successful in showcasing the sig- • To document the links of indigenous nificance of traditional knowledge and so- communities with particular livestock cial systems for upholding farm animal breeds. genetic diversity. The papers by the resource • To showcase the importance of cultural persons also emphasized the need to safe- diversity and diverse agricultural pro- guard the rights of these communities as duction systems for farm animal genetic laid down in the Convention on Biological diversity. Diversity. • To discover commonalities and differ- ences, and maybe a common identity, This workshop was an important step between the various livestock-depend- toward the overall objective of official recent groups. ognition of the enormous contribution of • To develop strategies for influencing the indigenous livestock-breeding communities international discussions on animal ge- to future food security. We would like to netic resources from the grassroots per- express our sincere thanks and enormous spective. appreciations to both donors and partici- • To articulate the linkage between the pants for their contributions and dedica- sustainable use of livestock breeds and tion to the cause. access to grazing and pastures.

6 Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

The workshop reported in this document was organized by the Intermediate Technology Development Group–East Africa and the League for Pastoral Peoples.

EAST AFRICA LEAGUE FOR PASTORAL PEOPLES ITDG–East Africa League for Pastoral Peoples PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Pragelatostrasse 20, 64372 Ober-Ramstadt, Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, Germany 2719413 Tel/fax: +49 6154 53642 Fax: +254 2 2710083 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] www.pastoralpeoples.org www.itdg.org

The organizers wish to thank the workshop participants and all those involved in preparing and implementing the workshop. Special thanks to Patrick Mulvaney, Elzbieta Martyniuk and J Ekpere for their decisive inputs. Thanks also to FAO for supporting Ms Martyniuk’s participation, and to Susanne Gura (IFOAM), Helen Ochieng (GTZ-Kenya) and Evelyn Mathias (LPP) for their enthusiatic support during the planning stages of the workshop.

The workshop was supported by the following:

Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst Church Development Service Misereor

Technical Centre for Agricultural and German Agency for Technical Cooperation Rural Cooperation (ACP-EU) (GTZ), Managing Agrobiodiversity in Ru- ral Areas Project

This document was produced and printed with the support of the Sector Project: Global Food Security of the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and the German NGO Forum on Environment and Development.

7 Karen Commitment

The Karen Commitment on pastoralist/indigenous livestock keepers’ rights

e call on governments and rel- tegrity of these genetic resources. evant international bodies to • Have their breeds recognized as prod- WWcommit themselves to the formal ucts of their communities and indig- recognition of the historical and current enous knowledge, and therefore remain contribution of pastoralists and pastoral- in the public domain. ism to food and livelihood security, envi- • Benefit equitably from the use of ronmental services and domestic animal AnGRFA in their own communities and diversity. by others.

We also demand that they recognize the We call on the Food and Agriculture contributions of pastoralists and other live- Organization of the UN (FAO) to start ne- stock keepers, over millennia, to the con- gotiating such a legally binding agreement, servation and sustainable use of animal without delay, ensuring that it will be in genetic resources for food and agriculture harmony with the Convention on Biologi- (AnGRFA) including associated species and cal Diversity. the genes they contain. We further call on FAO to develop a glo- Furthermore, we insist that there is in- bal plan for the conservation and sustain- ternational legally-binding recognition of able use of AnGRFA by pastoralists, other inalienable ‘Livestock Keepers’ Rights and livestock keeping communities and relevant the rights of their communities to: public institutions.

• Continue to use their knowledge con- Finally, we insist that AnGRFA be ex- cerning the conservation and sustain- cluded from intellectual property rights able use of AnGRFA, without fears of its claims and that there should be a morato- appropriation. rium on the release of genetically modi- • Participate democratically in making fied livestock until biosafety is proven, in decisions on matters related to the con- accordance with the precautionary princi- servation and sustainable use of ple. We call on relevant institutions con- AnGRFA. cerned with food, agriculture, trade, intel- • Access, save, use, exchange, sell their lectual property and animal research to AnGRFAA, unrestricted by intellectual provide assurances and such legal protec- property rights (IPRs) and (modification tion as are necessary to sustain the free through) genetic engineering technolo- flow and integrity of AnGRFA, vital to glo- gies that we believe will disrupt the in- bal food security and the environment.

8 Insights and recommendations

Workshop insights and recommendations

astoralism makes an important Governments and regional bodiesbodies: PPcontribution to • Strengthen the quality of FAO’s State- • Sustainable use of arid lands and other of-the-World Report by involvement of challenging environments pastoralists and NGOs in the documen- • Food security tation and including an indigenous • Creation of rural income opportunities knowledge dimension. and employment. • Incorporate traditional knowledge into the education system, especially at the Furthermore, pastoralists fulfil a crucial, primary level. and so far overlooked, role for the future • Develop regional frameworks to con- of humanity by conserving animal genetic tribute to the Africa (and Asian) posi- diversity which is endangered by the ex- tion at international negotiations. pansion of industrial livestock production. Since pastoralists value and love animals Scientists and research institutes: beyond narrow economic considerations and have a deep knowledge about animal • Modify scientific techniques to improve breeding and environmental management, their understanding by local communi- they represent custodians of indigenous ties, respect indigenous knowledge and breeds with important genetic traits of value regard communities as equal partners for all of humanity. This role needs to be in research. widely recognized among governments, • Cease research conducted without prior policymakers, and international bodies. informed consent of the community concerned. However, the continuity of pastoralism is threatened by governments’ neglect or Pastoralists and civil society: inadequate policies as well as the low status of this way of life, leading many young • Translate results of this workshop and people to abandon this lifestyle, resulting issue of ‘livestock keepers’ rights’ into in rural–urban migration. local languages and disseminate them to communities. The participants of the workshop which • Set up pastoral forums or umbrella or- include representatives of pastoral commu- ganizations in each country and pro- nities from 12 countries from Africa, Asia mote networking between them. and Europe recommend that:

9 Insights and recommendations

• Continue efforts to establish environ- • Support a financing mechanism for pas- mental, grazing, and conflict-resolution toralist representation in national, re- committees at local levels. gional and international meetings with • Coordinate lobbying with respect to relevance to the conservation of animal decision makers, opinion leaders and genetic resources for food and agricul- media. ture (Convention on Biological Diversity/ Conference of the Parties, Food and Donors: Agriculture Organization, World Intel- lectual Property Organization, World • Consider their funding priorities with re- Trade Organization, etc.). spect to scientific research not involving • Support research on indigenous knowl- local communities. edge about animal breeding to • Support pastoralist networks and insti- strengthen the case for pastoralists. tutions to create a global common identity.

10 Setting the scene

Part 1 Setting the scene

Elijah Agevi ITDG–East Africa

TDG is committed to working in part- important sector in the economy and in the nership with like-minded organizations livelihoods of a huge number of people IIin pursuit of its principles and in the de- and as such has to be mainstreamed to velopment and use of practices that ben- harness its potential on poverty reduction. efit the poor. All of ITDG’s work is geared Some of the most pressing inadequacies towards a singular vision – a world free of in the sector relate to poor infrastructure, poverty in which technology is used equi- neglect of arid lands management, policy tably for the benefit of all. development, and environmental degradation. This workshop is a timely event on a very important issue, the recognition of and Recent developments carry the risk of protection of the rights of livestock keep- biodiversity loss and the appropriation of ers, which hitherto have been ignored. The animal genetics by a few parties. The par- Conference of the Parties to the Conven- ticipants should critically examine these is- tion on Biodiversity (COP V) calls upon all sues and develop a comprehensive strat- humanity to realize that ‘…we need each egy to deal with them. Special apprecia- other, to protect the world’s rich and won- tion is due to the EED (Evangelischer derful life forms’. Livestock breeding is an Entwicklungsdienst) of Germany, CTA, GTZ, FAO, and Misereor of Germany, for generously supporting the workshop.

11 Setting the scene

Opening

Hon. Joseph K Munyao MP Minister for Livestock and Fisheries Development, Kenya (read by Mr Kiptarus)

t gives me great pleasure to be invited The population of the various livestock here today to officiate at this interna- species in Kenya constitutes over 9 million IItional meeting of indigenous livestock zebu cattle, 3.2 grade dairy cattle, 8 mil- breeding communities from the region. lion sheep, 10 million goats, 800,000 cam- May I also take this opportunity to welcome els, 330,000 pigs, 400,000 rabbits and all visitors to Kenya and wish you a pleas- over 27 million poultry. ant stay here. Agriculture is the base for Kenya’s I am delighted that facilitators of this economy, contributing directly an estimated workshop, namely, the Intermediate Tech- 25% of the gross domestic product. An nology Development Group (ITDG) – East additional 30% is derived indirectly, Africa and the League for Pastoral Peoples through linkages with manufacturing and have selected Kenya as the venue for this other economic activities. crucial meeting. May I take this early opportunity to thank you for your continued The livestock sector accounts for ap- support for livestock farmers in the proximately 30% of the farm-gate value of marginalized areas of this country. our agricultural produce. The livestock sector also contributes 10% of our national Kenya’s policy objective for the livestock export earnings and employs over 50% of sector seeks to increase productivity in or- the agricultural labour force. I need not der to attain self-sufficiency in milk, meat, therefore underscore the significance of this livestock production and fisheries. Addition- sector to our pastoral communities as the ally, it is our objective to generate a sur- sector impinges directly on their livelihood. plus for the export market. Kenya has a diverse population of animals that are tra- I am informed that this workshop tar- ditionally our resource of food and income, gets representatives of indigenous livestock and provide various sociocultural functions. breeding communities and non-govern- The farm animal genetic resources com- mental organizations (NGOs) working with prise of indigenous, exotic and crossbred these groups. These communities continue types. The Ministry of Livestock and Fisher- to play a most significant role in the man- ies Development continues to encourage agement and conservation of animal ge- the development of emerging livestock. netic resources. Any efforts geared at improving their performance are therefore These are livestock species that have deeply appreciated. until recently failed to receive adequate attention, most notably, the crocodile, os- The indigenous livestock breeds are trich, guinea fowl, quail, donkey and known to possess many desirable genetic snakes for venom and skins. traits such as disease resistance, fertility and

12 Setting the scene general fitness, which are nonexistent in genetic resources together to provide rec- the genetic make-up of high-performance ommendations which encompass: animals. • Official recognition of the enormous In Kenya over 50% of livestock inhabit contribution of indigenous livestock the arid and semi-arid lands, which have breeding communities for future food harsh climatic conditions. The government, security. in liaison with relevant stakeholders, in- • Acknowledgement of the significance of tends to implement programmes designed their traditional knowledge for uphold- to address problems relating to the con- ing animal genetic diversity. servation, management and utilization of • Safeguarding their property rights as indigenous livestock species and breeds. well as privileges according to the Con- vention on Biological Diversity in the I note that despite a growing global interest of global justice. awareness of the importance of animal genetic resources, little attention has been I am certain that by sharing experiences paid to the role of communities in manag- of the different participants at the working these resources. It is in this regard that shop, you will have fruitful deliberations I commend the organizers of this workshop and that you will be able to meet the speci- for bringing all the stakeholders in animal fied goals.

13 Setting the scene

Indigenous livestock breeding communities and farm animal genetic resources in the context of global development trends

Ilse Köhler-Rollefson, League for Pastoral Peoples Isabella Masinde, ITDG-East Africa

ndigenous livestock breeding commu- east India, buffalo-keeping groups in nities are communities which have a tra- Southeast Asia. IIdition of livestock breeding and for whom their animals have social and cul- Indigenous livestock breeding commu- tural meaning. This is reflected in: nities act as custodians to many unique breeds (farm animal genetic resources), • An identity based on the community’s because they have retained traditional life- association with animals. styles, adhere to their cultural values, and • Often a myth of origin linking commu- often have not been integrated into the nity to a particular breed or species. wider or market economy. • Animals represent social currency (are given as dowry or bride wealth). Global trends in livestock • Often animals are shared within the production and research community, while exchange with outsid- ers is restricted. The Livestock Revolution The demand for • Animals have a ritual function. livestock products in developing countries is predicted to double by 2020. Intensive Types of indigenous livestock and industrial livestock production systems breeding communities are expanding. This will reduce prices for livestock products and push smallholder Pastoralists Pastoralists depend on live- livestock keepers and pastoralists out of the stock as the main source of their livelihood. market. They generally do not own land, but rely on common property resources. Pastoral- Technological advances After artificial ism is a predominant livelihood strategy in insemination and embryo transfer, scien- areas unsuitable for crop cultivation tists now look to genome analysis and ge- (deserts, steppes, high altitude zones, tun- netic engineering in order to create geneti- dra). cally modified animals with novel traits.

Examples Raika, Maasai, Mongolian Genome analysis enables scientists to people, Bedouin, Saami. correlate parts (‘sequences’) of the genome with specific genetic traits. People with traditional lifestyles These are people who lead lifestyles such as shift- Scientists envision that by means of ge- ing cultivation, for whom livestock is sig- netic engineering, animals can be created nificant source of livelihood. that combine high productivity with disease resistance. An example is the transfer of Examples Adivasi in India (chicken and worm resistance from Red Maasai sheep goat breeders), Mithan keepers in north- into Merino.

14 Setting the scene

Is this realistic? digenous knowledge about animal breeding are not protected against biopiracy. No: ‘There are many technical difficulties, and genetically modified animals have Convention on Biological defects.’ Diversity

Yes: ‘Techniques are well advanced, but Article 8j of the Convention on Biodiversity companies fear backlash of public opin- calls for recognition of the vast amount of ion.’ in-situ conservation carried out by traditional communities. In the 21st century, ‘sequenced ge- nomes, transgenic livestock and cloned The International Treaty on Plant Ge- animals will possibly become the norm’ netic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Rothschild, 2002). (ITPGRFA) established the concept of ‘Farmers' Rights’, which is based on the With respect to the Fayoumi chicken: past, present and future contributions of ‘We can pinpoint traits at the DNA level farmers in conserving crop genetic diver- and use genetic engineering methods to sity. transfer the traits to other chickens without all the bad baggage.’ Farmers Rights entitle farmers to:

Indigenous breeds • Protection of traditional knowledge relevant to plant genetic resources. Renewed interest in indigenous livestock • Save, use, exchange and sell farm- breeds is due to: saved seed. • Participate in decision-making and in • Rapid extinction of domestic animal di- the fair and equitable sharing of ben- versity/breeds. efits arising from the use of plant ge- • Indigenous breeds have traits which netic resources. have disappeared from high performance breeds. Key questions • Breeding for disease resistance – a new trend. • Should (and can) indigenous livestock breeders protect their breeds against A large number of breeds can be found biopiracy? in remote areas: ‘When the number of • What conditions must obtain so that breeds is expressed per million people, it pastoralists can continue to manage becomes clear that peripheral and remote their breeds sustainably? countries and provinces have dispropor- • Do we need an equivalent to Farmers‘ tionately large numbers of breeds’ (Hall Rights – ‘Livestock Breeders Rights’? and Ruan, p. 820 in Conservation Biology What should they entail? 7(4), 1993). • Is genomics research going to benefit pastoralists and indigenous livestock Intellectual property rights breeders? Should it be supported with public money? Genetically engineered animals may be • Should we develop an alternative vision patentable in some countries. The patent for livestock development? also extends to all offspring of patented animals. Industrialized animal production

Indigenous breeds which have devel- Positive impacts Cheap supply of animal oped over centuries and as a result of in- products (meat, eggs, milk).

15 Setting the scene

Negative impacts Loss of rural employment opportunities, dependence on grain Comments and discussion imports, pollution, lack of animal welfare, loss of genetic diversity. FAO has published a report on diversity in Alternative vision breeds and on conservation, which clearly documents alarming trends in the status of the world’s FAnGR. Endogenous livestock development, building on: The new Kenyan government is committed to educating the people on the im- • Local genetic resources. portance of biodiversity and to collect, ana- • Local institutions and knowledge. lyse, categorize and document indigenous • Local feed supplies. knowledge. It is also committed to redress- ing the problems facing indigenous breeding communities and realizes the need to stem the loss of local breeds.

16 Setting the scene

Indigenous knowledge about animal breeding

Ilse Köhler-Rollefson League for Pastoral Peoples

ore than 7000 farm animal Social breeding mechanisms Socially breeds are registered in FAO’s embedded customs influencing the gene- MMglobal database. The vast major- pool include: ity of these breeds have been developed • Taboos on selling female animals to by rural communities, without any help anybody outside the community. from animal scientists. How did the com- • Fixed rules for passing on animals from munities do it? Or was it only the environ- one generation to the next. ment? • Sharing mechanisms.

Indigenous knowledge Socio-religious practices These include:

Indigenous knowledge about animal • Devoting male animals to the memory breeding and breeds refers to the knowl- of an ancestor (for example, the ‘Suraj- edge that traditionally animal breeding ka-sant’ and Brahmini bull in India). communities apply to manipulate the ge- • Devoting animals to gods. netic composition of their livestock hold- ings. It includes knowledge and experience Breeding decisions Breeding decisions about genetic attributes of livestock and include the objective and goal: inheritance, as well as conscious strategies and social mechanisms that influence the • Breeding objectives are traits that are gene pool. This form of indigenous knowl- necessary for a breed to fulfil its role in edge includes: the overall production system. They are usually multifaceted. • Cultural identity • Breeding goals include the personal • Social mechanisms preferences of the owner, which do not • Breeding decisions necessarily relate to the functionality of • Breeding management the animal. • Cognitive processes. Selection criteria These include factors Sense of stewardship and identity Some such as the ability to put on fat, good ma- traditional cultures, especially pastoralists, ternal behaviour, walking ability, drought have an identity based on their relation- resistance, love of the owner, and man- ship with a particular species. They have a ageability. feeling of responsibility for the welfare of their animals. Examples include the Raika Breeding management Management in India (camels and cattle), and the Fu- methods include castration, culling, the lani and Maasai in Africa (cattle). testing of offspring, maintenance of a ‘community bull, and crossbreeding.

17 Setting the scene

Cognitive processes These include the animals bought from outside or born in identification of individual animals and the the herd? keeping of pedigrees. • Cultural significance: is there a myth of origin? Documenting indigenous • Social meaning: Are animals given as knowledge dowry, as bride wealth, or as gifts during life-cycle events? Documenting indigenous knowledge of livestock breeding and breeds has several 2 Ecological and production benefits: context

• It acts as a source of information about • What is the breeding area? existing breeds that have escaped attention of scientists. 3 Livelihood significance (types • It records the intellectual contribution of of products) livestock-breeding communities. • It is a source of empowerment and pride • What purposes do animals fulfil in peo- for those communities. ples’ lives ?

A documentation method must: 4 Management of the gene pool

• Be efficient, reliable and practical. • Social mechanisms: are there taboos on • Serve as foundation for a community- selling female animals? Are animals based management of animal genetic devoted to gods? resources project. • Breeding goals: what are the selection • Safeguard the breed against possible criteria for male animals? For females? biopiracy. • Other strategies: what other strategies are used: castration, offspring testing, The LIFE framework avoidance of inbreeding? • Do the livestock breeders keep (men- The LIFE (Local Livestock For Empowerment tal) records of their animals’ pedigrees? of Rural People) approach is a way to document this indigenous knowledge. 5 Population

• It understands breeds as products of so- • Size: how many animals are there? cial networks. • Trends: are the numbers constant, ris- • It is not a fixed method, but a concep- ing or falling? tual framework. • It uses participatory methods and is flex- ible rather than being based on prede- Comments and discussion termined questionnaires. • The erosion of taboos, such as that on The LIFE approach covers five aspects: selling of camels in the Borana community, is threatening the conservation 1 Social and cultural context of genetic diversity. • The influence of modern values on tra- • Is this breed associated with a particu- ditional communities is threatening ani- lar community? What is the nature of mal breeding practices. In India, the low the underlying social network? status of the castrator’s job has led to a • Are there any breeding institutions, such large number of uncastrated bulls. This as communally kept male animals? Are is limiting the ability of breeders to se-

18 Setting the scene

lect sires and to trace the pedigree of • Proper documentation of breeds is of their animals. no benefit to the communities until the • The sale of female animals to people people on the ground are aware of their outside the community is now prevalent rights. Until then there is no guarantee among the Maasai and can be used as that such documentation will play a role a channel for biopiracy (Lengisugi). in the preservation of the community’s • The sale of female animals is a dan- rights to the breeds (Mpoke). gerous development as their presence • Communities are not totally ignorant or is central to the survival of the herd. This naive, but there is a problem of infor- has always been a way of ensuring ge- mation flows. National governments are netic continuity, and females would not allocating resources for information never be sold even in the harshest of dissemination and as such are unwill- times. ing to hold in trust the rights of the com- • Communities generally sell only the munities. Documentation puts informa- poor pedigree animals (especially fe- tion about genetic assets into the public males). The finer specimens are closely domain. This makes it hard for people guarded for the improvement of the to lay exclusive claim over the resources, herd. Within some communities a per- since they are then regarded as ‘prior son receiving a gift of a heifer must give art’ (Ekpere). back the first female offspring to his • Moving and sharing desirable sires is benefactor to allow him retain the not a problem per se, but documenta- bloodline. tion and dissemination of this informa- • The trade in animals such as camels to tion may make its progeny attractive to the Arab world is an emerging avenue biopirates and corporations who would by which genes may be appropriated. want to appropriate genetic resources It is of paramount importance to trace (Mulvaney). the origin and spread of breeds. • KIPI supports the documentation of • Molecular genetic research has made breeds but not down to the genome it possible to trace the origin of a cer- level. A blanket moratorium on patents tain breed (Köhler-Rollefson). is best way forward on ensuring free flow • So important is the female that discern- (Otswong’o). ing breeders are known to travel up to • There is a need to take steps for stem- a hundred kilometres in search of fe- ming the erosion of indigenous knowl- males with a particular trait. edge and the need to conserve rather • Pastoralists have a strong cognitive abil- than change indigenous knowledge. But ity and a keen eye for traits in their ani- access to new technologies is also mals, so that they can easily identify a needed (Njoro). specific animal in a big herd, and real- • It is necessary to adopt new approaches ize when it is lost. This gives them an for conserving local knowledge. As the edge in selecting the best pedigree and issue of patents becomes more critical, preserving it. these new approaches will be needed even more (Vivekanandan).

19 Community presentations

Part 2 The role of livestock and breeding: Community presentations

efore the workshop, community par ticipants were requested to prepare Kawahla BBpresentations about the role of indigenous livestock breeds for their livelihoods. Eastern Sudan They were asked to follow specific guidelines (below). This Part summarizes their presentations. Adam Elhag Musa Pastoral Union, Sudan • Give a short overview about your community, its size, and geographical loca- n some parts of Sudan, one cannot talk tion. at a public gathering unless one owns a • What types of animals does your com- IIcamel as status in the community de- munity breed? Rank them in the order pends on the number of camels one has. of prestige and status. Camels from the community are sold to • For what purposes are the animals markets in Egypt and Libya where they are used? valued for their strong, large bodies. Cam- • What is the social significance of these els bred by the community also have a col- animals for your community? Are they our that is pleasant and well adapted to given as dowry, bride wealth, at the time the Kawahla people’s environment. of birth, used for funeral feasts? • Are animals used for certain ritualsrituals? In the selection of sires for breeding, the • What is special about the animals following issues are considered: owned by your community? How do they differ from those of other commu- • Milk production of the mother nities? • Size • Describe what qualities are important • Colour in your animals and how male breed- • Known progeny of the bull. ing animals are selected. • Do you distinguish different breeds or Among the Kawahla people, the conti- types of animals within the species? nuity of livestock breeding is threatened by • Are there any myths or stories about the exodus of the younger people to other the origin of your animals and the rela- livelihood strategies. This is leaving a rap- tionship between your community and idly shrinking older generation to sustain these animals? the animal breeding way of life. • Is any crossbreeding going on between your local animals and other breeds? • What is the attitude of younger people in your community about a life based on livestock keeping?

20 Community presentations

Somali Karamojong Kenya and Somalia cluster Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda and Sudan he most valuable and prestigious ani mal is the camel. To the Somali, keep- Ebenyo Godwin TTing animals is the main livelihood CEC Chairman Oropoi support strategy. Animals are used for milk production, cash income generation, ag- he Karamoja cluster comprises 13 ricultural activities and transportation. But tribes speaking in a language known beyond this, the animals have social sig- TTas Ngakaramojong. They include: nificance and functions. They are used in TT the payment of fines (diya), for instance • The Nyangatom and Merille of Ethio- 100 camels are fined for killing a commu- pia nity member. They are also used in other • The Topotha and Didinga of southern ceremonies and social transactions, such Sudan as dowry payment. • The Pokot and Turkana of Kenya • The Jie, Pian, Matheniko, Tepeth, In the selection of breeding animals, the Dodoth, Nyaakwae, Bakora, and Pokot community places emphasis on the male of Uganda. animal. Unsuitable males are castrated while young to exclude them from breed- Animal types ing. Within the community, there is a strong tradition of borrowing animals from other The communities within the cluster breed herds for breeding to improve the herd in animals for the following purposes: terms of milk yield and meat quality. Cattle The harsh terrain and difficulties associated with herding are discouraging young • Provision of milk and beef people from participating in the pastoral • Payment of dowry way of life. In addition, there is a threat • Hides for shelter and bedding from relief food, which is in some localities • Blood as food is creating a disincentive for pastoralism • Traditional sandals as people settle around relief centres and • Bedding become dependent on the free food. Cer- • Manure tain policies inhibit trade and thereby • Skins for clothing (calves). hinder development of the livestock economy. Land tenure is another problem Camels as all the land is held in trust by the government, which inhibits the development • Meat and milk for food of robust rangeland management strate- • Payment of dowry gies. • Hides for shelter • Traditional sandals • Bedding.

21 Community presentations

Sheep and goats • Drought resistance and hardiness • Disease resistance • Direct source of income for the family • Meat is generally tender and tastier than • Provision of milk, blood and meat that of other communities’ animals • Payment of dowry • They do not require a lot of forage • Sheep’s fat for medicine • They can survive for many days without • Skins for clothing. water • They are small in size, strong and can Donkeys graze in rough terrain.

• Cheapest means of transport Breeding • Bride price • Milk for medicines to treat tuberculosis These characteristic have been developed and general chest infections by selective breeding for animals that:

Social significance • Can trek long distances in search of pasture and water The social significance of the livestock • Have low feed requirements (small size) among the Karamojong cluster includes but • Can graze in all types of terrain is not limited to the following: • Are aggressive and can fight off attacks by predators • For sacrifices as per the community’s • Are disease-tolerant, especially against cultural beliefs tick-borne diseases • As a source of life, without which life • Do not experience difficulties in calving. has no meaning • Recognition as a member of the com- To achieve this, the community selects munity male animals (sires) according to the fol- • As a measure of wealth lowing criteria: • Use in bull dances • Social sharing of livestock breeds by • From a well-known lineage exchanging males and females to en- • Performance of the parent animals hance social links • Ability of the lineage to resist disease • Source of dowry, bride wealth, at time • A lineage with offspring that remains of birth and other life cycle ceremonies healthy from birth to maturity. such as funeral feasts. The Karamojong cluster does not have The Karamojong cluster uses livestock any myths or stories about the origin of for other rituals such as: their livestock. However, they believe that God gave them cattle, sheep, goats and • Rainmaking ceremonies donkeys at the time of creation. The cam- • Cleansing of families, communities or els were brought to Turkana from the Ren- livestock dille community through the assistance of • Protection against curses or disease a great seer, Mr Lokerio, who was believed outbreaks to work magic. Since then three-quarters • Treating sick persons of Turkana own camels. Some of the cattle • Naming ceremonies come from the Arab communities of Egypt, • Initiation ceremonies. with whom they used to barter animals for ivory. Unique characteristics At the moment, there is no known cross- The animals have the following unique breeding going on between the local live- characteristics:

22 Community presentations stock and foreign breeds. But in the late wards livestock keeping. This is due to their 1980s and early 1990s, small and local- attending formal education and subse- ized crossbreeding programmes existed at quent securing of jobs in towns. Kaikor and Nakwamoru centres. At the Kaikor livestock training centre, youths were trained in livestock management. Here, the Comments and discussion small East African goat was crossed with male Galla goats. At the Nakwamoru centre, Turkana sheep were crossed with • What are the status and effects of cattle Dorper male sheep from Kitale. Some rustling in the area? This occurs between traces of Dorpers can be seen in this cen- communities in Uganda, Kenya and tre. Sudan, but there are efforts underway to build peace in the region. Neverthe- At Oropoi parish, Fr Bernard Ruhnau less, rustling has reduced cattle owner- had a small crossbreeding programme for ship in the area owing to fear of raid- camels. Local camels were crossed with ers. Somali and Rendille male camels and vice- • Donkeys, which were also obtained versa. Traces of these can be seen at from the Arab communities, are used Oropoi. for transport, meat, and as a source of medicine for some diseases. For younger Turkana people, whether • In terms of prestige, the animals are they live in urban centres or rural areas, it ranked as follows: (1) cattle, (2) cam- is considered mandatory to acquire and els, (3) sheep and goats, and (4) don- keep livestock. The reason is that most of keys. these youths were born at the kraals and • Efforts to address rustling and livestock- only migrated to the urban centres. related conflict need to also look at issues of poverty, small arms, unemploy- A very small group of this community ment and governance in the neighbour- who were born and brought up in towns ing countries. and have not been exposed to the rural • Turkana animals are not small – they areas have a slightly negative attitude to- only seem so in comparison with exotics.

23 Community presentations

tem of the region is pastoralism, which is, Karamojong however, undergoing transition to agro- pastoralism. Traditionally, the homesteads Uganda were generally established in the drier zones, while the wetter highland areas were used for grazing livestock, most importantly Thomas M Loquang during the dry season. However the pat- Happy Cow Project, Karamoja Initiative tern has changed as many settlements have for Sustainable Peace nucleated in the highland areas, notably for crop production as well. The basic unit ISP is an initiative of the council of in which the Karamojong lives is a village, elders from the Karamoja region, made up of several households. Several KKUganda, with the main objective of villages form a parish, which is one of the attaining a sustainable peace within Kara- units in a sub-county. moja and the neighbouring similar pastoral groups in Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia and Despite the presence of vast natural re- Sudan. KISP also advocates for the devel- sources in Karamoja (livestock, land, min- opment of the technical capacity among erals, wildlife, etc.) the Karimojong remain the Karamojong in disciplines that among the poorest people in Uganda – strengthen agropastoral livelihoods. they cannot even feed themselves. The lit- eracy rate is only about 10%. The region KISP was founded in early 1996 and has little or dilapidated infrastructure, and incorporated in September 2000. KISP is grossly underdeveloped compared to the emphasizes the use of dialogue and con- rest of the country. sultation with the Karamojong people through traditional cultural institutions that The common currency and ‘savings ac- have existed over the years and have cu- count’ for the pastoral Karimojong is cat- mulated knowledge and experience in solv- tle (though the average Karimojong rec- ing conflict. ognize the importance of money as an easily carried and convertible currency). The The ‘Happy Cow Project’ aims at pro- people of Karamoja are collectively called moting peace and development in Kara- NgiKaramojong. There are some 20 main moja by enhancing animal production sub groups in the region (Table 1). methods. The project believes that if the cows in Karamoja are happy, then the peo- The Karamojong way of life ple will also be happy. The Karamojong have a common way of Introduction life, traditions and culture. This community is a composite of many smaller com- Karamoja covers an area of 27,900 km2 munities identified not only by their com- in northeast Uganda and has a popula- mon language, but also by the resources tion of about 900 000 people (National they share, namely their livestock and Housing Population Census, 2002). (ngibaren). They regard livestock as com- The districts of Nakapiripirit, Moroto and munity property to be taken care of by the Kotido make up the Karamoja region. The community members (though each indi- area generally has low, unreliable rainfall, vidual owns his or her own animals). This except for higher and more reliable is because livestock and their products are amounts in its northern, southern and west- shared in one way or another within the ern highland fringes. The rainfall pattern community; e.g., the milk when it is offered is unimodal with a clearly defined dry sea- to a neighbour in need; the meat when an son (October–March) and wet season (April animal is slaughtered for elders in a given –September). The dominant farming sys- ritual or ceremony (which are not few in

24 Community presentations number); the bride price paid in marriage, Table 1. Distribution of Ngikarimojong etc. The Karamojong also share settlements subgroups or villages (ngirerya), kraals (ngawuiyoi), District/County Subgroup taboos, customs (ngitalio), shrines Kotido: Dodoth NgiMening (ngakiriketa), watering points, dams NgiNyangia (ngakare, namatatain), pastures, farmland NgiDodotho (ngamanat), and marriage ceremonies 1 (ekiitan). The elders (ngikasikou), soothsay- NgiTeuso ers (ngimuruok) and foretellers Jie NgiJie (ngikadwuarak) not only act as mediators Labwuor2 NgiTobur/ Ngilabwuor or arbitrators on daily issues but also com- NgiNyakwae municate with God on behalf of the com- Moroto: Bokora NgiBokora munity. Herdsboys (ngikeyokok) and war- NgiMogoth riors (ngikarachuna) defend the entire com- NgiPeei munity and its resources. NgiTome All the subgroups except the NgiTobur/ Ngimuno Ngilabwuor and NgiTeuso (the Ik) share NgiMosthingo the same language and value animals in NgiKosowua their daily lives. The latter groups, together NgiKaleeso with the Pokot, speak different languages, NgiTepeth3 though most can also understand the Ka- Matheniko NgiMatheniko ramojong language. NgiTepeth4 Types of livestock and its uses NgiMogoth NgiMuno The Karamojong breed cattle, sheep, Nakapiripirit: Pian NgiPian goats, donkeys and camels (camels are Chekwii / Kadam NgiPian kept only by the Pokot in SW Karamoja). NgiKadama5 Livestock are one of the people’s most im- Pokot NgiPokot portant resources. They are used right from 1 birth, throughout life, and at the time of Predominantly gatherers 2 death. At birth, a sheep is slaughtered to Predominantly crop producers 3 obtain a shawl to carry the baby. The ani- Live on the Napak mountain 4 mals are also meant for blessing the baby Live on Moroto mountain 5 and the meat as part of the diet for the Live on Kadam mountain recuperating mother after labour. Some subgroups live in more than one county; eg NgiTepeth, NgiPian and NgiMogoth. Other uses of livestock include: under the different types of livestock. • Food Meat, milk, ghee, blood. • Compensation e.g. a community • Savings account Currency that is well member injured or killed by a fellow known to most Karamojong and easily member; 60–100 cattle are charged for convertible to other forms of resources. compensation of a slain clansman. The more animals one has the richer • Settling serious disputes e.g., rape, he /she is. adultery, etc. • Bride pride For marriage and related • Disease treatment Slaughtering live- issues – e.g., payment for impregnat- stock on the instructions of a witch doc- ing a girl. tor. • Sacrifice Slaughtered for various cer- • Dress Skirts for girls and women, emonies e.g., cleansing ceremonies, ini- aprons for married women, belts, san- tiation, funerals, etc. See details below dals, blankets.

25 Community presentations

• Bedding and mats Skin for sleeping, dicted bad event (akiretakin eronet). sitting on during ceremonies, at meals, • A bull slaughtered if the bride’s older or while drinking traditional brew. sister is not married (lodepar). • Manure For cultivation, especially to- • A bull slaughtered at the behest of a bacco and maize. witch doctor to cure a particular ailment • Traction For cultivation, transport, (adyak). haulage. • Skins are used for bedding, sandals, • Others Fasteners (string, rope from belts, ropes, bell straps, etc. hides), sheaths for knives and spears, • Status Someone who has many cattle containers for tobacco made from cat- is respected. tle horns, and flywhisks made from tails. Calves Cattle Calves are rarely slaughtered for their Cattle are the most important type of ani- products. However skins are taken from mal kept by the Karamojong community. calves that die from disease. The skins are The uses of cattle include: used to make items such as skirts for women, leather sheets or blankets, sitting • Foodood, milk, blood, ghee, meat mats, bags for carrying grain, flour or • Marriage and related needs. honey, strings, ropes, and straps to tie bells • Wealth store or ‘bank account’ that can around the necks of favourite animals. be converted to cash, exchanged for other items, used to pay a debt, or as Goats compensation for an injury or death of a fellow clansman. Goats are used in similar ways to cattle: • Ceremonies and rituals These include: for food (milk, blood, meat, ghee), bride • Initiation (asapan). price, sacrifices for ceremonies (e.g. initia- • Feast for elders (akitochol). tion of young men), and in times of sick- • A ceremony for twins (lorotin, see ness. Goat skins are used as mats, aprons below). for women, and bags for carrying grain, • A feast for elders and soothsayers flour or honey. Goats can be sold for cash sponsored by the combatants for bless- or exchanged with other types of livestock, ings prior to a cattle-rustling expedition, e.g. 10 goats for 1 head of cattle. particularly a large and important one (akimwaimwakin). For some ceremonies, e.g., for a feast • A bull slaughtered for elders after a for elders or one particular elder, sheep successful cattle raid (lookwa). and cattle are preferred over goats. • A ceremony for gathering cattle together prior to transhumance Sheep (akiwudakin). • A few bulls slaughtered as a feast for Sheep have the same uses as cattle and elders (akipeyokin). goats: they provide food, meat, milk and • A feast for elders made by an indi- blood. However sheep are used predomi- vidual in his own home (akipeyokin nantly in cleansing ceremonies, most par- tamanawi) and not at shrine, for the ticularly when something strange happens elders to mediate with God to solve a in the community. particular problem faced by the person offering the animal. • When some mistake is made in execu- • A bull slaughtered at the demand of tion of a given ritual, a sheep is slaugh- a foreteller to foretell (akiereor) the situ- tered to amend the situation – for ex- ation of the land. ample if the milk teeth of a baby start • A bull slaughtered to avert a pre- growing from the left jaw.

26 Community presentations

• When a woman forgets her ancestral Social significance of animals stick somewhere and spends the night without it. As animals are regarded as a source of • When the tongue meat of a sacrificial life, the more animals one owns the better. animal chokes an elder. Cattle can be converted to acquire the ne- • When a combatant has kill an enemy cessities for a good life. A person with a lot or wild dog, to cleanse him. of animals is rich, and his family is large; he has many children and dependants. Sheep skins are used for girls’ skirts, sit- Such a person may have several wives and ting mats, shawls for carrying babies, or households. thread for other leather goods. Every male Karamojong strives to own Sheep are slaughtered in sacrifices, e.g. as many animals as possible so that his at funerals, initiation of young men, or the family is assured a good, happy, long life. akitocol ceremony (elders’ feast). To approach an elder for a need, a ram is the Karamojong men usually base their own main choice. name on the colour of their favourite bulls. Such names have the prefix Apa… (the Sheep are also used to pay bride price, owner of...). ApaLongor means ‘the man to exchange with other livestock, or to sell with a brownish bull’; ApaLongatuny for cash. means ‘the man with the bull coloured like a lion’; ApaLoris means ‘the man with the Donkeys bull coloured like a leopard’, etc. The man’s inferiors and colleagues use such names Donkeys are predominantly used for trans- to refer to him. The favourite bull enjoys port e.g. to move kraal gear, to carry eld- privileges from the owner like being erly people, children or the sick between adorned with a bell, getting prompt veteri- the kraal and village using a rack (athaja), nary attention, clean water, etc. and to transport crops. They are also used for ploughing. They provide food, meat, A male Karamojong with a lot of cattle and milk, though not frequently. Donkey acquires an elephant tusk bangle that he milk is specifically used for feeding baby wears on his left wrist as a sign of wealth orphans, as the community thinks the milk and recognition by others. A man without has similar viscosity nutritional value to animals is considered poor, and is not able breast milk. The only time donkeys are used to found a family. He would rarely address for sacrifice is to treat tetanus (natelo). The a gathering or comment on issues to do skin is used for bell straps. with livestock.

Camels Ritual uses of animals

The Pokot keep camels due to contact with • Dowry The Karamojong do not offer their kin across the border in Kenya who dowry for marriages. keep camels. A few camels have been • Bridewealth Animals are exchanged sighted in Matheniko too. Camels provide for the bride during marriages, which similar products to those provided by cat- is anything between 30 and 200 ani- tle. However the camels in Matheniko are mals, depending on the strength of the not used for sacrifices. Some Karamojong bridegroom’s family and competition for think camel meat is a delicacy. Most Kara- the bride. If the bride’s older sister is mojong have shied away from keeping not married, the bridegroom offers an camels because they think camels bring extra bull for slaughter at the bride’s drought. home for a lodepar ceremony to ap- pease the spirits.

27 Community presentations

• Births A (usually white) sheep is Cattle The Karamojong cattle are of the slaughtered and the skin used as strap same type. Some Karamojong groups call for carrying the baby. The meat is given their animals ngalok’i’, though most de- to the baby’s mother. If a woman gives scribe them as ‘Karamojong cattle’. The birth to twins, two sheep are killed and cattle are all zebu, with upward-pointing another animal (usually a bull) is killed humps, large body size and weight, blunt at the crossroads to enable the twins to snouts, resistance to heat, some tolerance follow different paths in their later life. to cold, well-developed dewlap very promi- This ceremony is called lorotin. nent in bulls. Their colours include white/ • Funerals An animal is killed at the cream, grey, roan, dark/dirty brown. Black burial. Another ram is killed at the time colour is a recent development from inter- the mourners’ hair is shaved and to en- breeding. The Karamojong herds have unable the family to open the food stores dergone a lot of interbreeding with cattle donated by neighbours. from neighbouring pastoral groups such as the Teso in the west, Sabiny in the south Livestock characteristics and Pokot in the east. Teso cattle are smaller, have pointed snouts, etc. – not de- The Karamojong see animals as ‘life’, as sirable to the Karamojong. they obtain their entire social, economic and religion benefits from them. Their ani- The Karamojong try to maintain their mals are accustomed to the environment breeds by some controlled breeding. Un- as they have survived the harsh climate and desirable males are castrated, sold off or rough terrain over the years. The Karamo- even used to pay a debt. It is not uncom- jong know each animal individually. Other mon for one herder to borrow a desirable communities probably consider animals bull from his neighbour for breeding pur- only in the economic context (for example, poses for a few weeks. they keep animals to sell them so they can acquire other items). They seldom know Goats The Karamojong do not have spe- each animal’s individual characteristics. cial names for their goats. The animals have large body size and are reasonably The Karamojong appreciate animals of tall. Colours include white, cream, grey, reasonable size and body weight, with pink-brown and black. The females have good milk yield, high calf production, cer- high milk yields and are prolific, often de- tain colours, and disease resistance. livering twins.

Selection of males Sheep There are no special names for types of sheep. Karamojong sheep are fat- The following characteristics are considered tailed (a quality that is much appreciated),, when selecting males for breeding. have a reasonable body weight, and are prolific breeders. The body is white, while • Physical features Large, good shape. the head (or only the mouth and eyes) are • Active Able to serve many cows. black (East African Black Head or Persian). • Pedigree The qualities of the parent in In contrast breeds from Teso are long and terms of resistance to diseases, milk thin-legged, with poorly developed tails, yields, survival of calves and body size. low weight and frequently hornless.

Breeds Donkeys There seems to be only one type of donkey in Karamoja. The Karamojong recognize different breeds within their herds, although they do not give Camels The camels kept by the Pokot and them specific names. Matheniko in Karamoja originate from the Pokot and Turkana in Kenya.

28 Community presentations

Origin stories Maasai The Karamojong are said to have obtained cattle from Arabs by bartering them for Kenya and Tanzania elephant tusks. The Karamojong were hunt- ers and gathers before acquiring livestock. Vincent Yiapan Groups known as Teuso in northern Kara- moja still value gathering. on behalf of Maa livestock keepers in Samburu, Kajiado and Tanzania Crossbreeding he Maa community keeps cattle, There is crossbreeding between local ani- sheep and goats, donkeys, and cam- mals and other breeds. This occurs through TTels (ranked in descending order of the continual mixing of animals through prestige). The community keeps livestock interaction between the Karamojong and for a number of reasons, primarily as a their neighbours. This interaction includes source of livelihood but also for prestige, cattle rustling, transhumance into the bartering, medicinal uses, clothing and neighbouring districts for pasture and wa- attire, bedding and socioeconomic secu- ter in the dry season, trade, intermarriage, rity. friendship, and return of stolen animals. The Karamojong do not enclose their ani- Social and ritual functions mals in paddocks; communal grazing leaves room for interbreeding. In terms of social and ritual functions, animals are used for the following purposes: Young people • Blood to help a mother recover after de- While the youths love animals and actively livery of a newborn participate in acquiring them, they are get- • Paying bride price ting reluctant to herd them. There is a grow- • Gifts to children as they go through the ing tendency to leave active herding to the rites of passage (for instance a newly younger members of the community (boys) married woman must be given eight while warriors devote themselves to leisure, head of cattle and a bull on the morn- especially during peaceful times. ing after reaching her marital home).

Acknowledgements Livestock are slaughtered during ceremonies, for convalescents and also for I would like to express my heartfelt grati- cleansing for various crimes. For instance tude to Elders Philip Ichumar and Agustino for murder the fine ranges from 49 to 449 Longok of Namalu for the resourceful and head of cattle, depending on the commu- encouraging discussions I had with them nity and circumstances. Animals are also and to Lily Nakiru for providing me with used to carry luggage, invalids and old the facilities to process this paper. people.

References Livestock play a central role in certain prominent rituals, such as: Novelli, Bruno. 1988. Aspects of • When an elder has conjugal relations Karimojong ethnosociology. Museum with his wife before their infant child has Comboniam 44, Kampala. Comboni started walking (or if he sleeps with her Missionaries, Verona. when she is pregnant and she aborts), Novelli, B. 2000. Karimojong traditional the neighbouring womenfolk forcefully religion: A contribution. Camboni Mis- slaughter a cow or ox. The large intes- sionaries, Kampala, Uganda.

29 Community presentations

tines of the ox are tied around the of- Breeding and selection fending husband’s neck and then are pierced by women so that the contents The Maa are well aware of the different spill out over his body. animal breeds, among cattle notably the • He-goats are slaughtered in the cer- Ankole, Sukuma, Kamba, Kerio Valley, emony of Olkiteng’ 100 mbenek. Sahiwal, and different European breeds. • Oxen are slaughtered and the hide is The Maa community has a special type of made into a long string during the boy- the African zebu, and discerning breeders hood ceremony of Enkipaaita. The string cannot only recognize animals belonging will be safely kept by the ox-donor boy’s to this strain but also trace out the animals’ mother, whose son is named Oloboru lineage. Maa breeders have over time bred Enkeene. This hide string will be securely strains of livestock with attributes which the kept until that ceremony, eight years community values specifically: later when the age group goes for a rite called Enkang’e nkeene. • Maasai zebu cattle are resistant to • During the rite of Olketeng’ Lool baa, a drought and tropical livestock diseases blemished ox is slaughtered. Enkiyieu in general. (Kidari) is shared in the ritual between • Maasai zebu livestock can stand walk- the two elders of the same age-group, ing long distances to watering points – after which two elders call each other in some cases 20 km. Enkiyieu ai. These two elders exchange • In drought, the livestock can survive for heifers and shall never disagree for 15 days or more without drinking wa- whatever reason. ter. • During the Eunoto ceremony when war- • Maasai livestock are aesthetically col- rior-hood is terminated. oured, without a single coloration pre- • Also when the rains fail for long, an dominating. unblemished sheep is slaughtered to • The quality of milk is sweeter and has a make a burnt offering to God to come much higher butterfat content than that to the community’s rescue with rains. of exotic breeds. While the quantity is • During initiation of children, in some lower, the quality far exceeds that of families women slaughter a sheep at the most exotic breeds. door of the initiate’s hamlet or hut. • Red Maasai sheep are resistant to long spells of drought and to tick-borne dis- Among the Maa community, livestock eases. They require little attention. The and their products play a huge role in so- Maasai have learnt how to treat ani- cial relations. One can hardly speak of mals themselves with herbal medicine. ones ‘own livestock’, since these are accessible to all community members. For The Maa believe that cattle mirror the instance, one is obliged to contribute live- behaviour of their owner. Indeed, they hold stock for slaughter at one or another cer- that one can learn more about a man by emony or ritual. When an animal is slaugh- looking at his livestock than by looking at tered, the meat is allotted according to a the man himself, i.e. whether he is given predetermined pattern for consumption by to humility, cruelty, empathy, etc. boys, girls, women, fire-stick elders, age set, intruders, the slaughtering group, the In the selection of breeding animals, neighbours, etc. Even milk is for everyone’s certain qualities are sought after. The Maa- consumption – all for free. Food and ac- sai have a saying: Meetai Olaisinani Ie commodation are supposed to be offered Muleeni (one is never poor simply because free of charge to visitors. Each clan has the livestock he owns are small). predetermined clan brand marks and ear- marks which they use to identify their cat- A good bull must be in good physical tle. This helps mitigate inter-clan conflicts health, have a good size, come from a

30 Community presentations good lineage (in terms of milking, survival, The red Maasai sheep has also been drought resistance, and fast growth), be crossed with the Dorper, and as a result docile and have a good colour. the sheep are bigger and produce more meat and fat. Myths and stories Young people According to Maa mythology, the first man prayed for livestock at night, and God Young people in the community have an granted his wish by making animals come ambivalent attitude towards livestock keep- into his compound. God asked the man to ing. Some find livestock keeping a very take as many as would come in. Out of hard life, especially those who have gone curiosity, the man tried to count the number to school. Those who never ventured to into of livestock coming into his kraal and was western education in general have no so amazed by the numbers that he shrieked qualms about maintaining the livestock in sheer wonderment. There and then, the breeding way of life flow of livestock ceased. It is not known how many more livestock he stopped from Other problems ‘flowing’ from nowhere into his kraal by shrieking. That is why Maasai herds are Other problems faced by contemporary limited in size. The Maasai have an ad- Maa breeders include: age, Midol Kimanya, which means one is never really conscious of his state and his • Water shortages possessions. (Only others know of the state • Long spells of drought of one’s wealth, never oneself.) • Uncontrolled livestock diseases • Insufficient veterinary services The Maasai and cattle are inseparable. • Counterfeit veterinary products They say, tenenyamalu inkishu nenyamalu • Reduction of rangeland for pastoralists iltung’ana (if livestock are in trouble, so is • Poor marketing channels for livestock man) and tenenyamalu Oltung’ani • Uncontrolled Tsetse fly menace nenyamalu inkishu (if man is distressed, so • Emerging new livestock diseases. are livestock). In essence, the Maasai and livestock fates are intertwined and both are bestowed with a common fate; in distress and in time of abundance, both rise and fall together.

Crossbreeding

There is a good deal of crossbreeding between indigenous Maa breeds and exotic cattle varieties such as the Sahiwal, Simmental, Friesian, Jersey, Guernsey, Kamba, Sukuma and Luo. Nevertheless, there appears to obtain a state of genetic atavism that always throws the breed back to where it came from after a few generations. This crossbreeding is not widespread, as the Maasai’s critical consideration in breeding is drought resistance, which is already well inculcated in indigenous breeds.

31 Community presentations

Boran Social significance To be recognized as a Gabra or Rendille, Southern Ethiopia and one must be the legitimate owner of a camel; each household must have a camel. Marsabit district, Kenya To the Boran, however, camel keeping is a newly acquired practice. In Ethiopia, bush Philip Boru Halake encroachment on pasturelands has re- Pastoralist, Marsabit, Kenya duced pasture for the cattle, and raised the importance of camels as they are hardier here are four major communities in and more resistant to drought. They are this region: Rendille, Gabra, Boran also used for ploughing. Sheep are used TTand Burji. All these communities are by all communities in the region for vari- TT ous rituals such as Sorio and at the sight- pastoralists except the Burji, who are agro- pastoralists. ing of the new moon.

These communities reside in the north- Male goats are slaughtered by age sets ern tip of Kenya’s Eastern Province, cover- at prayers for rain, blessings, and during ing the region that lies between Lake circumcisions. Turkana to the west, and Moyale to the east. To the north, the region extends to south- A true Borana must have been given a ern Ethiopia, as far as Yavelo and Nageka. few cattle by his father, eg Some Handura. The total population in Marsabit district is estimated at 130,000 persons. Donkeys and dogs have no social significance. Animal breeds Rituals • Camels Gabra and Rendille breeds • Goats Black Headed Persian, Galla, Camels are slaughtered when a prominent and Small East African varieties old person dies in the society. No major • Donkeys Breeds of Turkana origin. ceremony can be conducted without cam- • Dogs Shanzi dogs. els.

Livestock uses Goats and sheep are slaughtered at the circumcision of age sets, prayers for peace, • Camels Valued as pack animals and at the sighting of the new moon and for for tehir meat and milk; they are also Sorios . used to pay dowry. The butter from camel milk is also highly valued. Cattle have a variety of ritual uses: • Goats Can be easily sold for cash as they reproduce fast; also valued for their • The naming of a child milk, meat and hides. • Gadamoja ceremonies • Sheep Valued for their fat and meat; • Payment of dowry also used for religious ceremonies. • Slaughtered at Gumi Gaayo confer- • Donkeys Mainly used as pack ani- ences mals; also sold for cash and bartered • Weather prediction (by looking at the for other commodities. intestines of slaughtered cattle) • Dogs Kept for security purposes. • Butter is used to make ointments and for anointing.

32 Community presentations

Special attributes of animals such as milk yield, body structure, colour, hardiness, strength, etc. There is also a Camels are good pack animals. They are good degree of crossbreeding between very hardy, especially the Rendile variety. local and ‘foreign’ breeds of animals. The Somali camel is less hardy. Young people Gabra Galla goats are very hardy and good for milk and meat production. They While livestock is the lifeline of these com- are able to go for five days without water munities, and they cannot live without as opposed to the weaker Somali Galla. them, there is a problem of young people The Small East Africa goat is valued for its moving away to towns, threatening this way faster breeding rate. The Black Head Per- of life. sian goat is valued for its fat accumula- tions in the tail. The communities also have varied opinions on policy matters, such as land de- Cattle varieties such as the Boran are marcation and herd sizes, which have great drought- and tick-resistant. They also have implications for the viability of pastoralism. a high body conversion rate as opposed Within the community, the young people to the East African zebu. are shying away from pastoralism, leaving the old and those who have retired, to Donkeys are very hardy. As pack ani- carry on. mals they are able to tread where camels are unable to.

Dogs kept by the communities are also very hardy and can go for days without food.

Selection of breeding animals

The following qualities are sought in the selection of breeding animals.

• High growth rate • High milk yield • Adaptability to harsh conditions • Big body size and good body structure • In camels, the ability to carry a lot of baggage.

In the selection of the male, the following additional qualities are also sought;

• High survival rate of offspring • Good body structure and large mature size in the offspring • Hardiness • High milk yield in female offspring.

The communities distinguish different types of animals, based on characteristics

33 Community presentations

Bahima Bahima’s relationship with cattle Ankole cattle play a central role in the lives Uganda of the Bahima. Anthropologists have described the relationship between man and Helen N Nakimbugwe cattle in cattle-herding societies as the ‘cattle complex’ (an extensive ritual usage of National Animal Genetic Resources cattle with an emotional attachment to or Centre and Data Bank, Uganda identification with cattle). One can speak of a cattle complex as being ‘strongly’ or Charles Muchunguzi ‘weakly’ developed on the basis of whether Mbarara University of Science and Tech- there is an intensive and extensive use of nology, Mbarara, Uganda cattle in the promotion and satisfaction of the biological and social life of a people ndiscriminate crossbreeding of cattle in (Klima, 1970). Based on this description, Uganda calls for an urgent need to con- the Bahima can be described as having a IIserve our local genetics, among which strong cattle complex. is the Ankole longhorned cattle breed. In situ conservation of this breed can only be Museveni (1997), the current President successful in collaboration with the heredi- of the Republic of Uganda and a tary keepers of this breed viz. the Bahima reknowned Ankole cattle breeder, describes pastoralists. It is therefore imperative that the relationship of his tribesmen with cat- their rights as inherent breeders of the tle as follows: present day Ankole cattle are protected. ‘They are like members of our families and The Ankole cattle belong to the Sanga we treat them intimately. For instance, we group of cattle that is indigenous to the have a brush called enkuyo, which we use central and eastern regions of Africa, and to clean and massage the cow, a process in Uganda to the western and southwest- we call okuragaza. This is done for most of ern parts of the country. It is classified as the milking cows, but also for favourites an intermediate Bos indicus / Bos taurus amongst them. It is a form of communicat- breed type, with a small cervicothorocic ing with them and they enjoy it very much. hump. It has a relatively large body frame A cow will follow you everywhere if you and characteristically long and large horns massage it with that brush. I have a great that curve outwards and upwards and fi- personal feeling for my cows, especially the nally inwards. About 2% of the members ones whose ancestors have been in our of this breed type are thought to be polled family for a very long time. They are like (Sacker et.al., 1966; Kiwuwa, 1995). cousins and sisters to me. I think if I acquired other cows they would not mean as The Bahima are ethnic pastoralist cat- much to me. I do not have the same feeling tle keepers within the Banyankore tribe. for the exotic breeds from Europe, but per- They are found in the southwestern part of haps over time they will become like Uganda, in part of the cattle corridor that adopted children and we shall like them.’ traverses Uganda from the northeast to the southwest. This corridor was used by pas- Herd management toralists (the Bahima and Karamajong tribes) in their search for both water and To ease management of herds and as a pasture. The increasing pressure on land form of herd recording, animals are given has, however, highly restricted pastoral individual names, which precisely describe movements within the corridor, and is forc- them. These descriptions are based on ing the Bahima to a sedentary lifestyle. phenotypic characteristics (coat colour and

34 Community presentations patterns, sex, shape of the horns, special Uses marks or distinguishing features), behaviour, and others characteristics, including Nutrition Cattle products play a very im- ancestry, association with a special event portant role in the nutrition of the Bahima. and mode of acquisition (e.g. a gift). Museveni (1997) recalls the eating habits of the Bahima during his childhood: This precise description (Infield, 2003) enables a single animal in the herd to be ‘Before my family became Christian, we did picked out with ease. A name’s prefix indi- not eat any non-cattle products. The main cates whether an animal is a heifer, a cow staple of our diet was various types of milk or a bull. For heifers, names start with Ka, – fresh milk, soured milk, and, once in a for bulls whether young or old with an R, while, a kind of thick cream called eshabwe and for cows any other letter, except for which we would eat with steamed bananas. the brown-white coloured cow called We also ate cattle blood – we would bleed Ruhuzumu (Table 1). the cattle and bake the blood into a type of cake. In my culture at that time, eating Cognition of coat colour among the non-cattle food was considered shameful. Bahima is very fine. For example, names Sometimes you could eat solid food, but you of coat colour patterns (e.g., spots or would have to wait until it was out of your patches) are given according to size, con- digestive system before you were allowed centration, prominence, distribution and to drink milk again. Mixing the two was locality. Infield (2003) notes that being able supposed to be very bad for the cows! We to distinguish between the light brown would also eat veal once in a while, espe- (siina) and the dark brown (mbindi), makes cially if the cows produced male calves. it possible for breeders to select the right Adult cows would only be killed for a big cows and bulls to produce animals of the ceremony, never for regular food.’ favoured dark reddish brown colour (bihogo). Although the eating habits of the Bahima are changing, remnants of such This fine description of an individual habits are still very strong within the com- animal makes it possible for the Bahima munity. to trace back the genealogical relationships of their cattle as far back as ten genera- Wealth and prestige A man who at his tions. time of death has less than 100 animals is not accorded due respect at his burial. For Breeding qualities every 100 animals one has, an iron bell (omurebe) is tied around one of the favour- Great care is taken in selecting the bull of ite animals in the herd. More bells in the the herd (engundu). Museveni (1997) herd mean more animals and therefore points out that eating of male calves is in more wealth and prestige. effect a method of breeding control as only the best males are preserved for breeding Social security To avert risk, especially purposes. There is hardly any selection during epidemics, owners give animals to pressure on female animals. Table 2 out- friends and relatives, or lend them the ani- lines the qualities which are generally con- mals to raise. If the owner’s herd faces sidered in selecting of a breeder bull. problems, the friends and relatives help him rebuild his herd. Social-economic significance Loans Cattle are used as loans. The The strong cattle complex of the Bahima is lender can often later demand another cow reflected in the various components of their in return. social economic life.

35 Community presentations

Table 1. Examples of descriptive names of the Ankole cattle Feature Description Heifer Bull (young or Cow (begins (name begins adult, begins with other with Ka) with R) letter)

Phenotypic description

Colour Dark reddish brown (favour- Kahogo Ruhogo Bihogo ite colour) Light brown with black and Kagoobe Rugoobe Ngoobe brown stripes (associated with taboos in some clans e.g. Abasingo) White Kasa Rusa Kisa Very black (least favourite) Kozi Rwozi Kyozi Colour White patch/spot on Kaasha Rwaasha Kyaasha patterns forehead White patch over mouth Kashomero Rushomero Kishomero Single white patch on udder Kahuuga Ruhuuga Mpuuga Small spots distributed Kayenje Ruyenje Mayenje allover the body Form Big hump Kabango Rubango Ibango Long umblical flap Karomba Ruromba Kiromba Wide head like of a buffalo Kabogo Rubogo Mbogo Shape of Large white horns from Kashunga Rushunga Bishunga horns base to tips Horns curve in tightly Kakome Rukome Kikome Loose horns falling down- Kashara Rushara Nshara wards Small, slightly protruding Kakurura Rukurura Bukurura horns Marks – Polled – no horns Kakungu Rukungu Nkungu natural or Horns broken at the tips Kachweka Ruchweka Kichweka man made Branded on side of face Karanga Ruranga Kiranga

Character or behaviour Animal with many desired traits, e.g. good Kashemeza Rushemeza Ishemeza temperament, graceful gait, good fertility etc.– almost perfect FeatureExample of name Meaning Ancestry Kahogo ka Ibango Kahogo (dark red brown heifer), ka (from/of/born to), Ibango (cow with big hump) (ie, Dark red brown heifer born to cow with a big hump Mode of Kahogo ka Nuwenkunda Kahogo (dark red brown heifer), ka (from/of), acquisition Nuwenkunda (name of a person) ie, Dark red brown heifer from Nuwenkunda. This heifer might have been given to the owner by Nuwenkunda as a present, on a loan, etc.) Event Gaaju ga kyarwenkuba Gaaju (light brown), ga (of), kyarwenkuba (heavy rainfall/ thunderstorm) (ie, Light brown cow born or acquired during times of heavy rainfall or thunderstorm)

36 Community presentations

Table 2. Selection criteria of breeding bulls Feature Desirable characteristics Remarks Horns Large, long, heavy, well balanced, wet However perfect a cow may be in other glow on them, white all the way to the regards, if it does not have good horns it tips, graceful curving (outwards and cannot be considered beautiful. Black cows upwards and finally inwards – are avoided because it is almost impossible Orukondo) for them to have glowing white horns Colour Varies but the favourite one is dark Ideal is a single, unbroken colour reddish brown – bihogo Body Big and tall Neck Big Dewlap Big Chest Wide, straight, firm Hump Small Belief is that the bigger the hump the more feed is wasted by being stored there Coat colour Not dry, smooth, shiny Rump Wide and beefy Hooves Big Belief that animals with big hooves give high milk producing offspring Legs Long and big Able to move long distances Testicles Big and equal in size Bull with one testicle highly valued because of belief it will have many female offspring Penile sheath Big Rudimentary teats Big Believed to produce offspring with high milk of the bull production Temperament Good Milk production High On basis of pedigree Milk quality High butterfat On basis of pedigree

Building materials Cow dung and hides Poetry recitations always depict the value are used in building of huts. and significance of the cow to the Bahima. In a rhyme tone one recites the lineage of Feasts and recreation Animals, especially the cow that brought wealth to his family bulls, are slaughtered during feasts or cel- or a cow that was got from a true or close ebrations. It is believed that when the head friend. The art of wrestling is also an imi- of the family dies he must die with his big tation of bull fighting. bull in the kraal. So during the funeral feast the bull is slaughtered and feasted on by Medicine and detergent Various concoc- the mourners. tions of cattle products are used as medicine for man. For example cow urine mixed Songs, recitals and dances depicting with milk (kashumba) is used as a laxative. love for Ankole cattle are a must. The most Morning urine (amaganga) from cattle is popular song is the Akahogo (Kahogo is used as a detergent to clean milk pots, in the favourite dark reddish brown animal). concortion with herbs as a mouth wash, Singers sit in a linear form facing in one for skin infections, etc. direction with arms raised upwards and slowly moving them forward in a move- Clothing and bedding Use of hides as ment which depicts the preferred shape of clothing has completely died out. Their use horns of the Ankole animal (Orukondo). as beddings, however, is not uncommon.

37 Community presentations

Settling disputes Cattle is used as a form later became Mayenje, had many off- of compensation to the offended party spring, which restored Mutomo’s wealth. (empongano). One day Mayenje called Mutomo and told him that if she were to die, she should be Gifts Most gifts given out to friends and buried and not eaten. But Mayenje died relatives, or at special occasions like birth when Mutomo was away visiting his friend, of a child and marriage, revolve around Mwamba. Mutomo’s family never heeded cattle. For example Omugamba – a spe- Mayenje’s instructions, and started to eat cial marriage present – which is given to her. Suddenly the whole of Mutomo’s land the bride by her parents must include a turned into Lake Nyabihoko and his fam- wooden bucket for fetching water from the ily and all his property drowned. well to the cattle trough, a large calabash for storing fermented milk which is churned Customarily it is not considered right to to produce ghee, milk pots equivalent to slaughter and eat an animal which has the number of cows paid as bride price, given many offspring. Such animals are left and a ceramic pot with a special type of to die of old age and are just buried. grass (obwitizo) whose smoke when burnt gives a good aroma to the milk pot. Future of the Bahima

Bride price Bride price is paid in form of The rising pressure on land due to grow- in-calf heifers or cows which have had at ing populations, coupled with government least one calving. This is to ensure that the policies which advocate sedentarization animals received are fertile. Bulls are not and conservation of wildlife in traditional accepted. pastoral areas, are a great threat to nomadic pastoral production systems. The Rituals and religion Examples of rituals general apathy of the youths towards this associated with cattle include a spiritual form of lifestyle aggravates the situation. ceremony comparable to baptizing babies. Infield (2003) notes that it is sad but per- A baby boy sits on a cow with a bow, ar- haps inevitable, that young Banyankore/ row and a rope (okuta aha mugongo). It is Bahima today are less interested in the believed that this imparts warrior qualities beauty of their famed longhorned cows in the boy. than their parents are. Many cattle keepers are worried that the loss of their pasto- Communication with ancestors to give ral culture will eventually lead to the loss blessings to the family herd is very impor- of the longhorned Ankole itself. tant. Milk from the cow of a family’s de- ceased father is put in the household shrine The cow in Runyankore is called ente. built next to the main house. The following The interpretation of the word is synony- is recited: ‘See the milk of the cow, father. mous with a Runyankore word Entahabi (‘it You should give your cows a chance to pro- takes me to difficult places/situations’). This duce, multiply and become many.’ refers to the demands the cow puts on its owner. Today’s chips-and-chicken genera- Myths tion that has been exposed to city life in pursue of formal education cannot accept There are numerous myths related to cat- to be subjected to the demands of looking tle. One is the story of the creation of Lake after the Ankole cow. Nyabihoko. There once lived a man called Mutomo who had many herds of cattle. Internationally, the Bahima are not ac- An epidemic struck and killed all his cattle corded much attention as pastoralists in except one of his heifers called Kayenje. comparison to their contemporaries the Mutomo walked it to distant places so that Karamajong. This is reflected in the lack of it could conceive. Kayenje, whose name comprehensive pastoral development pro-

38 Community presentations grammes in the part of the cattle corridor Bahima pastoralists, NAGRC&DB is spear- in which they live in. heading efforts to conserve the Ankole cattle which are under threat from massive Breeding rights crossbreeding with exotic breeds. The programme involves the multiplication of su- The Bahima by ancestry identify themselves perior animals at a central farm, the with the Ankole cattle and have contrib- Nshaara Ranch. These animals will then uted a lot in developing this breed. But how be distributed to farmers. The farmers’ best should their rights be protected? Who animals are to be brought back to the cen- should protect them? Section 35(1) of the tral farm for further breeding. The best bulls Animal Breeding Act (2001) states that will then be recruited for semen production in the bull stud. Ex-situ conservation ’Any person who sells for breeding, any of Ankole cattle in form of semen storage breed or genetic material under a descrip- is already going on at the Centre. tion other than its patent name, commits an offence. Conclusion

Section 35(2) defines patent name as As with many other indigenous livestock the name given to a specific variety of breed breeders, there is an urgent need to safe- or genetic material by its originator or dis- guard the rights of the Bahima people coverer. In the case of the Bahima, can they whose essence in life revolves around the be considered as the originator of the Ankole. Their contribution to the develop- breed? If a scientist discovers a unique gene ment of the Ankole cattle is undisputed, in the Ankole, can he/she claim rights to and they are major stakeholders in the this gene alone? What legal options would conservation of this breed. However, mar- best protect the rights of indigenous live- ket forces are forcing the Bahima to look stock keepers and breeders? Is it through beyond the beauty of their cattle, prompt- an intellectual property rights regime or a ing them to allow into their herds more sui generis system? Although Uganda has productive exotic genes in terms of meat moved further than its neighbours in re- and milk. Unfortunately, this on-going in- gard to genetic material rightsin by having discriminate crossbreeding with exotic an Animal Breeding Act in place, there are breeds poses a major threat to the revered still a lot of unanswered questions and is- longhorned cattle. Through NAGRC&DB, sues to be addressed. the government of Uganda is making efforts to cater for all interests related to the Collaboration with institutions conservation, utilization and profitability of the Ankole cattle. In the face of neo-liberal policies like privatization, the Ugandan government in References conjuction with other stakeholders deemed it necessary to entrust an institution (the Na- Acts Supplement (2001) The Animal Breed- tional Animal Genetic Resources Centre ing Act. The Uganda Gazette 94: and Data Bank, or NAGRC&DB) with pro- No.36. tecting and guarding the national interest Ainomugisha, A (2001) ‘Traditional forms in animal breeding. This is more so espe- and use of snuff among Bahima in cially as regards the conservation and uti- Nyabushozi Uganda’. BA Thesis, lization of local genetics which in the short Mbarara University of Science and Tech- term are not profitable and so are not at- nology. tractive to the private sector. Infield, M, Rubagyema, P, Muchunguzi, C (2003) The names of Ankole cows. Through its Ankole Open Nucleus Fountain Publishers, Kampala, Uganda. Breeding programme, which is to involve

39 Community presentations

Kisamba Mugerwa. W. (1992) Rangeland tenure and resource management: An Comments and discussion overview of pastoralism in Uganda, Makerere Institute of Social Research. Klima (1970) The Barabaig: East African • Land tenure within the community is cattle herders. Holt, Rinehart and communal, but more and more is be- Winston, USA. ing surveyed and individual title deeds Kiwuwa GH (1995). ‘Dairy cattle breeding granted. Within this process, some com- activities in Sub-saharan Africa: An in- munity members have been given small terpretive review’. Paper presented at plots because they have under-reported the first workshop of the National Cat- the size of their herds. tle Breeding Policy Committee, • Those animals not eaten by the com- Makerere University. munity are kept for food for visitors from Muchunguzi, C (2002) ‘The challenges of communities with no objection to eatig integrating indigenous people in pro- them. tected area management: A case study • President Museveni’s love for cattle has of Bahima pastoralists and Lake Mburo aided the cause of the pastoral com- National Park in Nyabushozi, Uganda’, munities, but they still face problems as- MA Thesis, Mbarara University of Sci- sociated with sedentarization. ence and Technology. Muhereza, EF (2001) ‘Ranches restructur- ing and changing gender relations in pastoral households in the former An- kole Ranching Scheme, Uganda’. Work- ing Paper 70/2001, Center for Basic Re- search Kampala. Museveni, YK (1997) Sowing the mustard seed. Macmillan. Sacker, GD, Trail, JCM (1966) ‘A note on milk production of the Ankole cattle in Uganda’. Trop. Agric. Trin. 43: 247–50.

40 Community presentations

• Collectivization movement (1941–59) Orog Nuur • Collective and state farm period (1960– 90) Mongolia • Present and future status of animal breeding after privatization. Mendbaatar Osorjin and Dashdamba Damdin Breeding and selection The herders use both crossbreeding (horse– ongolia’s 1 565 000 km2 are donkey, cattle–yak) and pure breeding home to 2.6 million people and methods. Selection criteria for males in- 26 million livestock. From an early MM clude the following: point in history Mongolian herders have been mobile and herding five kinds of ani- Local Mongolian bulls mals (horses, cattle, camels, sheep and Local Mongolian bulls goats), according to natural conditions • Hair Dark brown and very dark in (pasture growth, drinking water and cli- Hair some body parts mate). • Tail Long and thick • Skin Thick The Orog Nuur herders’ community is lo- Skin • Short body and wide muzzle cated in Bogd soum, Bayankhongor body muzzle • Horns Thick, strong and short aimag. This region is desert and mountain Horns • Neck Strong, wide and with very well steppe. The community has 35 members. Neck developed muscles The community’s objectives are to protect • Breast Wide, deeply positioned nature and improve their habitat, improve Breast • Crest Structured, straight and long their livestock quality, livelihoods and work Crest • Head Straight and high together, and to improve their skills and Head • Thigh Thick shaped knowledge about nature protection. Thigh • Abdomen Strong and well-muscled • Testicles Well positioned. The community’s main problems in- Testicles clude: Stallions • Lack of information, cooperation and • Skin Dark black, dark brown is most coordination, local institutions Skin suitable • Lack of opportunities for processing and • Tail Wide and hair long and thick value addition Tail • Top of the head wide and wide nostrils • Lack of access to services, credit, and head nostrils • Ears Long, eyelashes thickened markets Ears • Eyes Open, bright and dark • Neck Thick, sternum lifted Community members work together to Neck • Chest Well muscled and strong prepare for the winter, hay making and Chest • Withers High positioned and strong fodder gathering, the selective use and pro- Withers muscled tection of pasture land, and the repair of • Ribs Round shaped wells and protection of the water supplies Ribs • Rump Well muscled and a bit bulg- and springs . Rump ing, not flat • Wide hipships, long penispenis. There have been five recent historical hips penis periods in livestock development: Camels • Pre-1921 revolution • Hair Deep reddish or dark brown hair • Revolutionary period and the develop- Hair • Good, muscular body ment of animal breeding until the Sec- body • Long thick body hairhair, strongly developed ond World War (1921–40) body hair knees

41 Community presentations

The body shape and general outlook Environmental changes play important role too. The main characteristics are: • Degrading pasture • Sand movement • Breast Wider than the general body • Falling lake levels shape • Rivers drying up • Head Strong and carried high • Change in local weather patterns. • Teeth Strong and well presented • Neck Strong and wide, strong mus- Strengths and weaknesses of cles on front side of neck livestock • Eyes Big, round shaped and with a soft outlook • Breeding methods • Tracks Should be equal and have clear • Low inputs and clean outline • Ecologically pure products • Hooves Strong, thick structured and • Livestock raw materials have a dark colour • Selective use of pasture • Front legs Strong and wide, shaped • Dependence on nature and vulnerable straight with well developed muscles to disaster • Testicles Well developed and posi- • Limited possibility to increase livestock tioned productivity • Base of hump should be wide, humps • Pasture degradation. should be far apart, and proportionately not too high, strong abdominal mus- Government and other support cles. The government recently took the initiative Goat bucks in livestock breeding, organizing breeding programmes, making investments, pass- Adult males must be at least 1.5 years old ing resolutions and laws, and so on. In April before they are used for breeding. Old 1993, the parliament passed a law on the animals, or new animals without a breed- ‘Protection of the health of Mongolian live- ing history, should not be selected. The stock and its gene-bank’. This sets down main reason is because such animals are key points for the regulation and organi- slow to gain weight and grow, so they zation of animal breeding in Mongolia. Ac- weaken the herd structure. Young males cording to this law, existing highly produc- to be selected for future breeding must re- tive nucleus herds are to be kept under ceive the full amount of the mother’s milk, government control, and nucleus herds of so the mothers are not milked. Male goats indigenous livestock are to be restored. cannot be used in breeding in one herd for more than 3 years. National government programmes aim to protect livestock health and improve the Sheep quality of livestock and breeding services. The government implements many projects The wool structure of selected sheep must for improving livestock quality and liveli- be fine, evenly distributed and curled. Mon- hoods. golian sheep have fat tails. The tail has to be wide, big and long (almost reaching the Our project uses a participatory, peo- hollow behind the knee joint). The animal ple-centred, process-oriented approach to must be healthy and strong so it has good empower local communities to build sus- chances of survival. tainable livelihoods, and to develop stakeholder consensus on sustainable, collabo- rative management of natural resources.

42 Community presentations

riages or during crises. Male breeding ani- Raika mals are often shared. During marriage ceremonies, the bridegroom has to sit on Western India a camel.

Hanwant Singh Rathore Crossbreeding Lokhit Pashu-Palak Sansthan, India Nari cattle are kept pure. It is felt that cross- he Raika/Rebari are the largest pas- breeding (with other local breeds) will af- toral group in western India (about fect their drought resistance. TT1.5 million people in Rajasthan). They breed camels, sheep, goats and cattle. They There is a lot of crossbreeding of sheep are largely landless, relying on short- and between local breeds, but it is recognized long-term migration to seek pasture for that higher productivity is at the expense their animals. They live mostly in Rajasthan of drought resistance and makes the herd and Gujarat, but also migrate into other more vulnerable. states (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab). Young people

Our research is mostly with Godwar Many young men are attracted by the city, subgroup in Pali and Sirohi district, Rajas- but they have problems finding employ- than. ment. They sometimes come back and start a herd. There are also some very dedicated Livestock breeders among the young people.

Camels The Raika originally looked af- Activities of LPPS ter the camel breeding herds of the Maha- rajahs. They believe they were created by LPPS’s activities include: Lord Shiva to take care of the first camel. • Standing up against corruption. The Raika in Sirohi district have devel- • Public interest litigation against the For- oped the ‘Nari’,cattle which had not been est Department (the camel is becoming documented by scientists. Nari cattle de- a threatened species). fend their calves against leopards and • Linking issue of wildlife conservation to know practically no diseases. conservation of indigenous livestock.

Sheep The Raika are breeders of the Boti Problems sheep (scientific name: Marwari breed) which can endure droughts and always Because they have no land, the Raika are keep walking (even on three legs). most dependent on forests for grazing. But foresters see the Raika’s sheep, goats and Goats The Sirohi goat (locally called camels as destructive – although it is the Majetti) is also associated with the Raika two-legged animal that causes most dam- community. It was recognized as more pro- age. According to the management plan, ductive than exotic goats from Switzerland the Forestry Department wants to prohibit in the Indo-Swiss goat project. grazing during the rainy season, when the Raika have no other place to go. Social and ritual meaning External benefits of pastoralism The Raika give animals as dowry (dhamini). Traditionally, female animals were never Local non-pastoralists benefit from the sold, only exchanged at the time of mar- Raika in various ways:

43 Community presentations

• Camels are important means of transportation for many of the most Alsipura Statement marginalized social groups, and an ecologically friendly source of draught power. Issued by the Indian Pastoralists and • The agricultural productivity of the area Herders Association on 23 March outside sanctuary depends on dung 2002 from pastoralists’ herds. • Nari cows and bulls are sought after by Members of pastoral communities small farmers. from all over India, including Changpa, Raika/ Rebari, Gujjar, Making life difficult or impossible for pas- Toda, Dhangar, Malaimadu cattle toralists will have negative effects beyond breeders, Kurma sheep breeders, the boundaries of the pastoralist society, Vembur sheep breeders, Andhra and will have a negative impact on other Pradesh Sheep and Goat Rearers’ As- rural people, on domestic biodiversity, and sociation as well as national and in- on national economies. ternational NGOs seeking to protect the interests of pastoralists and other livestock rearers, met at the Training centre of Lokhit Pashu Palak Sansthan in Alsipura (near Sadri, District Pali, Rajasthan, India) on 22–23 March, 2002 to discuss their mutual problems and exchange experiences about their situations.

Pastoralists play an important role in the ecology of India. Their production of organic manure contributes to the maintenance of soil fertility. Their grazing controls invasive exotic species. Contrary to their reputation, pastoralists have many traditional practices for conserving vegetation, for instance by rotational grazing.

Pastoralists play an important role on the conservation of indigenous livestock breeds (such as one humped camel, Toda buffalo, Nari and Malaimadu cattle, Deccani sheep), while Adivasis conserve valuable poultry genetic resources (Aseel chicken). These breeds harbour a wide variety of adaptive traits, being able to cope with harsh climates and landscapes and resisting diseases that affect crossbred animals. It is imperative to conserve them.

44 Community presentations

strength and sturdiness. This breed is suit- Livestock breeders able for marshy rice fields of the Cauvery Delta region. It has a medium sized bul- Tamil Nadu, southern lock with compact body and short legs. The India udder is not well developed. The animal yields up to 3 litres of milk per milking with a lactation period of 6–10 months. The ani- P. Vivekananadan mal requires minimal maintenance and it SEVA, India thrives on paddy straw. It is a hardy, drought- and disease-resistant animal. his paper describes four local breeds of cattle, two sheep breeds and a buf- Uses Umbalacherry bullocks are used for TTfalo breed in Tamil Nadi. wetland ploughing and transport of material through bullock carts. The animals are Umbalacherry cattle allowed to graze on paddy stubbles in har- vested fields. During the off-season (when Umbalacherry cattle are spread through- there is no crop in the field) the animals out Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur and are herded in open pasture and penned Thanjavur districts of Tamil Nadu. This at night to gather manure for the fields. breed has four district biotypes: Attukkari Typically, a herdsman will look after a herd madu, Ganapathiyan madu, Venna madu of 400–500 animals on terms mutually and Sorriyankattu madu. These names re- agreed between the animal owner and the flect the person or families’ maintaining the herdsman. The owner also pays a charge purity of these breeds over 3–4 genera- of about 1 rupee to the landowner for use tions. The estimated population is 20,000. of his pastures and pens.

Origin myths Once upon a time a yogi Factors affecting cattle population Access was in deep meditation. A farmer of that to drinking water and grazing lands are village had a cattle, and he had coolies to major problems. For example, in the look after the cattle. One day when the Thalaignayiru block of Nagapattinam dis- cattle were brought to the shed for the night trict, cattle ponds that were created for one, cow was missing. This cow usually watering animals are uncared for or have came to the shed an hour late. The coolie been encroached on. was concerned about what the cow did in this hour and the next day he followed it to Grazing land land is being encroached find out. The cow went straight to the yogi by local farmers. Mechanization of tilling, in meditation and fed the yogi with its milk. the cost of maintaining bullocks and high The coolie who saw this was frightened. wages threaten the existence of the breed. On noticing this, the yogi caught hold of the cow’s forehead and blessed the cow Kangeyam cattle saying. ‘Since you have fed me with your milk and taken care of my hunger, from Kangeyam cattle are a well-known draught today your breed will spread from breed from Tamil Nadu. The breed was de- Umbalacherry. The world will speak of your veloped by crossing local cattle with Amrith name and fame.’ That is why the cattle of Mahal and Hilari breeds from Mysore. This Umbalacheny have a white mark on the was a systematic breeding effort during the forehead, the place where the yogi blessed 1900s by an individual family, the Pattagar the cow. of Palayamkottai (Nallathambi Sarkarai Mandradiar) near Kangeyam village. Later, Characteristics This breed has white fore- the breed became popular with farmers head, curved horns, short tail, white hooves belonging to the Gounder community in and large stomach. It is noted for its Kangeyam, Dharapuram, Vellakoil,

45 Community presentations

Kangeyam Thirupur, Palani, Karur, or 20 sheep. Animals kept on this land will Perunthurai and Aravakurichi areas of not have infertility problems. The Tamil Nadu. Many of these farmers have korangadu pasture land provides grazing now switched to sheep and goats. from November to January due to growth of grass during the northeast monsoon Only about 60 breeding bulls true to showers. When there is no grass in the pas- type are left now, compared with 2000 bulls ture land during March to June, the cattle during the 1950s. These bulls are main- feed on the pods of Acacia leucophloea. tained in Nathakadayur village by Pattayakar families. The total Kangeyam Social significance The cattle are gifted cattle population is estimated to be as Achi koduthal during the wedding of sis- 470 000. ters’ daughters. During the time of Poo Pongal festivals, milk and curd are taken Special qualities Kangeyam bullocks in new pots, and during Pattipongal festi- were used earlier for drawing water from val, cattle, goat, grains, sugarcane and new open wells for irrigating garden crops. They pots are exchanged among relatives. are now used for ploughing and carting farm produce. Since the cows are low milk Rituals Local people worship the cows at yielders, they are invariably crossed with the time of giving birth of young ones. Jersey to improve milk yields. A pure Cattle shandy (Mattuthavany) is held an- Kangeyam cow yields less than 2 litres of nually once in Kannapuram village. It co- milk per day. It is usually culled after 12 incides with the ‘temple car festival’ lactations. This breed is allowed to graze (Therthiruvila) of Mariamman Temple on in korangadu pasture land. Chithrapournami day – the full moon day of the Tamil month of Chithirai (April–May). Korangadu is a silvipasture system that covers thousands of acres and has existed Selection Selection of bulls is based on for centuries. It is a typical grass+legume the pedigree and phenotype of animals. pasture of mixed annuals and trees. It has When they are born, calves are red in col- the following species: our, but they later change to grey. The horns are long and curve outwards and back- • Velamaram tree (Acacia leucophloea) wards. One pair of bullocks can pull a cart • Kolukottai grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) loaded with about 2 tons of agricultural • Vennampul (Trachys muricata) produce. • Ottanpul (Seltaria vericulata) • Kurutupul (Cholris barbata) In males selected for breeding, the tail • Cholapul (Chrysopogon montanus) should reach below the hock of the hind • Naripayathankodi (Phaseolus trilobus) legs, the horns should be long, and the • Seppunerinji (Indigofera enneaphylla) testicles located close together. • Savarikodi (Merremia tridentate) • Poonapudukukodi (Crotalaria globosa) Male calves from cows in their 5th and • Dadara (Borreria hispida) 6th lactations are preferred for breeding. • Hariali (Cynodon dactylon) Only calves with good growth rate are allowed to become bulls; others are cas- The entire korangadu pasture land is trated. Castration will be performed in the fenced with thorny shrub mullukiluvai Tamil month of Karthikai (November–De- (Commiphora berryi). The land is ploughed cember) when the korangadu pasture land only every 3 years. The seeds of annuals is green with grasses and pods of Acacia are not sown each year, but only once when leucophloea. the land is newly converted into korangadu. Four acres of korangadu is enough to Crossbreeding For higher milk yields, maintain two adult cows and four calves farmers have their cows inseminated with

46 Community presentations

Jersey/ Holstein Friesian semen. Due to in- Selection Male animals for breeding creasing use of tractors and farm mecha- should have stout and short legs, thick hair, nization, draught bullocks are rarely used. a wide forehead, long curved horns, long tail, and display wild behaviour. Young people The younger generation is not interested in maintaining traditional Origin myths The goddess Tickirse cre- breeds of cattle. Some are using their pas- ated Toda buffaloes with a stick. When ture to rear sheep and crossbred milch people were praying, buffaloes emerged animals. out of ponds. According to the legend, only buffaloes with a certain horn form were Role of government The announcement domesticated, while other types were left of a land ceiling has discouraged farmers in the forest. from keeping large areas of grazing land, crucial for sustaining the cattle breed. A Crossbreeding Crossbreeding with the calf-rearing scheme for providing young semen of Murrah is practised, although the calves at subsidized rates has also been Toda are not convinced that the crossbred withdrawn. animals can perform adequately in the Nilgiri climate with its low temperatures and Toda buffaloes high rainfall.

The Toda buffalo breed is associated with Young people Young people show little the Toda tribal community in the Nilgiri Hills interest in buffalo rearing due to their pref- of Tamil Nadu. There are 1200 Toda fami- erence for modern lifestyles, shrinking pas- lies living in the Nilgiris, and they keep ture land, and lack of income from buffalo about 1500 Toda buffaloes. This breed rearing. survives the cold climate with temperatures of 0–20°C at an altitude over 1500 m Role of government The Forest Depart- above sea level. ment has promoted plantations of euca- lyptus trees, which have encroached on Toda buffaloes are medium-sized ani- about 25 000 ha of pasture land. Wild mals with short legs and long horns. The animals prey upon buffaloes, and heavy horns are usually set wide apart and are mortality has been recorded due to con- curved inwards to form a semicircle. Fe- servation project for wild animals in the males yield 2–3 litres of milk per day. Nilgiris (Mudumalai wildlife sanctuary and Mukurthi National Park). The government Social significance Buffaloes are given as has opened milk-procurement centres in a a gift to brides. Buffaloes are treated as few locations. The mortality of young calves family wealth and are passed on to sons and non-availability of breeding bulls cause and daughters. At funerals, buffaloes were difficulties for the Todas. sacrificed as a gift to the dead person. It is believed that the soul of the buffaloes would Malaimadu cattle accompany the dead person to the next world. The Malaimadu or Hill cattle breed is reared by the Konar, Thevar, Naickers and Rituals Buffalo ghee (clarified butter) is Moopar communities in Madurai, used as oil for lighting temple lamps. At Virudhunagar, Theni, Dindigul and Karur the first new moon after childbirth, during districts of Tamil Nadu. Around 1200 fami- the child’s naming ceremony, and during lies maintain about 30 000 cattle in a the salt-giving ceremony to children, the tropical zone where the temperatures presence of buffaloes is auspicious. Buffa- ranges from 25 to 40°C and annual rain- loes are essential for the spiritual world and fall amounts to 800 mm. the social life of the Toda people.

47 Community presentations

Table 1. Malaimadu body colour and by cutting or shaping the ears with a ‘moon’ vegetation type or semicircle.

Type of terrain Body colour of animal Cattle owners are respected because and vegetation their animals supply manure. The manure Nagarai river forest Reddish brown sustains soil fertility for 3 years. Dung is (Sembarai) also used in bone-setting. Uduppu Parai forest Grey (Mayilai) Pullipathi forest Red/brown spots Selection Male calves for breeding are (Sembor) preferably obtained from the third lacta- Kovilmalai forest Light black spots tion. The bull’s mother should be a high (Kadukkai por) milk yielder. Other desirable traits include:

• Horns Straight or tilted forward. • Skin colour Vellai (bright white), Table 2. Rotational grazing for mayilai (milk white), sembor (red dots Malaimadu cattle on white background or white dots on January–March Plains brown or red) or karumbor (black dots on white or white dots on black). April–June Hills • Tail Short and thin and end above the July–September Plains hock. October–December Hills • Dewlap Small in the neck region. • Chest Wide and the body frame long. • Face and ears Short, with projected Population About 30 years ago, the cat- eyes to add the attraction of the face. tle population was said to be more than • Testicles Small. 300 000. This reduction is due to various • Skin Pliable, soft and thin. factors, including the non-issue of grazing permit by forest officials, and a lack of la- In addition, the bull must be ferocious bour and tractorization which have de- in nature and taller than all other animals creased the demand for draught animals. in the herd. It must have leadership capacity, able to lead the herd while grazing Use and characteristics Animals of the in the forest, and to save the herd from the Malaimadu breed are small, sturdy and attack of wild animals. The parents, espe- resistant to many diseases. The bullocks are cially the mother, should have bright skin useful for ploughing in the wetlands. The colour, such as vellai, mayilai, karumbor, main reason for keeping these cattle is to sembor and even karumayilai (grey). pen them so they manure the fields. Dur- ing the northeast monsoon in October– Crossbreeding Malaimadu bulls are December, the cattle are sent to the forest mated with local Jersey and Holstein Frie- for grazing. In the off-season, after har- sian crossbreeds. The offspring will be less vesting of the paddy crop, the cattle are let prone to mastitis and able to withstand hot into the fallow lands for penning and graz- temperature and rains. The fat content of ing. milk will also be improved. Malaimadu draught bullocks are known Kachakatty Black sheep for their strength, stamina and loyalty to their owner. The animals are said to attack enemies or thieves ferociously. Katchakatty Black is a sheep breed con- served by pastoral communities, including Cows and calves are given as dowry to Konar, Mooppar, Pallar and Panyan, in brides. The dowry animals are identified Vadipatti block, Madurai District, Tamil Nadu. It is a completely black sheep known

48 Community presentations for sheep fighting and amenable for pen- Selection Breeding rams are selected ning to provide manure for local farmers. from the offspring of females in their third This breed has been maintained by 13 lactation. The rams should have short, stout families. The sheep population is 538 ani- legs, elongated horns, a wide head and mals. About 25 years ago, the population elongated body. For a herd of 35 sheep, was about 3000, but it has now fallen dras- farmers maintain one ram. tically due to problems with forest grazing and occurrence of disease. Origin About 4 generations ago, different types of sheep were kept in Kachakatty These villages are situated around the village. Farmers at that time preferred black Vaguthumalai Hills in Vadipatti Block, sheep as they are amenable for penning. Madurai District. The sheep are taken to The sheep have the habit of staying put for the hills to graze. The families also raise a a longer time after sunrise. Other breeds few goats along with their sheep flock. will be get restless after sunrise and have to be taken for grazing. However the The communities maintain the sheep Kachakatty black sheep will sit for 2–3 flocks to support their livelihood. They earn hours longer at this time in the morning. income by the selling female and male This characteristic increases the dung quan- lambs, and by penning the animals and tity during penning. After noticing this, providing manure to the fields. herders selected for black colour. In Tamil, karuppu means black, so the breed is The rams are known for sheep fighting. named ‘Kachakatty Karuppu’. This is a sport practised during temple festivals. For sheep fighting, Katchakatty rams Crossbreeding To ensure the purity of the are preferred. Three-month-old rams are breed, crossbreeding is discouraged. sold for approximately Rs 2000. From pen- Breeding occurs with the sheep of migra- ning, the income is Rs 0.50 per sheep per tory pastoral communities who regularly day. To manure a 1-acre field, 100 sheep visit during certain periods of the year. must be penned for 5 days. A jute-bag filled with manure produced by one sheep dur- Young people Uneducated youths or ing a month sells at Rs 6 per bag. school dropouts in the same communities are interested in continuing their traditional Social significance Farmers give sheep as lifestyle as sheep herders. However, they dowry. People from Thevar community are feel that officials insist on the herders’ ob- proud of giving black sheep as dowry. The taining permission to graze animals in society respects owners of black sheep be- Vaguthumalai Forest. cause the animals are good for penning in the fields. Black sheep are also consid- Role of government The Department of ered auspicious. Animal Husbandry has organized animal health camps (under pressure from SEVA Black sheep with horns are preferred by and herders). Tamil Nadu Veterinary Uni- Muslims for slaughter for the Ramzan feast. versity is showing interest in ex-situ conser- Black males are preferred for dedication vation of this breed. to folk gods or as ‘temple sheep’ (koil kida in Tamil). Pulikulam cattle

Characteristics The skin is completely Pulikulam cattle live mainly in the black. The ears are small and appear un- Sivagangai, Virudhunagar and Ramnad derdeveloped or a vestiges (¾–1” in districts of Tamil Nadu. The cattle are main- length). Females have horns in 10–15% of tained by local communities belonging to cases. The forehead should have a shal- Thevar and Konar. low cavity-like depression.

49 Community presentations

Origin myth The existence of the breed up to Mavutru, which were pastureland, can be traced back 500 years. The present have been blocked by the Forest Depart- village of Pulikulam was once full of jun- ment. Ponds in the foothills (Nagamma gle. One day, a tiger came to a pond to Dorani, Papparathan oorani, Sevittukilavan quench its thirst. It was trapped by bushes koil oorani, Tharmamkathavar ootru, on the banks of pond, so people named Thaniparai otru, Karukkupathai oorani, the pond the ‘Tiger Pond’ The cattle found Thottichi oorani) are also out of bounds in that village became synonymous with for cattle. Forest guards impose fines if they Pulikulam breed. The cattle are also known catch animals watering at ponds in the for- as Palingu Madu, Nattumadu or est. Manimadu. Vembur sheep Characteristics Pulikulam cattle have moderately long face and fine muzzle. The We have identified 22 villages around forehead is fairly broad, and the horns nar- Vembur, Pudhur block in Thoothukudi Dis- row and 2–2.5 feet long. The animal has trict where this breed is found. The esti- a short, stout neck. The hump is short in mated population of Vembur sheep is the female and well-developed in the male. 2000. The body is compact and well-ribbed. The tail is long and has a tuft of black hair. The Factors affecting population During the legs are strong, short and set well apart. dry months there is acute water scarcity, The colour is usually grey and white. while the rainy season brings torrential rains that make the herds vulnerable to Uses These cattle are usually used for diseases such as foot-and-mouth and rind- penning in farmland. A herd usually con- erpest. The mortality rate rises as high as tains 300–400 cattle. The bullocks are used 12% in the wet months. The sheep require for ploughing. The herders earn income dry shelter during the nights in the wet sea- by selling 6-month-old male calves at over son. Rs 2000 each. The Pulikulam breed is known for bull riding (jallikattu). Comments and discussion Problems The drinking water ponds in Manankathan and Pulikulam villages need to be desilted to provide drinking water for • The afforestation policy has greatly con- the cattle. During the months of Iyppasi and tributed to lack of interest among the Karthigai (October–November) there is no youth in animal breeding. space for penning the cattle in the • There has been a decline in the number Koomapatti area due to planting of paddy of indigenous livestock breeds due to in the plains. Forest officials have prevented changing breeding practices, policy cattle from entering the forests since it was changes, education, climate, globaliza- declared a sanctuary area. Those caught tion, etc. grazing there are threatened or fined heavily.

Forest officials are restricting access to pasturelands without considering the herders’ need for pasture. Pathways that provide access to drinking water and grazing that cross the lower lands and the adjoin- ing Western Ghats are also problematic. Sites such as the eastern part of Thaniparai

50 Community presentations

Fulani Akamba Burkina Faso Kenya

Hedy Bühlmann Rebecca Musyoka World Herders Council, Switzerland Kenya Small Farmers Union

he Fulani people perceive the cow he Akamba people live in the dis as the mother of humankind. They tricts of Machakos, Mwingi, Kitui and TTbelieve that one can read informa- TTMakueni in Kenya’s Eastern Province. tion on future events such as danger, harsh They depend mainly on livestock since crop weather ahead from certain signs (hair) on farming is risky because of harsh climatic the animals. The Fulani are good breed- conditions in the area. ers and they have a strong breeding tradition, which gives emphasis on good col- Main types of livestock our. Much of the breeding information is kept as a group secret. • Cattle Zebus, Orma Boran, Sahiwal and crosses. • Goats East African goats, Galla and crosses. • Sheep Red Maasai and Black Persian. • Chickens • Donkeys

Uses

• Cattle Used for ploughing, transport, food, milk, dowry, hides and skins, manure and cash. • Sheep and goats Used for milk, cash, food, feasts, festivals and dowry. • Chicken Used for food, cash and gifts. • Donkeys Used for transport and ploughing.

Special characteristics

Zebu cattle are resistant to tick-borne diseases. Orma Boran cattle yield a lot of milk, grow fast, have a high mature weight, and tolerate trypanosomiasis. They can withstand harsh conditions, prolonged heat, poor pastures and scarce water.

Selection

The Akamba select against black colour because this attracts pests and tsetse flies. They select male breeding animals for size, strength, new blood (i.e. animals from

51 Community presentations

other herds), white and brown colour, and a lineage that frequently gives birth to twins. Mbororo They select female breeding animals for their twinning ability, milk, colour size and Cameroon conformation. The distinguish types and breeds through the animals’ colour, shape, Ali Aii Shatu conformity, growth rate, ears and horns. Mboscuda, Cameroon

Crossbreeding he Mbororo are originally a nomadic and pastoralist people. They are eth- The follwoing crossbreeding is practised: TTnically diversified into three major subgroups (the Jafun, Aku and Wodaable), • Between Zebu, Sahiwal, Oroma Boran who are found in Cameroon. The majority and exotic breeds. of the Jafun and many Aku are semi-sed- • East African goat and Galla, and soon entary, but still principally grazers. They en- the Toggenberg. tered Cameroon through Adamawa from • Red Maasai and Black Headed Persian northern Nigeria in the early 20th century, sheep. and some settled in Sabga in North West Province of Cameroon by early 1905. Myths The Mbororo are a significant minority • You cannot mix milk from a mother and in Cameroon. They are found in Adamawa, daughter in the same container. East, North West, North and West prov- • If your sheep gives birth to twins, you inces, and in almost all divisions in these have to give one to your nephew. provinces. In the Centre Province they are • You cannot sell an animal with physical in Mbam and Inoubou divisions. In the Lit- deformities. toral Province they are in Mongo Division. In the South West Province they are found Attitudes to livestock in Akwaya and Maga in Lebialem.

The Akamba value livestock as their main With a population of 1 920 000 peo- source of income. The animals also pro- ple they compose almost 12% of vide status and a pastime. Cameroon’s inhabitants. In the North West Province their population is estimated at Government policies above 250 000 people. The Mbororo rear cattle, and to a lesser extent horses, sheep, The government has neglected dry areas chickens and goats. in its breeding support programmes. The focus of the government is on production, Social significance and there is no biodiversity conservation policy. There is a shortage of grazing land. Their animals are a form of prestige to the Mbororo. They are also needed for the community’s livelihood and survival. They are the source of milk, meat and family income, and are used for social aspects. Cattle are of great social importance in the Mbororo community whose whole lives revolve around cattle. These animals are used for dowry, bride wealth, child naming at birth, religious feasts, gifts, enter- tainment of guests, and during traditional ceremonies.

52 Community presentations

The Mbororo see their animals as clean, lies in the number of cattle one has in one’s pure and upright, with dignity, and confer herd. The nomadic nature of the Mbororo ingstatus on the owners (compared to live- is caused by their allegiance to cattle. stock such as pigs raised by other communities). The animals are regarded as mem- Crossbreeding bers of the family and are treated as such, even though they also provide economic Crossbreeding is done between local sustenance. Other communities, on the breeds and exotic breeds. The local breeds other hand perceive their animals merely are bred with exotic breeds from Europe as a source of family income and protein. and America such as Holstein Friesians, Jersey, Brahma and Boran. Selection and breeding Young people Criteria for selecting male breeding animals include: Most youths in the Mbororo community tend to divest from cattle and invest in other • Progeny with good milk and beef pro- businesses, though they reinvest profits duction from such enterprises in cattle rearing. • Body conformation • Colour • Type of breed Comments and discussion • Calm and gentle behaviour • Health status. Pastoralists share many similarities: Cattle breeds kept by the Mbororo com- • They have a strong attachment to their munity include: livestock. • They have similar uses for their animals, • Red Fulani (Mbororoji) Red in colour, and keep them for similar reasons. long horns and very beautiful. • They have similar criteria for selection • White Fulani (Akaji) Smaller in size, for breeding. white in colour, most often with a black • They suffer similar threats. nose. This breed is very resistant and adaptable to poor grazing areas. The initial recognition of the group • Gudli Multicolored (reddish, black, should assist livestock keepers and safe- white, spotted, etc., large in size and guard them from risks. produces a lot of milk. Interest among young people in live- Origin myths stock is dwindling because of urbanization and modernization. The sea god summoned the leader of the Mbororo and taught him a song. After the Government policy neglects pastoralists. leader sang the song, cattle started com- They should assess impacts of donors – ing out of the sea towards him. The god counterproductive objectives. instructed him to lead the cattle without looking back. Along the way, the man was Nevertheless, it should be possible to terrified by the large herd behind him. He sustain the pastoralist lifestyle. Pastoralists defied the god’s instruction and looked are a group that deserves recognition, since behind just as a very big bull was coming they have a place in the future. Middle- out of the sea. At this, the bull mooed and aged people have experienced both life- retreated to the sea. Thus cattle are part of styles and should be able to sustain the the Mbororo person’s life, and much time pastoralist lifestyle. is devoted to cattle. Prestige and honour

53 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

Part 3 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

Status of indigenous livestock breeds in Kenya

Cleopas Okore Livestock Production Department, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development, Kenya

enya has diversified topographic by a well developed hump in the cervico- conditions with altitudes up to Mt thoracic position. These zebu populations KKKenya’s 5199 m. Climatic conditions and strains include the Kikuyu zebu, range from arid and semi-arid to the hu- Coastal zebu, Maasai zebu of the Maasai mid highlands. Kenya has an estimated tribe, Winam or Kavirondo zebu in the Lake millions of zebu cattle, hair sheep and Victoria Basin in Nyanza and Western prov- goats, and significant numbers of other inces, the Nandi zebu, Samburu zebu, livestock (Table 1). The different types of Turkana and Teso zebu. livestock have evolved over time and become adapted to the ecological conditions The Boran cattle have been derived from of their habitat. Smallholder farmers and the large zebu and are found in the drier pastoralists prefer to keep several livestock species, and they depend on them for their livelihoods. Table 1 Estimated livestock population Emerging livestock are species that un- in Kenya til recently have not been utilized by the Livestock type Number (‘000) communities. They include crocodiles, os- triches, guinea fowls, quails, termites and Zebu cattle 9000 grasshoppers. These species are used as Sheep 7000 food, so there is a need to study their ecol- Goats (local) 10000 ogy to understand the requirements for Pigs 332 their successful domestication. Rabbits 404 Indigenous chickens 19072 Livestock breeds Camels 819 Donkeys 478 Cattle In Kenya the indigenous zebu cattle belong to the Small East Africa Short- Source: Ministry of Livestock & Fisheries Devel- opment, Animal Production Division Annual horn zebu cattle. They are characterized Report, 2001

54 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs parts of Eastern and North Eastern prov- Poultry The main poultry species are inces. The Sahiwal is not indigenous to chickens. Indigenous chickens are the most Kenya and was imported from India and abundant and form over 70% of the total Pakistan in the 1930s and 40s. The Sahiwal poultry population. They supply the bulk was used to upgrade the indigenous zebu of the national requirement for eggs and cattle. poultry meat. The indigenous chickens are named after the area they occupy. Other The indigenous zebu cattle play a very indigenous poultry that are emerging in- important role in the lives of Kenyans, es- clude guinea fowls and quails. pecially of the pastoralists who depend en- tirely on these animals for their livelihood. Camels The Somali camel is found in the These animals are multipurpose and are drier parts of Eastern and North Eastern used traditionally to provide food and provinces. Camels are kept for meat and draught power and to serve numerous so- milk. They also play an important role as cial functions. a means of transport in the traditional rural sector. Very little information is avail- Sheep The two different types of hair able on camel productivity. sheep found in Kenya are the fat-rumped Somali sheep, which resembles the black Rabbits The common rabbit breeds used head Persian sheep, and the red Maasai in commercial production are California which is fat-tailed and dark brown. These White, Flemish Giant, New Zealand White, breeds of sheep are found in virtually every and crosses. Farmers keep very few indig- part of the country. Their products are ac- enous rabbits. The rabbits are kept mainly ceptable to all communities in the country. by institutions such as youth clubs, self-help The sheep are kept for meat but also serve groups, women groups and schools. They other social functions such as paying dowry. are normally kept for meat or sale.

Goats There are two main types of in- Donkeys Donkeys are used mainly to digenous goats in Kenya: the Small East transport goods. African and the Galla. The Small East Afri- can goat is predominant and is distributed Distribution of livestock throughout the country. The Galla goat is dominant in the Eastern and North East- Knowing the distribution of livestock spe- ern provinces. The goats’ population is cies by province enables the allocation of generally higher than that of sheep in all resources for characterization and conser- areas of the country. This may be due to vation. Rift Valley Province has the highest the fact that goat meat is more popular number of zebu cattle (34% of the total), than mutton. Indigenous goat breeds are followed by Nyanza and Eastern provinces. kept primarily for meat, but they also play Nairobi with less than 0.1%, and Central other roles, e.g., in social functions such province with 1%, have the lowest number as payment of dowry, and as a ready of zebu because their herds have been source of cash. Their droppings are good upgraded to dairy breeds to produce milk source of manure. for the urban markets. Loss of the zebu genotype is high in the two provinces, so Pigs Wild pigs are indigenous to Kenya. conservation measures should be under- The non-indigenous pigs are the Large taken urgently. Rift Valley, Eastern and White, Landrace and the Large Black. Pig North Eastern provinces have a large production in Kenya is limited in some prov- number of zebu cattle because a large inces like Coast and North Eastern prov- portion of these provinces is arid and semi- inces due to religious beliefs. arid, and it is only zebu which are adapted to the harsh conditions – limited water,

55 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

Table 2 Estimated indigenous livestock population by province (000) Province Zebu cattle Sheep Goats Chickens Camels Donkeys Rift Valley 2730 3893 5557 4700 168 231 Western 756 189 150 2534 0 0 Nyanza 1332 625 824 4533 0 34 Central 91 239 224 1492 0 24 Eastern 1385 956 2156 3715 90 129 Coast 961 451 998 2006 58 26 North Eastern 927 475 759 – 503 31 Nairobi 6 2 20 95 0 0

Source: Ministry of Livestock & Fisheries Development, Animal Production Division Annual Report, 2001

scarce feed, and endemic diseases. The Production systems relatively high proportion of zebu cattle in Nyanza and Western provinces is partly due Livestock in Kenya are kept in a broad to the semi-arid conditions on the shores range of production systems that vary from of Lake Victoria, the hot and humid condi- smallholder mixed-farming systems in tions, and the prevalence of tick-borne dis- high- and medium-potential areas, to com- eases, to which the zebu show varying de- munal pastoral systems in semi-arid and grees of resistance. These conditions are arid areas. Products from livestock vary with severe for exotic dairy cattle breeds. the production system. Smallholder farmers and communal pastoralists keep a di- Sheep and goats are predominant in versity of livestock to minimize risks in case Rift Valley and Eastern provinces. Pigs are there is a disease outbreak or severe widely kept in Central and Nairobi prov- drought. inces. Similarly, the rabbit population is high in Central Province. Pigs and rabbits Characterization of livestock are not kept in North Eastern because of genetic resources the Islamic culture. Nyanza province, with 28% of the total indigenous chicken popu- The livestock population is of local origin lation, has the largest number of chickens. and has not been characterized as belong- North Eastern has the highest number of ing to specific breeds. Local breeds are camels. Rift Valley and Eastern provinces named after the area they occupy, and keep a large number of donkeys. there have been interbreeding resulting in the dilution of breed characteristics. Threat to livestock species Attempts have been made to charac- In the densely populated provinces of Cen- terize indigenous cattle breeds in their pro- tral, Western and Nyanza, population pres- duction environment (Mosi et al., 1996; sure on land has led to limited forage, and Okeyo et al, 1996). There is no on-farm livestock keeping has been abandoned in and on-station breed evaluation and im- some areas. There is stiff competition with provement programme for the Small East more productive breeds introduced from African zebu cattle. However there are such other countries. Prolonged drought and programmes for the Sahiwal and Boran, disease outbreaks decimate livestock. In- and their respective breed societies have security and cattle rustling have resulted in formulated breeds standards for registra- the loss of livestock. Reproductive diseases tion of animals with the Kenya Stud Book. such as brucellosis adversely affect productivity.

56 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

Table 3 Livestock production systems and products Livestock species Production system Products Zebu Smallholder mixed farming Milk, meat, hides and skins, traction, manure Beef ranching Milk, meat, hides and skins, manure Communal pastoralism Meat, hides and skins, manure Sheep and goats Smallholder mixed farming Meat, hides and skins, manure Communal pastoralism Meat, hides and skins, manure Pigs and rabbits Smallholder mixed farming Meat, manure Chickens Smallholder mixed farming Eggs, meat, manure (semi-confined and confined) Donkeys Smallholder mixed farming Traction, transport Communal pastoralism Transport Camels Dairy ranching Milk,meat Communal pastoralism Milk, meat, transport

With regard to sheep breeds, there is a acterization of livestock species used in spe- breed evaluation and improvement pro- cific production systems should be carried gramme for the Red Maasai. No effort has out simultaneously so that productive been made to characterize other local breeds can be identified. It is on this basis breeds. that rational decisions with be made with regard to conservation, development and Small East African goats are kept in di- utilization of the different livestock species. verse production systems. Indetie et al., As it is evident that organizations are in- (1999) has characterized Small East Afri- terested in characterization of livestock spe- can goats in Kajiado and Baringo districts. cies, coordination of this work by a national There has been no characterization of in- body is imperative. digenous pigs, chicken, camels or donkeys. Table 4 Characterization status of Phenotyping and genotyping indigenous livestock

From the ongoing work it is evident that Livestock species Characterization status phenotypic data has been collected on the indigenous zebu cattle. ILRI has initiated Zebu cattle Phenotyping and genotyping research work to genotype the indigenous zebu cattle (Table 4). However, genotyping Sheep and goats Phenotyping of other livestock species has not been at- Pigs and rabbits Phenotyping tempted. Chickens Phenotyping Donkeys – Conclusion Camels Phenotyping

Since farmers utilize a diversity of livestock species in their production systems it is important that comprehensive characterization is undertaken to generate phenotypic and genotypic data. Information should be obtained on the cultural values associated with certain phenotypic characteristics. If resources are available, char-

57 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

Regulatory and legal options for the protection of the rights of traditional livestock keepers and breeders

JA Ekpere University of Ibadan, Nigeria

raditional livestock keepers and cated animals globally are already extinct breeders in Africa have a rich tradi (Hall and Ruane 1993) and in Subsaha- TTtional knowledge base and have de- ran Africa, 47 of the 145 known breeds of veloped a multiple-use approach to ani- cattle are at risk of extinction, and 22 are mal husbandry, including a working knowl- already extinct (Rege 1999) . edge of genetics and genetic resources. Many livestock keepers and breeders keep The protection, preservation and con- detailed mental and oral livestock records. servation of farm animal genetic resources This is because an animal’s ancestry is of- is thus of the essence. There is need to stem ten and typically encoded in its name, and the rapid erosion of the narrow genetic the names are never changed, even when base of these resources, on which the world the animal is sold or exchanged. These depends. The reality of international agree- names often reflect natural ancestry, and ments in trade and commerce, the conser- pedigrees can be traced back several gen- vation of biological resources and intellec- erations. tual property rights require appropriate regulations and legal instruments. Societies that keep and breed livestock have usually developed a number of dis- This paper discusses some regulatory tinct breeds to suit their unique environ- and legal options for the protection of the ment and livestock product needs. In this rights of traditional livestock keepers and sense livestock breeds are a community breeders. It is assumed that the concept of assets whose importance and relevance Farmer’s Rights in crops agriculture as transcend economic value. Livestock has enunciated in the FAO International Treaty social and cultural value and in some cases on Plant Genetic Resources in Food and it is held in high spiritual significance. It Agriculture applies in equivalence to indig- could be sacred and its purity maintained enous livestock keepers and breeders. through a careful selection and breeding process. Like their counterparts in crop The context agriculture, these societies are the custodians of local animal genetic resources. This paper focuses on ‘local breeds’ and/ or ‘indigenous breeds’ which connote Africa’s local livestock breeds and their breeds as products of a specific commu- associated genetic resources and tradi- nity, society or culture. They are the results tional knowledge represent an important of centuries of selection and use by ethnic asset for economic development. However, and social groups living in a confined habi- not enough consideration is accorded to it tat. In this process, cultural needs and pref- and the need to deal with the accelerating erences, traditional knowledge and envi- loss of animal biodiversity. There is evi- ronmental factors determine and influence dence that 618 known breeds of domesti- the traits and characteristics of the local

58 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs breeds. The element of ownership is there- zations are hardly shared with local com- fore self-evident. munities in a systematic manner. Rather research is undertaken and access sought Traditional livestock keepers, breeders with the principal object to save, preserve and pastoralists usually keep a mix of and rescue breeds as carriers of desirable breeds through natural selection, breed- genetic materials with economic potential ing and management in order to enhance and future value. International multina- the ability of their indigenous animals to tional corporations and research institu- cope with different challenges – long dis- tions are frantically prospecting for livestock tance treks, fodder and water shortages, breeds (poultry, pigs and cattle) with desir- pest and disease resistance, climatic and able genetic characteristics. environmental stress, etc. Local breeds are of great importance in traditional socie- The problem is how to stimulate the ties. They are a source of a wide variety of necessary awareness and create the ca- products and provide several nonmonetary pacity for advocacy on access and benefit benefits, such as: sharing issues with particular attention to the rights of local livestock keepers and • Food, fibre, fertilizer and fuel. breeders over their farm animal genetic • Cash income resources. What strategies can be adopted • Transportation and draught power and implemented to give volume, rel- • Savings evance and influence to the voice of local • Security against crop failure and other livestock keepers and pastoralists in the hazards crafting of an appropriate regulatory • Rural employment and poverty allevia- framework and legal system that ensures tion – support for social and cultural net- ownership and control of animal genetic works resources by the community or the livestock • Enhanced community survival strategy keeper, access and benefit sharing? The • Community assets and common prop- erosion of farm genetic resources and di- erty. versity is relatively more severe in livestock compared with plant genetic resources. The The problem gene pool is smaller, and only a few wild and local breeds remain in the public do- The development of an endogenous live- main. The call for urgent action has there- stock initiative with due cognizance to tra- fore become very important. ditional knowledge of local livestock keepers/breeders and genetic resources has Why protect? become more important since the adoption of the FAO International Treaty on Plant The protection of farm animal genetic re- Genetic Resources for Food and Agricul- sources emphasize both in-situ and ex-situ ture. So also has been the desire to evolve conservation. However, it is more mean- an intellectual property regime similar to ingful and sustainable to protect and main- ‘Farmers' Rights’. This is because while in- tain relevant breeds as a functional part of dustrial livestock breeders, research insti- the local production system. Local commu- tutes and companies guard their ‘inven- nities and livestock keepers should be ena- tions’ of new breeds through trade secrets bled to exercise ownership and continue and other intellectual property regimes, to develop and improve their breeds local livestock keepers and breeders are through: expected to share their knowledge without restriction or reward. The benefits accru- • Supportive and relevant policies and ing from access to local animal genetic that ensure access to health facilities, resources by international livestock re- pasture, water and market outlet. search institutes and private sector organi- • Appropriate land use planning.

59 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

• Documentation and retention of the tra- • Community participation integrating ditional knowledge that livestock keepers institutional support, stakeholder in- have accumulated about their breeds, their volvement and critical success factors. management and other relevant aspects. • Policy framework and mechanisms that support economic and sociocultural More specifically, the protection of ani- valuation of local breeds. mal genetic resources has become neces- • Documentation and capacity building. sary in order to: Raising the profile of indigenous • Comply with the basic tenets of the Con- livestock breeders vention on Biological Diversity, which confers sovereign rights over genetic re- There is currently increasing recognition sources on States and Communities. and acceptance that: • Prevent the erosion of animal genetic resources and unauthorized exploitation • Local livestock keepers and breeders the traditional knowledge associated play a very important role in protect- with genetic resources. ing, conserving and safeguarding local • Protect traditional knowledge from dis- livestock diversity through their animal tortion and misuse. husbandry practices, associated tradi- • Protect social, cultural and spiritual iden- tional knowledge and technologies. tity and thereby preserve the dignity and • Local breeds possess a vast array of moral rights of local livestock keepers genetic resources which local livestock and pastoralists. keepers and breeders have developed • Not destroy the capacity of the custodi- through generations of expert selection. ans of animal genetic resources. • There is the threat of drastic erosion of • Stimulate creativity and innovativeness genetic resources/biodiversity as well as in the development of new breeds. the traditional knowledge, culture and spirituality associated with livestock hus- It is gratifying to note some ongoing ini- bandry. tiatives on the conservation of farm ani- • The advent of bioprospecting for genetic mal genetic resources, though they are not materials by multinational corporations adequately focused on protection, issues and individuals has become a source of ownership, access and benefit sharing. of concern. • Local breeds provide transportation and FAO has played a lead role in this proc- draught power in most communities. ess. The International Livestock Research Local breeds are a source of cash in- Institute (ILRI) in Nairobi has been relevant. come, savings and wealth. These efforts have emphasized community- based management approaches with a In order to encourage and empower view to achieving: local livestock keepers and pastoralists to sustain their unique genetic livestock re- • Sustainable use of livestock breeds, sources in the current ecologically fragile empowering local communities to inte- global environment, it is necessary to raise grate poverty alleviation and rural wel- their profile to a new level of societal fare issues into livestock keeping and awareness. The problem has to be studied pastoral livelihoods. and better understood. • Enhance the capacity of livestock keepers and pastoralists in community-based A coalition of like-minded NGOs, na- natural resource management through tional/regional livestock scientists and in- traditional knowledge and cultural val- ternational livestock research institutions ues. (like this meeting) needs to acquire the necessary legitimacy to galvanize a com-

60 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs mon position and strategy to express the animal genetic resources. This is because wishes and aspirations of livestock keep- several acceptable options now exist. But ers and pastoralists at all levels of society. the problem of a ‘best fit’ option still pre- Notwithstanding the arguments of mod- vails. In the most classical usage, the legal ernization and change and the need to options that exist may be classified into in- adjust to such change, it is essential to en- tellectual property rights (IPR) regime, and sure that if pastoralist culture, tradition and sui generis system. practice of livestock husbandry and ownership have to be modified, such a transi- However, either system has optional tion should be orderly, and evolve with lim- subsets which makes a thorough analysis ited trauma and stress. Europe still has its of either option necessary before a ‘best gypsies; Africa should eulogize its Maasai. fit’ decision is taken. There is substantial evidence that existing IPR systems do not As part of this process, it is relevant to adequately protect local genetic resources address such issues as: (animal and plant) and associated traditional knowledge. This is because: • The misconception of local breeds as inferior. • IPRs protect mainly the economic inter- • The economic argument that technical est of the patent holder. (technology shift), genetic, economic • IPRs emphasize private ownership, while and modernization trends generate animal genetic resources embedded in change, and that the livestock keepers/ a specific breed may be communally breeders and animal genetic resources owned, even though cases of family and process should be accommodated in a individual ownership may exist. linear perspective, should be revisited. • IPRs are time-bound, while animal ge- • Policy and World Trade Organization netic resources have been preserved arguments of cheaper meat and meat though careful selection over genera- products from improved herds should tions, and the concept of ownership and be addressed. use is held in perpetuity. • Drastic shifts in production technology • The development of animal genetic re- with apparent negative impact and de- sources by livestock keepers and breed- mise of local livestock industry should ers is incremental and informal, and be reviewed. does not seem to fit the definition of ‘in- • The argument that the gene may be vention’ postulated by the IPR system. valuable for the development of future • The right of livestock keepers and breed- breeds, but the animal may not be eco- ers to exchange have access to and use nomically viable because its productiv- animal genetic materials may be im- ity is low, calls attention to issues of paired by IPRs. ‘valuation’ parameters. It has been argued that the rights of lo- An operational strategy that puts these cal communities (here, livestock keepers and other issues on the national, regional and breeders) can best be protected and international agenda will no doubt through a sui generis option, and I also raise the stakes and profile of indigenous recommend this. Such a system should livestock keepers and breeders to a new emphasize as minimum prerequisites: level of awareness. • Disclosure of the country of origin of Legal options genetic resources. • Access and benefit sharing arrange- Africa is lucky at this point in time in the ments. discussion of legal options that ascribe • Prior informed consent, etc. ownership rights, control and protection of

61 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

There is currently a wide array of sui generis legislation that will provide a basis generis regulations and legal instruments for regional dialogue and adoption by Af- from which to craft an appropriate inter- rica’s regional organizations such as the national treaty similar to the FAO Interna- African Union. The Africa case should em- tional Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources phasize the rights of traditional livestock for Food and Agriculture. However, such a keepers and breeders over their genetic sui generis instrument should possess the resources, as enunciated in the Conven- legal sanctity of binding legislation and en- tion on Biological Diversity and as already sure enforceability, compatibility and com- implemented for crop agriculture through pliance with other international treaties and the Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources. conventions, particularly the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Treaty on Plant The expectation following all preceding Genetic Resources. discussions and expert meetings should be the development and adoption of an In- The role of Africa ternational Treaty on Animal Genetic Re- sources. The Sadri Declaration (www. Africa is already playing a lead role at vari- lifeinitiative.net/Sadridecl.htm) provides a ous global fora, and in the presentation of desirable, adequate, necessary and suffi- a common African position on issues of cient basis for the formulation of a sui global importance. Africa is well repre- generis rights and protection regime. sented at FAO and was an active partici- pant in the discussions and decisions lead- Summary and conclusion ing to the adoption of the Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources. Africa’s contribution to The protection of the rights of tradition live- the decisions that informed the ratification stock keepers and breeders has become a of the Convention on Biodiversity, the com- topical issue since the adoption of the Treaty ing into force of the Biosafety Protocol and on Plant Genetic Resources. This treaty several issues at the Conference of Parties seems to protect farmer’s rights over their is well documented. Africa’s positive role genetic resources. Unfortunately coverage in policy formulation and implementation was not extended to local livestock keep- monitoring at the World Trade Organiza- ers and breeders. The problems of genetic tion and the World Intellectual Property Or- erosion and unauthorized exploitation of ganization has never been in doubt. farmers genetic resources in crop agriculture are even more severe under livestock Africa’s voice has always been loud and production system where the genetic pool clear and supportive of issues and deci- is narrower and loss of diversity is occur- sions that are in the best interest of Africa. ring at a faster rate. In Africa, livestock pro- What is required is a firm mandate that duction is still predominantly undertaken the voice of local livestock keepers and by local livestock keepers, pastoralists and breeders be heard and more forcefully and breeders. They are the preponderant hold- convincingly articulated and presented by ers and custodians of the livestock genetic Africa’s representatives and negotiators at diversity that can be found in Africa. Un- these fora. This requires the crafting of a fortunately, unlike the case of agriculture, common position at national and regional their rights are not protected. levels which expresses the common aspi- ration of livestock keepers and breeders in This paper discusses some of the vari- Africa for presentation at the international ous issues associated with regulation and level. legal options for the protection of livestock holders’ rights. It is envisaged that a sui This meeting can be reconstituted into generis system of protection will be devel- an African Expert Group to draft such a oped for discussion and adoption through common position and develop model sui the African Union and other similar re-

62 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs gional organizations to enable the formu- problems lie. It will cast for itself the best lation of an African common position on of options. the protection of the rights of local livestock keepers and breeders in Africa. The Q If the Maasai want to push for a sui common position should provide the man- generis law, how should they go about date and basis for Africa’s negotiators and it? representatives at various international fora A The paper emphasizes that everything to argue for the development and adop- should be done through the OAU and tion of an International Treaty on Animal recommendations be channelled to the Genetic Resources with safeguards for the country government and the minister to rights of local livestock keepers and breed- propose the recommendations at the ers over their genetic resources. OAU meeting. The OAU then pushes it to FAO and other bodies. References Q What does sui generis law mean? Not Hall, SJG and Ruane, J. 1993. Livestock everybody knows this (Nakimbugwe). breeds and their conservation: A glo- A Sui generis basically means legislation bal review. Conservation Biology 7(4), drafted to suit your own interests, to ad- pp. 815–25. dress your needs and to protect what Rege, JEO. 1999. The state of the African you want. The key criterion is that the cattle genetic resources: Classification rules do not infringe on anyone. They framework and identification of threat- should meet the desires of the country, ened and extinct breeds. Animal Genetic livestock keepers, etc. (specific interests). Resources Information Bulletin 25: 1–26. They do not need to be acceptable to anyone else apart from the people they are designed for (own primary interests). Comments and discussion They fall under the national legislation.

Q Have any standards for the documen- Q Were animal genetic resources specifi- tation of animal breeds and indigenous cally considered during the drafting of knowledge been established? the African Model Law? A In India, draft guidelines for documen- A The African Model Law should have in- tation have been developed. Ilse Köh- cluded animal genetic resources, but the ler-Rollefson is happy to make these topic was regarded as too complex, available to anybody interested. therefore it was agreed to drop them. Governments are not following up the adoption and implementation of the Q Is the Convention on Biological Diver- model law at national levels. Nobody sity (CBD) not an obstacle to safeguard- knows about the model law, and the ing animal genetic resources, since it governments do not lobby for it at the puts the responsibility on national gov- regional level (Njoro). ernments, whereas many breeds occur across several countries? A It is not sure whether any African coun- A If the CBD were properly implemented try has a sui generis law in place. Maybe it should provide a framework for ani- there are a few lines or paragraphs in mal breeds. When the CBD was drafted, protection acts. There is a need for le- people were not aware of some situa- gal instrument and it is the responsibil- tions facing pastoralists. None of this ity of the government to put these laws legislation is sacrosanct. Until we im- in place. Africa lacks such committed plement it we will not know where the governments, for instance military governments are interested in survival only.

63 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

Promotion of livestock genetic resource diversity in Kenya

Jacob Wanyama ITDG–East Africa

enya is a tropical country with a di versified climate. Seventy percent of KKthe area is arid. Livestock are an important contributor to livelihoods and the economy, accounting for 10% of the country’s gross domestic product.

Policy context

• Sourcing genetic mate from outside to improve our breeds. • This approach is so successful in high- potential areas that pure local animals are hard to find there. • Diversity can be found in arid areas because they have not fully weaned and crossbred their animals. • Is this right, though? These people are still poor, suffering from hunger. Do we maintain diversity at the expense of livelihoods?

Action

• Understand pastoralists. • Shift focus of programmes from high- potential areas to arid areas. • Cultural shows – exhibit best breeds of indigenous animals. • Local organizations should pick on these breeds and propagate them.

64 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

Indigenous livestock breeds and intellectual property rights

Fredrick Omukubi Otswong’o Kenya Industrial Property Institute

ith the emergence of modern ate and use this technology. Intellectual biotechnologies, genetic re- property issues related to traditional knowl- WWsources have assumed increas- edge, access to genetic resources and ben- ing economic, scientific and commercial efit-sharing, and expression of folklore are value to a wide range of stakeholders. Tra- also taking root in international fora. ditional knowledge associated with those resources has, in consequence, attracted Intellectual property rights widespread attention from an enlarged audience. Other tradition-based creations, Background ‘Intellectual property rights’ such as expressions of folklore, have at the are exclusive rights accorded to the crea- same time taken on new economic and tor or inventor by government for his ef- cultural significance within a globalized in- fort. Such rights are temporary and are formation society. granted in exchange for disclosure. Upon expiry, the invention or creation is in the Conservation, management, sustain- public domain for use by anybody. These able utilizations and benefit sharing in re- rights are exempted for research or other spect of genetic resources and associated non-commercial ventures. Any new idea traditional knowledge are addressed within coming out of the human mind is regarded a range of different policy areas, including as an ‘intellectual asset’. When the idea is food and agriculture, biological diversity registered or expressed under various in- and the environment, biotechnology inno- tellectual property (IP) regimes the same vation and regulation, human rights, cul- converts to an ‘intellectual property asset’. tural policies, and trade and economic de- IPRs can be protected under the following velopment. Within all these areas intellec- regimes. tual property issues have arisen and are assuming increasing importance. Copyright Copyrights are used for expressed artistic and literary works (e.g., The first century of this millennium will music, books). Copyrights can be used to probably be remembered as the new age protect the artistic manifestations for the in the life sciences. Modern biotechnology holders of traditional knowledge, especially applications have created a new era in artists who belong to indigenous and na- agricultural productivity, especially in ge- tive communities, against unauthorized re- netic engineering, where both access and production and exploitation of those mani- manipulation of genetic data is prohibited festations, which could include works such by proprietary ownership. Intellectual prop- as the following: erty rights (IPRs) issues are at the centre of this revolution, especially given the substan- • Literary works Tales, legends and tial investments that are needed to gener- myths, traditions, poems.

65 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

• Theatrical works Plays, dances. communities, or by the bodies that rep- • Pictorial works Paintings, drawings. resent them, or in which they are • Textile works fabrics, garments, textile grouped (cooperatives, etc.) may be dif- compositions, tapestries, carpets. ferentiated from each other with trade- • Musical works songs, typical musical marks and service marks. The trade- compositions. mark is an essential element in the com- • Three-dimensional works Pottery and mercial promotion of goods and serv- ceramics, sculptures, wood and stone ices both within and beyond the bor- carvings, artifacts of various kinds. ders of the country of origin. • Integrated layout designs For electric Related rights to copyright protect perform- circuits. ers, among others. This route could be used • Trade secrets The protection of undis- for the protection of the performances of closed information is achieved by the singers and dancers and presentations of repression of unfair competition. The stage plays, puppet shows and other com- provisions against unfair competition parable performances. may also be used to protect undisclosed traditional knowledge, e.g., traditional Industrial property rights These include secrets kept by native and indigenous the following. communities that may be of technological and economic value. • Patents for inventions These protect • Geographical indications These, es- technical solutions that are industrially pecially appellation of origin, may be applicable and universally novel and in- used to enhance the commercial value volve an inventive step. With regard to of natural, traditional and craft prod- genetic resources and traditional knowl- ucts of all kinds insofar as their particu- edge, patents may be taken out for in- lar characteristics may be attributed to stance for products isolated, synthesized their geographical origin. A number of or developed from genetic structures, products that come from various regions microorganisms and plant or animal are the result of traditional processes organisms existing in nature. Patent pro- and knowledge implemented by one or tection may also be obtained for proc- more communities in a given area. esses associated with the use and exploitation of those resources, and also Plant Breeders’ Rights These are used for processes known to the native commu- new plant variety protection. nities that meet the same conditions. All the results of biotechnology applied to All these types of rights are governed genetic and biological resources, and by various international treaties and con- also undisclosed techniques for obtain- ventions which countries must ratify. ing practical results, could in principle be protected with patents. • World Trade Organization Agreement • Industrial designs Designs and shapes on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual of utilitarian craft products, such as fur- Property Rights (TRIPS) niture, receptacles, garments and arti- • Paris Convention cles of ceramics, leather, wood and • Berne Convention other materials, are protected under • Convention on Biodiversity industrial designs. • International Treaty on Plant Genetic Re- • Utility models Small patents. sources for Food and Agriculture • Trademarks/service marks All goods • Madrid System manufactured and services offered by • Cartagena Protocol on biodiversity manufacturers, craftsmen, profession- • Budapest Treaty. als and traders in native and indigenous

66 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

TRIPS Agreement Whereas invention is limited to patents, innovation is broader and includes any Under Article 27 of the TRIPS Agreement, protection under regimes such as utility inventions in all fields of technology are models and technovation certificates, in- patentable. There may be no discrimina- dustrial design registration, trademarks tion among nationals of member states. and any other non-patentable creations or Members may provide for protection of new improvements that may deserve specified plant or animal varieties either by patents IPRs. In Kenya, modern biotechnological or by an effective sui generis system. Pat- applications (process and products), espe- ents on new microorganism and non-es- cially genetic engineering, are regarded as sentially biological and microbiological inventions and are protectable under pat- processes are a must. Although the defini- ents so long as they meet other require- tion of microorganism is not given under ments of patentability such as public order TRIPs, it is interpreted to mean small or- morality, health, safety and principles of ganisms or parts of organisms that cannot humanity and environmental conservation. be seen by the naked eye, including bio- They must also meet substantive criteria for technological products and processes. patentability:

A sui generis system for new plant vari- • Novelty An invention may not be an- eties is interpreted to refer to the Plant Va- ticipated by prior art (i.e., both written riety Protection system under the Union for and non-written) disclosures so long as Protection of New Varieties of Plants the disclosure was done more than 12 (UPOV). Kenya has acceded to the sui months from the filing or priority date. generis system compliant to UPOV 78. In The invention must be new. this system, farm-saved seeds are included • Inventive step An invention is re- indirectly. However, there are plans to garded to involve an inventive step if it amend the law to comply with UPOV 1991, would not have been obvious to a per- which is stricter to the indigenous farmers son skilled in the art on the filing date. and which does not give the farmers rights, • Industrial application An invention is but rather privileges. considered to be industrially applicable if, according to its nature, it can be made An invention must fulfil three criteria for or used in any kind of industry, includ- patentability: novelty, inventive step, and ing agriculture, livestock, engineering, industrial application. It may not be con- medicine, fishery, etc. trary to public order, human and animal health and safety, and environmental con- Excluded from patentability servation. Patent rights can be licensed to a third party or can be acquired by the gov- Although new plant varieties protectable ernment through compulsory licensing. under the Kenyan Seed and Plant Varieties Act, Cap. 326 are not covered under pat- Patents ents in Kenya, their parts or products of biotechnological processes are patentable. A patent is a certificate or a document Novel microorganisms (including algae granted to the inventor to give him or her and bacteria) are patentable in Kenya so temporary exclusive rights (usually 20 years long as their samples are deposited with from the date of filing) over an invention. recognized international depository insti- He or she can use the rights to bar others tution. from selling, marketing or using this intellectual property asset to sell or market with- ‘Non-inventions’ include: out his or her authority. • DiscoveriesDiscoveries, scientific theories and mathematical methods.

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• SchemesSchemes, rules or methods for doing Intellectual property rights and business, performing purely mental acts indigenous livestock breeders or playing games. • Methods for treatment of the human Intellectual property rights regimes are not or animal body by therapy or surgery. in favour of indigenous livestock breeders • Diagnostic methods practised in relation to the treatment methods, except There is a dire need to recognize the products for use in any such methods. intellectual property rights of pastoralists • Mere presentation of information and other traditional domestic animal rais- • Public health-related methods or uses ers in the light of the growing interest in for therapeutic purposes of a known making use of the genetic traits of indig- product. enous livestock breeds.

Utility Model Certificate Intellectual property rights such as patents and copyright have traditionally been ‘Utility models’ mean any form, configu- offered to inventors and creators as re- ration or deposition of elements of some wards for innovation, and as incentives for appliance, utensil, tool, electrical and elec- them to share information with the public tronic circuitry, instruments, handicraft, to promote more innovation by others. herbal concoction, mechanism or other Patents are the main mechanism most object or any part of the same, allowing a countries use to allocate rights over inven- better or different functioning, use or manu- tions. They give their owners monopoly facture of the subject matter which gives control over their inventions for a fixed term some technical effect not available in Kenya of (20) years. During that time, owners may before. It includes microorganisms or other restrict or control the commercial use and self-replicable material, herbal as well as sale of the invention. Society as a whole nutritional formulations which gives new benefits by gaining access (for a price) to effect. new and useful products, and by acquiring new knowledge that can be used as a Industrial Design Certificate basis for additional research and the creation of new inventions. Patent protection ‘Industrial design’ means any composition has historically been strongest in the in- of lines or colours or any three-dimensional dustrialized countries and much weaker (or form, whether or not associated with lines nonexistent) in developing countries. or colours provided that such compositions or forms give a special appearance to a A patent is issued to invention that is product of industry or handicraft and serve new, not quite obvious to people in the as a pattern for a product or industry handi- same field and which has some industrial craft. utility. Indigenous knowledge cannot meet these requirements simply because the Fees knowledge is already in the public domain. To enable KIPI deal with an application for grant and or registration of industrial prop- In recent years, many patent offices have erty rights, the applicant has to pay certain begun issuing patents not only for inven- fees – essentially the filing, search, exami- tions, but also for discoveries of informa- nations, renewals, maintenance and tion already existing in the natural world, amendments assignment fee. The sched- such as the genetic sequences of living or- ule of fees is to be found in the implement- ganisms. They have further extended pat- ing regulations of the Kenya Industrial ent rights to plants, animals and microor- Property Act and the Trade Marks Act. ganisms containing genes that have been modified in the laboratory.

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The Agreement on Trade Related As- This leads to a natural imbalance of power pects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) under IPR systems between those who want – one of the new trade agreements ad- access to genetic resources and those who ministered by the World Trade Organiza- provide it. Biotechnology and pharmaceu- tion (WTO) – incorporates these trends, so tical companies who market ‘new’ medi- that all WTO members may be required to cines or genetically modified animals, crops offer patent protection or similar alterna- and microorganisms based on genetic re- tives for a broad range of discoveries and sources obtained from indigenous and lo- inventions involving genetic resources. This cal communities can receive worldwide trend towards privatization and modifica- patent protection for their products. The tion of biological and genetic information knowledge, innovations and practices that has led countries in both the North and made the ‘discovery’ of those resources South to increasingly view such informa- possible, however, is not patentable. tion as a proprietary asset having mon- etary value, instead of as part of human- Lack of reward The present IPR systems kind’s common heritage. That view has, in do not reward indigenous and local com- turn, led countries to agree that they should munities for their traditional knowledge and be able to regulate the access to, and shar- they do not provide incentives for them to ing of benefits for their genetic resources. preserve their biodiversity. Governments and local communities may have invested The current intellectual property regimes a great deal of capital and labour in con- may not protect indigenous livestock rais- serving an area where, for instance, a plant ers interests effectively. microorganism is discovered that provides the basis for a promising new drug. They The need for ‘access and benefit-shar- may have foregone other uses of their land, ing’ (ABS) agreements can thus be seen in such as logging or mining, that could yield large part as a response to trends in na- them immediate financial returns. Or, they tional and international IPR systems. Nev- may have forgone lucrative opportunities ertheless, IPR systems, as they currently by adhering to lifestyles that preserve their exist, will be of little use to – and could traditional knowledge, innovations and even hinder – the development of ABS practices. Patents are intended, in part, to agreements in at least three ways: lack of provide incentives to people who invest protection, lack of reward, and lack of IPR their time, effort and money in the process systems. of innovation. They are effective in reward- ing the efforts of companies who develop Lack of protection IPRs such as patents products from naturally occurring genetic protect and reward some types of innova- resources. However, because they do not tion, but not others. Individuals or firms recognize traditional knowledge or prac- may obtain patents for specific innovations tices as innovation, they do nothing to pro- made at a particular moment in time. But vide incentives to owners and stewards of traditional innovations are often developed lands where the greatest wealth of genetic over a long time and involve mental con- resources resides to conserve their knowl- tributions of many individuals. Much indig- edge or biodiversity. enous livestock breeders and local knowledge of medicinal plants and food crops Lack of well-developed intellectual prop- stems from this type of collective innova- erty systems Developing countries which tiontion, making it difficult to point to a par- do not have well-developed, enforceable ticular person or even community who can intellectual property systems may have dif- be identified as the ‘inventor’. Traditional ficulty in satisfactorily negotiating with firms patent law considers such knowledge to be for benefit-sharing of new products and part of the public domain. Consequently, technologies based upon their genetic represent patent systems cannot protect it. sources. These firms my have invested a

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great deal of capital in particular technol- • This will require cooperative and imagi- ogy. Consequently, they may be reluctant native collaboration among many di- to share it with developing country part- verse constituencies, including the Con- ners who do not provide the same level of vention on Biological Diversity, the TRIPS intellectual property protection that they re- council, FAO and other international ceive in their home countries. institutions, legislators and IPR offices in developed and developing countries, This observation implies that develop- and indigenous and local communities ing countries that wish to obtain new tech- and their national governments. nologies through ABS agreements may first • At the international level, countries could need to adopt and implement enforceable collectively define guidelines for ABS intellectual property systems. The TRIPs agreements to discourage weak rules agreement requires its developing country that might lead to a ‘race to the bot- members to put in place in such systems tom’, stressing immediate, short-term by the year 2000. The challenge facing East financial gains over long-term, equita- African countries is to create intellectual bly shared benefits. property systems that are strong enough • Establishing national and international to give firms confidence that their technolo- registries of traditional knowledge could gies will be protected, while adequately protect the intellectual property interests tailoring the systems to their national cir- of indigenous peoples by helping to fur- cumstances and the needs of their indig- ther the recognition of their knowledge enous and local communities. Enforcing by patent offices. IPRs to prevent infringement and counter- • Patent offices could require that appli- feiting activities is the biggest challenge cants disclose the country of origin from facing us today. Yet, many other countries which any biological materials or tradi- are developing apparently effective national knowledge were obtained: tional measures on genetic resources for ABS legislation without reference to IPRs. • State what part traditional knowledge played in identifying the properties and Recommendations location of materials used in developing the invention. • IPRs will likely remain the most power- • Affirm that, to the best of their knowl- ful vehicle for allocating wealth created edge, they complied with all applicable from the exploitation of genetic re- laws of the source country. sources. Developing countries and their • Supply evidence that the knowledge indigenous and local communities may was obtained with the prior informed best maximize their ability to share in consent of the providers. that wealth if their contributions to in- • Require notification to designated au- novation are recognized under IPR sys- thorities or communities identified in the tems. application as sources of the genetic resource. Industrial property applications in Kenya Industrial property Applications Granted Rejected Pending Patents 830 210 54 586 Trademarks 65,876 48,905 2,471 14,500 Industrial designs 432 367 25 40 Utility models 56 41 - 15 Technovations - - - - Total 68,024 49,513 2,550 15,141 Source: KPI Registry, 2003

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Challenges trade with valuable genetic resources and be part of value adding processes? Intellectual property rights controlling ac- • How can public R&D institutions (e.g., cess and transfer of livestock genetic re- universities and national agricultural resources, indigenous knowledge and infor- search institutions) involved in propri- mation will be an increasingly important etary science strengthen internal intel- issue for actors in developing countries in- lectual property policies, guidelines and volved in the use and development of ge- practices? netic resources. IPRs are important because • How could countries in the South opti- they: mize their IPR systems to suit their agro- economy in the context of TRIPs, espe- • Provide incentives for private research cially the problems of patenting of and development. genes, animals and crops and the pro- • Offer incentives to inventors and crea- tection of traditional varieties? tors through royalties and increased • How can we best make use of agree- funding for their effort and research. ments governing third party use of pro- • Encourage access to inventions proprietary biology/technology products duced elsewhere, thereby spinning off and methods? industrial growth. • How should countries in the South implement and benefit from information However, IPRs can also impose a cost sharing mechanisms under the burden. Cartagena Biosafety Protocol?

Concerns have been voiced over pri- There are no immediate answers to vate-sector monopolies of technologies, these questions, except that individual gov- germplasm and seeds. A controversial is- ernments must act now and put something sue is how to compensate indigenous live- on the table for the poor indigenous livestock communities and small-scale farm- stock breeders. ers in developing countries for their work in developing and maintaining plant ge- The role of WIPO netic diversity. Considering that a local absence of IPR systems might deter invest- As the specialized UN agency responsible ments in research and development, there for the promotion of intellectual property are no easy answers to this problem. It is, worldwide, the World Intellectual Property however, clear that more awareness, Organization (WIPO) based in Geneva, knowledge and strategic planning is was requested by its member states in 1999 needed in most developing countries. to undertake exploratory groundwork and facilitate discussions for a better under- For actors in developing countries, there standing of the often interrelated intellec- are many questions: tual property issues regarding genetic resources, traditional knowledge and folk- • How can East African countries rich in lore. livestock genetic resources best manage, transfer of genetic resources, The following are intellectual property knowledge and information, making issues that need discussion: optimal use of IPR regulations? • How can the various sectors these coun- Access to genetic resources and benefit- tries be strengthened in the process of sharing This issue arises in four main con- safeguarding national interests and se- texts, and relies upon a shared understand- curing access to livestock genetic re- ing of certain terms such as ‘genetic resources, knowledge and innovations? sources’. The four main contexts concern • How can they optimize benefits from the role of intellectual property rights in:

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WIPO member states agree to fast-track work on traditional knowledge1

Member states of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) decided today to push forward with work relating to the intellectual property aspects of traditional knowledge, folklore and genetic resources. The General Assembly, meeting from Sep- tember 22 to October 1, 2003, decided on an extended mandate for the WIPO Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Tradi- tional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC). The mandate requires the IGC to accelerate its work, and to focus in particular on the international dimension of intellectual property (IP) and genetic resources, traditional knowledge (TK) and folklore. The new mandate excludes no outcome for the IGC’s work, including the possible development of an international instrument or instruments in this field. The IGC first met in April 2001 with a mandate to discuss a range of pressing issues in the field of intellectual property (IP). Since then, the IGC has concentrated on how IP systems can work more effectively to protect TK and traditional cultural expressions (TCEs - also termed ‘expressions of folklore’), and to deal with IP aspects of genetic resources. It has tackled these issues at several, interlocking levels: • debating broad policy and legal questions, including how IP rights can operate to promote the interests of holders and custodians of TK and TCEs, ranging over conventional IP rights, extension and adaptation of IP rights, and specific or sui generis legal systems that have been created in a number of countries; • sharing practical experience by surveying, documenting and analysing TK and TCE protection in many countries and several regions, to give practical input into the policy debate, and • developing practical tools and mechanisms to support TK holders, custodians of TCEs, and indigenous and local communities in identifying and promoting their interests in relation to the IP system. Many comments at the current General Assembly highlighted that the IGC’s work to date has already led to a much greater understanding of the concepts and issues it has addressed, and has clarified how to deal with concerns about inadequate recognition and protection of TK and TCEs. The discussions highlighted the expectation of a number of countries that specific steps should be taken to strengthen protection, including the development of specific new international instruments; others pointed out that the significance of the issues, and their complexity, meant that further analysis and clarification was needed before crystallizing formal outcomes; there is also a view that more work needs to be done to explore the full potential of existing IP rights and systems to protect TK and TCEs. The program and budget approved by the current session of the General Assembly included a range of complementary activities, including continuing capacity-building, legislative assistance and cooperation with a range of national, regional and international initiatives. The WIPO Assembly also approved the transmission of a technical study (document WO/GA/30/7) prepared by WIPO to the secretariat of the Convention on Bio- logical Diversity (CBD). The study concerns patent disclosure requirements that are relevant to genetic resources and TK that are used in patented inventions. The study is

1 Adapted from a WIPO press release, 29 September 2003

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set to be considered by various working groups under the CBD, as well as the Confer- ence of Parties of the CBD when it next meets early next year. The IGC has fostered exchange of practical understanding of the approaches available for legal protection of traditional knowledge and cultural expressions. A composite study on TK protection as prepared for the IGC has reviewed definitions of TK, policy issues in protecting TK as intellectual property, and options for specific, or sui generis, protection of TK. A parallel analysis of the protection of TCEs (or expressions of folklore) was debated at length by the IGC at its last session. Along with an extensive series of surveys, case studies and analysis of legislation, these documents provide a strong basis for the new phase of WIPO’s work in this area, and ensure that it is based on a rich understanding of existing approaches and the costs and benefits of different policy options. The IGC has also considered defensive approaches to ensuring that TK and genetic resource material are not the subject of illegitimate patent claims. This has led to moves to modify core elements of the patent system, such as the International Patent Classification and the information basis of international search and examination under the Patent Cooperation Treaty. The IGC’s mandate is to discuss IP issues relating to access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing, TK, and innovations; and traditional creativity and cultural expressions (expressions of folklore). A detailed overview of the work of the IGC is provided. In the IGC’s work, the terms ‘traditional cultural expressions’ and ‘expressions of folklore’ are used synonymously. The IGC, established by the WIPO General Assembly in October 2000, is open to all member states of WIPO. Other United Nations member states, intergovernmental organizations and accredited non-governmental organizations (NGOs) may participate as observers. Some 175 accredited NGOs can take part in the IGC, including 83 NGOs especially accredited by the IGC, many of which represent the specific interests of indigenous communities and TK holders. At the IGC’s request, the secretariat is developing specific ways of further enhancing the participation of local and indigenous communities in the IGC’s work.

• Contractual agreements for access to intellectual property issues, including genetic resources Access agreements possible intellectual property-based for genetic resources (such as ‘material benefit-sharing mechanisms, acquisition transfer agreements’, MTAs) raise ques- of intellectual property rights over ge- tions on the role of intellectual property netic resources placed in the multilat- rights in respect of ensuring control over eral system, etc. ex-situ use of genetic resources, tech- • Legislative, administrative and policy nology transfer and joint research and measures to regulate access to genetic development, the exploration of the pos- resources and benefit-sharing These sibility of joint ownership of IPRs; ensur- include the role of intellectual property ing continued customary use of genetic rights regarding prior informed consent resources, etc. procedures, ensuring the recording of • Multilateral systems for facilitated ac- ownership interests in inventions that cess to genetic resources and benefit arise from access to (or use of) genetic sharing These systems raise numerous resources, etc.

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IPR and biodiversity in Peru

Below is a community policy statement to protect collective intellectual property rights of indigenous peoples related to biodiversity in Peru. There is need come up with draft policy on the protection of the collective knowledge of indigenous peoples relating to biological diversity. Peru for example was the first country to propose a law establishing a regime to regulate access to, and use of, the collective intellectual property rights of indigenous peoples relating to biological resources. The law is intended to serve three broad purposes, to: • Protect the respect, protection, preservation, wider application and development of collective knowledge of indigenous peoples; • Promote fair and equitable distribution of benefits derived from use of collective knowledge; • Promote the use of this knowledge to the benefit of mankind. The proposed law is based on a number of underlying principles: • Indigenous peoples’ rights over their traditional knowledge exist without the need for action on the art of the state; · Access to the collective knowledge of indigenous peoples for scientific or commercial purposes required their prior informed consent (PIC), where such knowledge is not in the public domain. Where use is for a commercial purpose, it is necessary for the parties to enter into a licensing agreement for its use; • Even where knowledge is in the public domain, indigenous peoples are entitled to share in the benefits derived from its use; • Traditional knowledge is the collective property and cultural patrimony of indigenous people, and as such is inalienable and must be administered by present generations to the benefit of future generations; • Any community is entitled to grant exclusive licenses for the use of knowledge, without the need for the approval of other custodians. However, a percentage of all transactions must be paid into an indigenous fund for development purposes; • There is need to create a balance between the rights of indigenous peoples and the interests of potential users, in order to establish a functional regime to regulate the trade in traditional knowledge A working group including representatives of relevant state bodies and the Perma- nent Commission of Indigenous Peoples of Peru (COPPIP) – a forum bringing together indigenous people’s and campesino communities’ representative organizations – has been established to promote wider participation of indigenous peoples in the revision of the proposed law.

• The protection of biotechnological in- cation directed at biotechnological inventions, including certain related ad- ventions, etc. ministrative and procedural issues Intellectual property issues in Protection of traditional knowledge the field of biotechnology include licens- Based on WIPO’s previous work, intellec- ing and other issues related to the use tual property issues regarding the protec- of rights in biotechnological inventions, tion of traditional knowledge related to ge- administrative and procedural issues netic resources (and traditional knowledge, related to examination of patent appli- innovations and creativity in general) can be grouped into:

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• Terminological and conceptual Acknowledgements issues These issues include the selection of appropriate terms to describe the This paper draws heavily on material pub- subject matter for which protection is lished on the WIPO website, www.wipo.int/ sought, a clear definition or description tk/en/index.html. of what is meant (and not meant) for intellectual property purposes by the Thanks also to Paul N Okello (ITDG– selected terms, etc. East Africa) and Ilse Köhler-Rollefson • Standards concerning the availability, (League for Pastoral Peoples) for additional scope and use of intellectual property information. rights in traditional knowledge Issues include, in the short term, facilitating References access to the intellectual property system to enable traditional knowledge Copyright Act, 2001. holders to acquire and use IPRs where FAO. 1999. The global strategy for the available under current standards. In the management of farm animal genetic re- longer term are the possible develop- sources. Executive brief. FAO, Rome. ment of new standards to protect tradi- Industrial Property Act, 2001. tional knowledge not protected by ex- Njoro, J and J Wanyama. 2000. Indig- isting intellectual property tools, the enous livestock breeds of Kenya: What elaboration of an international frame- is the future for them? Paper presented work for traditional knowledge as at the international conference ‘Local searchable prior art, where so desired livestock breeds for sustainable rural by the relevant traditional knowledge livelihoods‘, 1–4 November 2000 in holders, etc. Udaipur and Sadri, India. • Criteria for the application of techni- Seed and New Plant Varieties Act Cap. 326, cal elements of standards These are Laws of Kenya. legal criteria for the definition of ‘prior WIPO. 2000. Matters concerning intellec- art’ and administrative and procedural tual property and genetic resources, tra- issues related to the examination of ditional knowledge and folklore. WIPO applicable patents. Issues in this cat- General Assembly, 26th session. World egory include the integration of tradi- Intellectual Property Organization, Ge- tional knowledge into the procedures of neva. intellectual property offices for filing ex- WIPO. 2000. Traditional knowledge and amination, publication and granting of the need to give it adequate intellectual intellectual property titles through the property protection. WIPO Committee documentation and publication and of on the Relationship between Intellectual traditional knowledge as searchable Property, Genetic Resources and Tradi- prior art, where so desired by the rel- tional Knowledge. World Intellectual evant traditional knowledge holders, Property Organization, Geneva. etc. • The enforcement of rights in traditional knowledge This involves facilitating Comments and discussion access to the intellectual property system to enable traditional knowledge holders to use and enforce rights under Q Does the Kenya Plant Health Inspector- the intellectual property system. ate Services have a facility for the protection of plant varieties, and if so, is Protection of expressions of folklore It is this compatible with the other national recommended that WIPO should increase legislation. Are there any bills pending and intensify its work in the field of folk- in parliament to deal with the issue? lore protection. (Ekpere)

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A Kenya has been compliant to the re- incorporation of traditional knowledge quirements of WTO 78 since 1998. in patents. It is hoped that this will de- These requirements relate to sui generis, velop into an international law which but the provisions of WTO 98 are more will be adopted by national govern- strict. The Kenya Plant Health Inspec- ments. But for the short term, Kenyans torate Service is in the process of devel- can only look for an appropriate sui oping an African model of sui generis. generis system.

Q How does KIPI ensure compliance with Q The WIPO treaty is working on a new patent right protection for the period (20 model for the incorporation and pro- years) that a patent is in force? How tection of traditional knowledge into does the government protect the public patent law, so that they can be patented. from quacks and cheats who would This is a very dangerous development. patent herbal remedies? (Tafesse) By definition, patents implicitly assume A Herbal remedies are protected under stability, distinctiveness and uniformity. utility innovations legislation. Traditional Furthermore, traditional knowledge healers are difficult to monitor but the does not necessarily satisfy the require- Kenya Medical Research Institute has a ments for novelty, industrial application herbalist association to which applicants and innovation required for patents. The for patents to herbal remedies are resolution being sought by WIPO would ferred. As none of them ever come back just add to the confusion by developing with the accreditation needed, it is hard a system with very low probability of for quacks to patent remedies without working. Governments should not walk the approval of the herbalist associa- blindly into such treaties as they may tion. later realize the problems in them during the operational phase, ‘our hands Q In India, the government has established will be tied’ (Ekpere). an institute for the registration and pro- A It is always possible to withdraw from a tection of indigenous and grassroots treaty. Maybe WIPO will withdraw from technologies, the National Innovation the route to patent-tied system, in fa- Foundation, which encourages the vour of the more appropriate sui generis documentation and dissemination of system. grassroots technologies. More informa- African countries are dependent on ini- tion on the institute can be found at tiatives like African Growth and Oppor- www.nifindia.org (Vivekanandan). tunity Act (AGOA) and the New Part- nership for African Development Q It is clear that plant and animals can- (NEPAD), which are influenced by the not be patented as yet. But patenting West. This makes it difficult for them to may become a reality in the foresee- go the way of sui generis (Otswong’o). able future, yet indigenous community’s knowledge is taken and used by Q Developing countries should cease to researchers. What is KIPI is doing to follow blindly the initiatives of the West prevent that some of these researchers and take a leadership role in interna- later claim to have invented this knowl- tional negotiations (Martyniuk). edge? Applicants for patents over herbal remedies may be taken for a ride by KEMRI researchers who may later use information for an applicant for further research and ‘innovation’ (Masinde). A All countries that are signatories to the WIPO treaty are seeking ways for the

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Global status of research in indigenous livestock breeds

Olivier Hanotte International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

LRI’s mandate is to do research in ani lar characterization). mal agriculture to reduce hunger, pov • Development of tools for economic IIerty and environmental degradation. analysis including valuation of animal This translates into the following themes: genetic resources. • Development of databases and decision 1 Current and future roles of livestock in support tools for in situ conservation, poverty reduction. including sustainable use (DAGRIS, 2 Adapting and delivering technology and http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org/). information. 3 Opportunities and threats from globali- The goal is to provide a molecular ge- zation and the livestock revolution. netic framework for the conservation, utili- 4 Better livelihoods through the applica- zation and improvement of productivity of tion of biotechnology. indigenous animal genetic resources. 5 Improved human and environmental health. African cattle

Under Theme 4 (biotechnology), the The 180 million cattle include more than following projects are operating: 150 indigenous breeds with unique genetic resources: • Improving livestock disease control and product safety (Evans Taracha • Adaptation to heat and drought. [email protected]) • Tolerance to diseases. • Improving utilization of the genetic di- • Utilization of low-quality indigenous for- versity in livestock and feed resources age. (John Gibson, [email protected]) • Characterization and conservation of Many of these breeds are endangered: animal genetic resources (Olivier Hanotte, [email protected]) • 22 breeds are extinct (13%) • 47 (32%) are at risk of loss. This presentation focuses on the third of these projects. Activities under this project Country studies include: ILRI and national agricultural research in- • Quantitative estimates of the distribu- stitutions have conducted various studies: tion and variability of global livestock populations, including relationships • Genetic diversity of Kenyan zebu cattle amongst populations and identification and dromedary populations (with the of unique livestock gene pools (molecu- Kenya Agricultural Research Institute).

77 Views of government, scientists, experts and NGOs

• Genetic characterization of Mongolian cattle. • Pedigree and parentage analysis of Ankole cattle herd (with Makarere Uni- versity). • Phenotypic and molecular characterization of Ethiopian goats (with the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organi- zation).

Autosomal microsatellites

• Initial dispersal of the earliest cattle from a likely single African indigenous domestication centre. • Secondary influx of taurines from the Near East and Europe. • Two separate phases of Asian Bos indicus introgression, one which probably originates with early East African sea-borne introductions, and a second which is associated with more recent pastoralist migrations. • The relatively late introduction of cattle pastoralism to the southern part of the continent occurred from East Africa rather than following a Western Bantu- associated route.

The history of African pastoralism ex- plains the contemporary genetic composition of African cattle. Domesticated within the continent but genetically influenced by the centres of cattle domestication in the Near East and the Indus Valley, modern African cattle represent a unique genetic resource at a juncture when there is an urgent need to improve livestock productivity for the benefit of present and future human generations.

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An international farm animal genetic resources treaty? Lessons from negotiating the seed treaty

Patrick Mulvany ITDG

uring the 1896 drought and fam- ecosystem services, so is part of the basis ine in Gujarat, India, Lord of life on earth. DDNorthcourt, the ‘Governor’ of Gujarat, recognized the value of the But crop varieties disappearing: Kankrej cow. This cow is used for both milk and draft power. He set up an emergency • 95% lost from farmers’ fields in the past breeding herd in Chharodi Farm, from century which Gujarati farms were restocked after • Animal breeds are dying out – 5% are the drought. lost each year • Fields are becoming sterile, with soil What was needed to conserve the loss, salination, degraded pastures, Kankrej cow? polluted rivers, ponds, lakes and seas.

• Vision – To see beyond the crisis. Actions to save our seeds • Power – To take decisive action. • Money – To finance the process. • Vavilov InstituteInstitute, St Petersburg, Russia: • Commitment to public goods – Equi- 330,000 accessions table restocking of all Gujarati farmers • International gene banks (CGIAR): 600,000 accessions Development of the seed crisis • HDRA Heritage Seed Library, UKUK: 850 varieties of ‘illegal’ vegetable seeds Since the 19th century, the rise of indus- • Mihaela CernaCerna, Slovenia: 130 Lettuce trial farming has led to a rapid loss of va- varieties rieties – identified by Nikolei Vavilov, Jack • Dr RichhariaRichharia, Raipur, India, rescued Harlan, Erna Bennett, Lawrence Hills and 22,972 rice accessions…but threatened others. The Green Revolution accelerated by Syngenta these losses. Famine relief spreads inap- propriate seeds. Patents and Plant Breed- History of seed treaty ers’ Rights fuel biopiracy. Genetically modified organisms threaten genetic integrity. • 1970s Official recognition of losses • 1983 FAO agrees a voluntary ‘Inter- Agricultural biodiversity national Undertaking’ on plant genetic resources Agricultural biodiversity has been devel- • 1989 Recognition of ‘farmers’ rights’ oped by farmers, pastoralists and fisher- • 1992 Convention on Biological Diver- folk over 10 000 years. It provides our sity (CBD) food, fibre, fodder, fuel and pharmaceuti- • 1995 FAO Commission on Genetic cals. It also provides biological support and Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) starts renegotiations

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• No IPRs on plant genetic resources for ’Food security is one of the great con- food and agriculture. cerns of humanity… [for] eliminating • All plant genetic resources for food and the hunger of 800 million poor peo- agriculture to be covered by treaty. ple. Food security is only possible if there is sufficient support for agricul- Achieved tural biodiversity, whose conservation and sustainable use we farmers have • ‘Farmers’ rights’ subject to national law achieved through generations of im- e.g., patents. plementing Farmers’ Rights. Now, all • Ambiguous wording. that remains is to recognize them.’ • The treaty’s multilateral system has only 35 crop genera and 29 forages and —Via Campesina, 1996 covers public collections only (the rest are voluntary).

International farm animal • 1996 Leipzig Conference on Plant genetic resources treaty? Genetic Resources for Food and Agri- culture (PGRFA) Worthwhile if it achieves… • 2000 CBD Decision V on agricultural biodiversity • International recognition of ‘livestock • 2001 Treaty adopted by FAO (3/11/ keepers’ rights’ to all the agricultural 2001) biodiversity required for conservation and sustainable use of farm animal Purposes of seed treaty genetic resources – production and environmental services. • Conserve – ex situ, in situ and on-farm • Coverage of all farm animal genetic • Promote sustainable use and recognize resources, associated species and the interdependence genes they contain. • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits • Ban on patents and privatization of farm • Germplasm, Information, Funds, Tech- animal genetic resources. nologies, and Systems (GIFTSGIFTS) • Increased attention on farm animal ge- • Farmers’ Rights netic resource issues and provides a • ‘Free flow’ of seeds unrestricted by mo- forum for negotiation. nopoly ownership. Steps to a farm animal genetic Obstacles resources treaty • 1995 WTO agreement on Trade Re- • 2004 Intergovernmental Technical lated Aspects of Intellectual Property Working Group on Animal Genetic Re- Rights (TRIPs)/Plant Breeders Rights sources at FAO: focus on livestock. (UPOV) and/or patents on plant varie- • 2004 FAO Commission on Genetic ties Resources: resolution on ‘livestock keep- • 1999 Review of TRIPs 27.3(b) ers’ rights’. African position: ‘ban patents on life’ • 2005 FAO Conference: adoption of • 2000 Biosafety protocol principle of ‘livestock keepers’ rights’ • 2006 Convention on Biological Diver- Expected outcomes sity Conference of the Parties (COP) 8: Recognition of farm animal genetic re- • International legally-recognized ‘farm- sources and Livestock Keepers’ Rights ers’ rights’. as negotiated in FAO.

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in a statement being reached at COP VII ’There should be a prohibition on bio- as opposed to COP 8 piracy and patents on living organisms, including the development of Some key countries, notably the USA, sterile varieties through genetic engi- are not very cooperative. For instance, the neering processes. Seeds are the pat- USA has been a very reluctant player in rimony of all of humanity.’ the CBD process and withdrew from the process at one juncture. Nevertheless, the —Final Declaration of the World USA still retains a lot of influence within Forum on Food Sovereignty, Ha- the CBD via proxies and through its mem- vana, Cuba, September 7, 2001 bership in FAO.

Comments and discussion

The farm animal genetic resources treaty should cover all animals, not only farm animals, as in the future some wild animals may be domesticated.

The treaty should be designed to ensure free flow of genetic material rather than confer ownership to any party.

The exclusion of animals from the seed treaty was because of the numerous interest groups and institutions such an inclusion would have required. Furthermore, the attention of the international community was at the time focused on plants as they were perceived to have a critical role in food security, while livestock production was not viewed as an important issue of rural development and sustainable livelihoods. This perception must be challenged if meaningful progress is to be made towards a farm animal genetic resources treaty. Fur- thermore, the plant interest groups have a huge lobby within the FAO and CBD and have used this to embark on the 2nd Glo- bal State of Plant Genetic Resources, while animal interest groups don’t yet have the first! (Martyniuk).

It is possible to reduce the time frame for the farm animal genetic resources treaty by truncating some of the processes by being very aggressive which would result

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Part 4 Working groups

our workshop groups discussed and refined the four sets of recommenda- Group 1 FFtions that emanated from the international workshop on ‘Farm Animal Ge- netic Resources from the Perspective of A ‘No’ to Question 1 would have negative Rural Communities’ held in Sadri, India on implications, especially in the face of glo- 12th to 16th October 2003 (see next page). balization. With a ‘Yes’ we should then use regional Questions for discussion organizations like SADC, COMESA, IGAD, AU-IBAR to represent our case at international forums. 1. Do you agree that all governments should give high priority to an interna- Such an agreement could: tionally-binding agreement on pastoralism, farm animal genetic resources and • Consider the role and needs of pasto- the recognition of Livestock Keepers’ ralists. Rights? Such an agreement could: • Needs for voluntary sedentary rights. • Recognition of Livestock Keepers’ • Consider the role and needs of pasto- Rights. ralists. • Include animal genetic resources for • Recognition of ‘Livestock Keepers’ food and agriculture and associated ag- Rights’. ricultural biodiversity. • Include all farm animal genetic resources and associated agricultural bio- We should not restrict ourselves to farm diversity. animal genetic resources. Include wildlife as well. 2 Do you agree with the set of principles embodied in the recommendations from Documentation of animal SADRI on Farm Animal Genetic Re- genetic resources (role of sources? traditional communities) 3 Do you agree with the FOUR sections? 4 What could be added or deleted? • Strengthen and sustain the ongoing 5 How can you improve the statement? documentation process e.g. State of the 6 What could be added or deleted? How World Animal Genetic Resources Report can you improve the section? (FAO). Pastoralists should actively be involved in this. This process should be spearheaded by governments with the

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Farm animal genetic resources from the perspective of rural communities

Asia Level Workshop hosted by Lokhit Pashu-Palak Sansthan in Sadri (Pali), Rajasthan,India, 12–16 October 2003 Recommendations The actions recommended by the workshop for promoting the sustainable use of farm animal genetic resources in Asia related to four separate issues: Documentation of animal genetic resources (role of traditional communities) • Ongoing documentation of indigenous knowledge on animal genetic resources. • Add indigenous knowledge dimension to Domestic Animal Diversity-Information System. • Modify scientific techniques to level of understanding of traditional community with cooperation of extension services. • Establish pilot technology demonstration units with participation of traditional communities. • Incorporate traditional indigenous knowledge into education systems. • Promotion of knowledge exchange between and within communities. • Organisation of training in the LIFE approach. Strengthening the role of traditional communities in conserving and managing sustainable animal genetic resources • Promote traditional indigenous knowledge through folk songs and stories (cultural forms) representation. • Promoting and organization of traditional communities. • Support community initiatives to conserve their animal genetic resources. • Strengthen community awareness on sustainable management of natural resources. • Enhance linkages horizontally and vertically between relevant institutions and communities. • Promote traditional management practices through people participation. • Support traditional community to develop market linkages an channels and credit/saving schemes. Support for traditional communities to maintain their role, lobbying for cultural diversity • Initiate setting up village level resource management committee to defend local common grazing rights (actors NGOs and governments) and other issues. • Raise awareness in other sectors (forest/agriculture/veterinary medicine) and other relevant departments to discuss access rights to grazing and water. • Respond to pastoralists‘ need for fodder in reforestation programmes. • Promote and support village self help group for credit and marketing. • Research for low cost feed supplements for draught and adverse conditions. • Provide services for families and their livestock. Treaty and legal requirements for the conservation and protection of intellectual property rights (IPR) • Ensure that work on IPR goes hand in hand with participation and benefit sharing. • Canvass and consolidate national issues concerning conservation of farm animal genetic resources in March 2004. • Stimulate formation of national working groups on farm animal genetic resources: • to study the lead-up process to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. • to determine what can be replicated. • to indicate obstacles and challenges. • Disseminate findings of workshop in international treaty on farm animal genetic resources. • Sensitize stakeholders in the region on the issue. • Ensure the inclusion of grass land genetic resources in both, plant and animal resource conservation programmes.

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backing up of other stakeholders, e.g. edge rather than imposing new ideas. NGOs • Environmental committees need to be 2 Add the indigenous knowledge dimen- established among pastoral communi- sion to the Domestic Animal Diversity- ties. Information System (DAD-IS) adminis- • There is a need for capacity enhance- tered by FAO. ment. 3 Open up a common database at local, • There should be structures to maintain national, regional and international lev- good relationships within and outside els. DAD-IS may not be able to incor- pastoral communities. porate all interests. • There is a need to strengthen pastoral 4 Form a pastoral forum in each country grazing committees for selective use and to act as a pressure group and repre- management of pasture and water sent pastoral interests. points. 5 Promote networking amongst pastoral • There is a need to establish and forums. Knowledge exchange between strengthen appropriate health service and within communities. delivery systems. 6 Set up secretariats at local, national, • Efforts to lobby influential persons, poli- regional, and international levels. ticians, opinion leaders, administrators, 7. Modify scientific techniques to the level religious leaders businesspersons and of understanding of traditional commu- the media on for more action on the nities with cooperation of extension serv- priorities of pastoral people should be ices. enhanced. 8 Establish pilot technology demonstration units with participation of traditional In their reaction to Group 1’s presenta- communities. tion, the workshop participants agreed that 9 Incorporate indigenous knowledge into the statement form the Sadri Workshop the education system, especially at the contained issues and terminologies specific primary school level. to India. Since all this is building up to a global-level action plan, broader, more en- The group agreed with the Sadri Rec- compassing phrasing was proposed. ommendations, but noted that:

• There is a need for an umbrella pasto- Group 2 ralist organization for networking at local national and international levels. This should be done with the goal of All governments should give high priority creating awareness through education, to an internationally binding agreement on training on rights, empowerment, mar- pastoralism, farm animal genetic re- kets, value addition (school of wisdom). sources, and the recognition of ‘livestock • In this, the role of pastoralists will be to keepers’ rights’. A policy should be estab- maintain the balance of pastoral liveli- lished that takes into consideration the eco- hoods in arid and semi-arid lands to nomic setting, the social framework, and ensure sustainability. Pastoralists will political environment of pastoralists and also endeavour to conserve indigenous which enhances and recognizes pastoral- breeds within their areas to maintain ism as a viable livelihood system. The policy genetic diversity. should make provisions for water, animal health, marketing, land tenure, security, On Question 2, the group agrees to all and animal feed during droughts the sections but added the following: Livestock keepers’ entitlement to their • Capacity-building efforts should con- lands and territories should be recognized centrate on building on existing knowl- through suitable legal instruments that en-

84 Working groups sure non-alienability of such lands out of not respected. The heavy emphasis livestock keepers’ ownership without their placed on the government in pastoral informed consent and only in consultation development is not fruitful, partly be- with them. The group also called for the cause the term ‘government’ is used in equal recognition of the citizen rights of its general form without reference to livestock keepers as a people and of their specific sections whose attention is be- culture and livelihood as derived from their ing called. livestock. • With respect to regional and international agreements, national govern- The group recommended the recogni- ments should develop avenues for con- tion of farm animal genetic resources sent by local communities before com- owned by livestock keepers and their con- mitting the nation to a treaty. tribution to the national food security. This • The Plant Genetic Resources Treaty proc- would support conservation of local ani- ess took from 1978 to 2001 to com- mal breeds with unique gene pool derived plete. It is important to develop and from adaptation to arid and semi-arid engage actors at the micro and inter- rangelands, including associated and sup- mediate levels in order to complement, portive rangeland biodiversity of grass- and speed up macro level develop- lands, plant life, as well as wildlife re- ments. sources.

The group was in total agreement with Group 3 the four recommendations from the Sadri Workshop, adding the following points: The group agrees in principle to the pro- • Need for participatory planning and posal in Question 1, but notes that: management of community-owned natural resources. • There is a need for an umbrella pasto- • Need for recognition and promotion of ralist organization for networking at lo- the cultural attachment and love held cal, national and international levels. by livestock keepers for their farm ani- This will be done with a goal to create mal’s genetic resources. awareness through education, training on rights, empowerment, markets, and In the open session to discuss the pres- value addition (school of wisdom). entation, participants noted the following • In this, the role of pastoralists will be to points: maintain the balance of pastoral livelihoods in arid and semi-arid lands to • Tanzanite mining in Tanzania has pre- ensure sustainability. Pastoralists will cipitated a mass movement of young also endeavour to conserve indigenous people to the mining areas. This is breeds within their areas to maintain threatening the survival of traditional genetic diversity. breeding knowledge which may lead to serious degradation of the genetic re- On Question 2, the group agrees to all sources and the ecosystems that sup- the sections, but adds the following: port the community. • The importance of pastoralism is not • Environmental committees need to be fully appreciated by development prac- established among pastoral communi- titioners and the rights of these groups ties. are not respected. For instance when in- • There is a need for capacity enhance- vestors come to pastoral lands the in- ment. terest of the indigenous communities are • There should be structures to maintain good relationships within and outside

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pastoral communities. conservation and sustainable use of • There is a need to strengthen pastoral animal genetic resources. grazing committees for selective use and • Inclusion of financing mechanisms for management of pasture and water the necessary processes and institutions points. for a animal genetic resources treaty • There is a need to establish and • Provide for sustainable use of animal strengthen appropriate health service genetic resources. delivery systems. • Establishments of linkages to the Con- • Efforts are needed to lobby influential vention on Biological Diversity through persons, politicians, opinion leaders, FAO. administrators, religious leaders, businesspersons and the media on pas- The following steps and opportunities toral issues. should be exploited in the development of an animal genetic resources treaty .

Group 4 • 2004 Convention on Biological Diver- sity, Conference of the Parties (COP) VII, 9–24 Feb 2004. The group noted such an agreement • 2004 Intergovernmental Technical should be geared towards the recognition Working Group on Animal Genetic Re- of pastoral peoples and indigenous ani- sources for Food and Agriculture at FAO mal breeders and their role in providing 29 Feb–1 Mar: include pastoralism con- sustainable livelihoods and the conserva- cept in the treaty. tion of animal genetic resources through a • 2004 FAO Commission on Genetic treaty in line with FAO and the Convention Resources for Food and Agriculture on Biological Diversity. (CGRFA), 6 Oct: Push for the inclusion of the principle of ‘livestock keepers’ To make progress towards such a treaty, rights’. the group noted the need for appropriate • 2005 FAO, Nov 2005: Adoption of policy approaches. In particular, the group the rights of pastoralists. recommended the following approaches: • 2006 Convention on Biological Diver- sity–Conference of the Parties, 8 Mar: • Affirm and recognize the historical role Recognition of farm animal genetic re- of pastoralists and indigenous commu- sources. nities towards domestic animal diversity and environmental services. • Recognize the rights of livestock keep- Comments and discussion ers in terms of access to resources and their right to continue using their knowledge in this and to access, save, use, • There is a need to act swiftly on these exchange and sell their animal genetic recommendations as the first step is only resources unrestricted by IPRs (genetic a few months away. In particular, par- engineering). ticipants called for the delegation of the • Ensure that benefits of the use of ani- task of taking these recommendations mal genetic resources are accessible eq- to the FAO intergovernmental commit- uitably to all. tee for action. • Provide characterization, evaluation and • The FAO can only act on these recom- documentation of animal genetic re- mendations if the mandate to do so is sources, possibly through an appropri- provided by the relevant national gov- ate national register. ernments. The most effective way for • Provide a legal framework for the im- getting action at FAO is by lobbying the plementation of a global strategy for respective country representatives to

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raise these issues within FAO. of genetic resources without too much • The low levels of awareness at the grass- focus on who owns them, as the focus roots level on the legal implications is not on the ownership but on the free relating to animal genetic resources are flow and access for all. of concern. To create effective lobbying • It was proposed there should be a state- mechanisms, there is need to raise ment to support communities’ owner- awareness among grassroots pastoral ship over their farm animal genetic re- associations. sources. In response it was noted that • In discussions over pastoralists’ issues, such a statement can be used to mean there is always confusion between pure implicit approval of the imposition of IPR pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. This over farm animal genetic resources, has contributed to the exclusion of pure which could quickly degenerate in fa- pastoral communities from the policy vour of private entities. framework and the neglect of issues • However, there was insistence from the such as land tenure for nomadic pasto- floor that the recognition the role of ralists. communities in the development of farm • The recognition of the role of pastoral- animal genetic resources can only be ists will in itself raise awareness of their achieved via IPR. concerns and priorities. • It was noted it is a very fine line: the • The FAO animal genetics department rejection of IPR over farm animal ge- has a broader approach to farm ani- netic resources will leave the question mal genetic resources. It would be easier of ownership wide open, while its ac- and more appropriate to address cul- ceptance could also eventually lead to tural related issues of pastoral commu- the exclusion of some communities from nities through conventions on human accessing farm animal genetic re- rights, rights of indigenous people and sources, which could be disastrous for avenues such as UNESCO. food security. • At the international level there are al- • A list of plants critical for food security ready too many commissions and the is excluded from any IPR regime. inclusion of cultural issues within farm • IPR regimes can only grant rights to le- animal genetic resources would just gal persons. This necessitates the selec- complicate progress. This meeting tion of a few persons in the community should agree to a single action plan and to own the IPR, which in itself a big risk. give it full support to expedite progress • Owing to the inherent complications on towards a farm animal genetic re- terminology, it was proposed that the sources treaty. Pastoral associations in term ‘animal breeders’ be used in the various forms should spearhead the dif- declaration to give the widest coverage fusion of information on farm animal possible. genetic resources at the grassroots level. • This proposal was refined and it was • There is a need to recognize various live- agreed the term ‘pastoralists/indig- lihood strategies of animal breeders but enous livestock breeders’ be used. at the same time come up with a single front for animal genetic resources. There Way forward is a need to act at the micro, meso, and macro levels and to engage different In the development of the way forward af- groups and, in particular, to involve the ter the workshop, the following points were general public, youths, pastoral asso- noted: ciations, NGOs and community service organizations. • Inadequate policy framework is one of • Pastoralists are a subset of livestock the largest barriers to the farm animal keepers. Maximum attention should be genetic resources treaty. Participants given to the wider problem of free flow were therefore in agreement that they

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should, and would start lobbying their tate for animal genetic resources and national governments by all means pos- related issues. sible to redress this. • Participants were challenged to define • It was proposed that a secretariat be specific steps needed in capacity build- elected to follow up on the recommen- ing and incorporate this in their action dations of the workshop. This would be plans. purported by regional subcommittees. • The need to maintain the participation • It was also proposed that farm animal of grassroots communities in forums to genetic resources issues to be included address animal genetic resources issues in various State of the World reports to was emphasized to ensure the process raise their profile. is continuously aware of the on-ground • It was resolved that all representatives situation. from pastoral communities take the lead • It was also noted that a treaty on ani- in diffusing awareness on farm animal mal genetic resources is not the only (or genetic resources at their respective necessarily the best) way to preserve communities. The post-workshop steer- farm animal genetic resources. Action ing committee was also charged with in areas like land tenure, extension serv- the responsibility of being a resource ices and related areas also have an im- centre for these representatives. portant contribution to make. • It was resolved that all organizations • Participants were encouraged to create represented at the workshop will make links with institutions like IPGRI and all efforts to disseminate the proceed- CGIAR, which can greatly aid the cause ings and resolutions of the workshop to of farm animal genetic resources. How- a wider audience. ever, it was noted such organizations • To gather the resources required for could only come on board if a certain advocacy and pressure for farm animal critical mass of interest was present, so genetic resources, it was resolved all the first challenge is to create this inter- present should develop and implement est. projects and project proposals to un- • The Karen Commitment (page 8) hence- dertake the various steps needed for a forth will be the guide for participants farm animal genetic resources treaty. and their respective organization and • It was proposed that national working communities in contributing to the in- groups be formed to create awareness ternational, national and local debates and participation in the process towards on farm animal genetic resources. The a farm animal genetic resources treaty. central role in this debate will be played • It was noted that representatives at the by FAO and the Convention on Biologi- workshop were from pastoral commu- cal Diversity, so it is very important to nities with high visibility and presence channel the views expressed in the work- within their countries. The need to in- shop to these organizations. volve less numerous and visible com- • The organizers are committed to facili- munities was noted. tating the opinions and contributions of • The need for follow-up meetings to participants to the subsequent debate monitor progress was noted. and developments within FAO, the Con- • The use of district pastoral associations, vention on Biological Diversity and as- and equivalent institutions for dissemi- sociated processes. Article 8j of the Con- nation at grassroots level was proposed. vention on Biological Diversity will only It was also recommended that these be meaningful for animal breeding organizations form peer networks that communities if they aggressively make would help create a snowball effect and demands to the Convention that their give them a presence at local and na- concerns be addressed. tional development where they can agi-

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The Karen Commitment

On the basis of these discussions, the workshop participants drafted a declaration about the contributions of pastoralists and other livestock keepers to developing animal genetic resources, and their rights to continue to do so. This declaration was named the ‘Karen Commitment’ after the venue of the workshop in Karen, Kenya. The full declaration is printed on page 8.

89 Participants

Participants

Mohamed Abass Prof JA Ekpere Kenya Livestock Marketing Council University of Ibadan PO Box 2676, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya PO Box 21824, Ibadan, Nigeria Tel: +234 1 2629199, +234 080 3323 0430 Jecinta Abenyo Email: [email protected] ITDG–East Africa Turkana Office, PO Box 242, Lodwar, Kenya Maria Esipisu Tel: +254 54 21451, 21443 ITDG–East Africa Fax: +254 54 21451 PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Email: [email protected] Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, 2719413 Abdi Dakane Affey Fax: +254 2 2710083 District Pastoral Association–Wajir Email: [email protected] PO Box 401, Wajir, Kenya Meso Galmagar Elijah Agevi Pastoralist ITDG–East Africa c/o ITDG–East Africa, PO Box 202, Marsabit, PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Kenya Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, 2719413 Ebenyo Godwin Fax: +254 2 2710083 CEC Chairman Oropoi Email: [email protected] ITDG–East Africa, PO Box 17, Lodwar, Kenya Tel: +254 54 21451, 21443 Hedy Bühlmann Fax: +254 54 21451 World Herders Council PO Box 2453, 6002 Lucerne, Switzerland Philip Boru Halake Email: [email protected] Pastoralist PO Box 3, Marsabit, Kenya Francis N Chabari GTZ International Services Olivier Hanotte PO Box 41607, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya International Livestock Research Institute, Tel: +254 20 575088, 574751 PO Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya Fax: +254 20 573228 Tel: +254 20 630 743 Fax: +254 20 631 499 Dashdamba Damdin Email: [email protected] c/o GTZ, PO Box 46–107, Ulanbaatar 210646, Mongolia Tura Isako Tel: +976 11 9918 3752 Kenya Agricultural Research Institute Fax: +976 11 315 993 PO Box 147, Marsabit, Kenya Tel: +254 69 2040 Fax: +254 69 2220 Email: [email protected]

90 Participants

Martin Karimi Mbaabu Mathiu Email: [email protected] University of Nairobi PO Box 3659, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya Meshack Karithi Email: [email protected] Thomas Mbeyela National Artificial Insemination Centre Ilse Köhler-Rollefson PO Box 557, Usa River, Tanzania League for Pastoral Peoples Tel: +255 27 2553850 Pragelatostrasse 20, 64372 Ober-Ramstadt, Fax: +255 27 2553836 Germany Email: [email protected] Tel/fax: +49 6154 53642 Email: [email protected], [email protected] Njuguna Mbogo Ministry of Livestock & Fisheries Development Lily Langat PO Box 34, Garissa, Kenya ITDG–East Africa Tel: +254 46 2056, 0722 241767 PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, Duncan Mboyah 2719413 Biosafety News Fax: +254 2 2710083 PO Box 41992, Nairobi, Kenya Email: [email protected] Tel: +254 2 253543 Fax: +254 2 316795 Lucas Lolngojine Email: [email protected] ITDG–East Africa Box 325 Maralal, Kenya Meghji N Meghji Tel: +254 65 2236, 2227, 2229 Mwanza Rural Housing Programme Email: [email protected] PO Box 2745, Mwanza, Tanzania Tel: +255 744 888627 Sharon Looremetta Email: [email protected] ITDG–East Africa PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Taffese Mesfin Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, PENHA, Farm Africa 2719413 PO Box 5746, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Fax: +254 2 2710083 Tel: +251 1 612424 Email: [email protected] Fax: +251 1 560526, 560527 Email: [email protected] Thomas Loquang Happy Cow Project, Karamoja Initiative for Omar Sadik Mohammed Sustainable Peace Garissa District Pastoral Association PO Box 26459, Kampala, Uganda PO Box 12 Dadaab, Garissa, Kenya Email: [email protected] Tel: +254 46 3522, 2060 Tel: +256 77 224466 Fax: +254 46 3242 Fax: c/o Lily, +256 31 242500 Email: [email protected]

Elzbieta Martyniuk Charles Muchunguzi Ul. Ciszewskiego 8, O2-786 Warszawa, Poland Mbarara University of Science and Technology Tel: +48 22 8530934, 6231056 PO Box 1410, Mbarara, Uganda Email: [email protected], Tel: +256 77 559492 [email protected] Fax: +256 485 20782 Email: [email protected] Isabella Masinde ITDG–East Africa Patrick Mulvany PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Intermediate Technology Development Group Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, Schumacher Centre for Technology & Develop- 2719413 ment, Bourton Hall, Bourton-on-Dunsmore, Fax: +254 2 2710083 Rugby, CV23 9QZ, United Kingdom Email: [email protected] Tel: +44 1926 634400 Fax: +44 1926 634401 Email: [email protected]

91 Participants

Kimpei Munei James Ombura Dupoto-e-Maa, PO Box 264, Kajiado, Kenya Veterinary Research Laboratories, Private Bag, Tel: +254 722 638899 00625 Kangemi, Nairobi, Kenya Email: [email protected] Tel: +254 20 632231 Fax: +254 20 631273 Adam Elhag Musa Chair of Pastoral Union Mendbaatar Osorjin PO Box 3182, Khartoum, Sudan GTZ Tel. +249 11763574 PO Box 46-107, Ulanbaatar 210646, Mongolia Fax +249 11 787709 Tel: +976 11 99183752 Fax: +976 11 315993 Rebecca Musyoka Email: [email protected] Kenya Small Farmers Forum c/o Makanya, PELUM Country Desk, PO Box Fredrick O Otswong’o 431, Matuu, Kenya Kenya Industrial Property Institute JN Mwangi PO Box 51648, Nairobi, Kenya PO Box 25418, Nairobi, Kenya Hanwant Singh Rathore Helen Nakimbugwe Lokhit Pashu-Palak Sansthan (LPPS) National Animal Genetic Resources Centre and PO Box 1, Sadri, District Pali, Rajasthan, India Data Bank, PO Box 183, Entebbe, Uganda Tel/fax: +91 29 3428 5086 Tel: +256 41 320 831 Email: [email protected] Fax: +256 41 349 422 Email: [email protected] Yobo Rutin Centre for Minority Rights Development Henry Neondo PO Box 14692, Nairobi, Kenya All Africa News Agency (AANA) PO Box 2141, 05100 Nairobi, Kenya Adano Salesa Tel: +254 733 655614 ITDG–East Africa Samburu Office Email: [email protected] PO Box 325, Maralal, Kenya Tel: +254 65 2236, 2227, 2229 James M Njau Email: [email protected] Kenya National Federation of Agricultural Producers Ali Aii Shatu PO Box 62939, Nairobi, Kenya Mbororo Social and Cultural Development Association Joyce Njoro PO Box 221, Bamenda, Cameroon Community-Based Livestock Initiative Pro- Email: [email protected] gramme (CLIP) PO Box 1249, 00606 Nairobi, Kenya P Vivekanandan Seva Michael Ojiambo 45, TPM Nagar, Virattipathu, Madurai 625 010, Kenya Freedom From Hunger Tamil Nadu, India PO Box 30762, Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 452 238 0082 Fax: +254 452 2300425 Cleopas Okore Email: [email protected] Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries PO Box 34188, Nairobi, Kenya Philip Walubengo Email: [email protected] ITDG–East Africa PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Nathan Ole-Lengisugi Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, Maasai Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowl- 2719413 edge Fax: +254 2 2710083 PO Box 3084, Arusha, Tanzania Email: [email protected] Tel: +255 027 8078 / 8002 [email protected] Email: [email protected]

92 Participants

Kamwati Wango Vincent Wechabe ITDG–East Africa Ministry of Livestock & Fisheries Development PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Box 314, Kapenguria, Kenya Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, Tel +254 5462460, 733 543287, 733 566730 2719413 Fax: +254 2 2710083 Susan Yiapan Email: [email protected] ITDG–East Africa PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Jacob Wanyama Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, ITDG–East Africa 2719413 PO Box 39493, 00623 Nairobi, Kenya Fax: +254 2 2710083 Tel: +254 2 2713540, 2715299, 2719313, Email: [email protected] 2719413 Fax: +254 2 2710083 Vincent V Yiapan Email: [email protected] Maa Herbal Practitioners & Conservation Club PO Box 340, Narok, Kenya Molu Wato Tel: +254 722 686718 Pastoralist PO Box 257, Marsabit, Kenya