state of latino arizona contents
4 letters ...... President Michael Crow Raul Yzaguirre 6 foreword the state of latino arizona...... Sal Rivera 8 introduction mirando adelante ...... Carlos Vélez-Ibáñez 14 history histories of mexican origin populations in arizona...... F. Arturo Rosales Christine Marín 22 demographics contemporary characteristics of a dynamic population...... Eileen Diaz McConnell Amanda Skeen 32 politics and civil rights the impact of politics, legislation and civil rights on arizona latinos...... Lisa Magaña Miguel Montiél James Garcia 40 education each of us has a role...... Paul Luna
the critical condition of latino education in arizona...... Eugene E. García Mehmet Dali Öztürk J. Luke Wood 54 economic and financial issues economic mobility: earnings, income, and wealth indicators ...... Bárbara Robles Loui Olivas 64 health toward a healthy latino population in arizona ...... Hilda García-Pérez Seline Szkupinski-Quiroga 76 the arts genesis and development of latino/a expressive culture in arizona: theater, literature, film, music, and art...... Carlos Vélez-Ibáñez Paul Espinosa James Garcia Marta Sanchez Michelle Martinez 88 credits and acknowledgments
A Report Presented by The Arizona Latino Research Enterprise, ASU Department of Transborder Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies and ASU Office of Public Affairs. Copyright Arizona Board of Regents 2009. The sunburst logo is a registered trademark, and the Arizona State University wordmark is a trademark of the Arizona Board of Regents. Copyrights to original works remain with the authors. Governor Raul H. Castro Council Member Regina Romero 4 Arizona State University is pleased to collaborate with the Arizona Latino Research Enterprise to present the State of Latino Arizona. The report represents an important contribution to our effort to advance a broad understanding of the changing dynamics of the Latino experi- ence in Arizona, which has played such an enduring and fundamental role in the development of our state and region.
The trajectory of Hispanic culture and society in the American Southwest began long before Arizona achieved territorial status, and its impact remains a defining element shaping the future of our expansive binational region. Historical perspective provides a framework for an assessment of contemporary successes, challenges, and aspirations, as well as perceptions and projections regarding the potential of the decades to come. The report offers both objective indicators and nuanced perspective regarding the critical issues that require our collective attention, including education, healthcare, justice and equality, job creation, economic development, quality of life and quality of place, and opportunity for enterprise and social advancement. While the report focuses on how these factors impact Hispanics, the spectrum of concerns and hopes and values under consideration are equally relevant to all Arizonans.
The unprecedented transformation of the regional demographic profile suggests the scale and complexity of impending societal change. According to projections by the Pew Research Center, the Hispanic population of our nation will triple from 2005 through 2050, increas- ing from 14 percent to 29 percent of the total during this timeframe. Already during the present decade—between 2000 and 2007—the Hispanic population in Arizona grew by 46.5 percent. In Maricopa County during this timeframe, the Hispanic population increased by 55 percent, following a decade that witnessed growth of 121 percent.[1] As is already the case in California, within the near term no single demographic group will comprise a majority in Arizona.
The State of Latino Arizona appears during the academic year ASU is commemorating its 50th anniversary as a comprehensive university. In this context and inasmuch as ASU has throughout its history championed diversity, we particularly value the perspective the report provides on Arizona students from historically underrepresented backgrounds. We reject the notion that academic excellence and inclu- siveness to a broad demographic cannot be achieved in a single institution. With our egalitarian admissions standards, we seek to admit all qualified students who demonstrate the potential to succeed.
Many individuals inspired and guided the creation of the report, including the faculty and students of the ASU Department of Transborder Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies and the staff of the ASU Office of Public Affairs. The input of community members and civic and business leaders has been especially invaluable, and I would like to commend all those who contributed to this important document. The project is certain to support decision-making on public issues and provide a valuable resource for policymakers throughout Arizona. I hope that you will find this report to be both useful and thought provoking, and I would like to express my appreciation for your steadfast support of ASU.
Michael M. Crow President
[1] J. S. Passel and D. Cohn, U.S. Population Projections: 2005–2050 (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2008), i; “Statistical Portrait of Hispanics in the United States, 2007,” table 13 http://pewhispanic.org/factsheets/factsheet.php?FactsheetID=46; “Demographic Profile of Hispanics in Arizona, 2007” http://pewhispanic.org/states/?stateid=AZ The State of Latino Arizona 2009
5 Building Bridges between the University and the Community as Catalysts for Transformation
I have spent most of my adult life working to protect and advance the quality of life for my community. For 30 years, I led the National Council of La Raza, now acknowledged as the largest and most influential Latino advocacy organization in the nation. . In that pursuit, before, during and after my days with NCLR, I delivered speeches, I sometimes marched in protest, and, on oc- casion, I was known to pound my fist on a podium or two in an effort to make my views known.
More often, I advocated on behalf of our community by pursuing a simple and practical philosophy: I believe that it is only as a result of our collective edification and our ability to shape public policy that the American Latino community and the rest of our nation can progress.
Public policy, of course, is not confined to administrative or legislative acts of government. The policies and actions of the private sector, nonprofits and our own families similarly mold the world we occupy.
Our ability to influence public policy, however, requires that we attain at least a sufficient base of knowledge that we can draw upon to effectively promote, implement and preserve our respective point of view. In other words, impassioned dedication is not enough – we need to be in command of the facts.
The document you are about to read, The State of Latino Arizona, embodies this concept. In these pages, you will read about most major aspects of what it means to be Latino in Arizona today. This is not to say that the report represents a unified per- spective on the state of our community. The views expressed here are multifaceted and diverse – and rightly so. Still, the thread that binds the content of these articles is the shared conviction that it is through the presentation of reliable data, information and informed analysis that you, the reader, will be willing to listen.
If you are Latino, I hope the articles presented in this report will enhance your ability to influence the world around you. If you are not Latino, my desire is that you’ll not only find this report informative but a means to building greater mutual understanding.
Raul Yzaguirre Executive Director and Presidential Professor of Practice
Center for Community Development and Civil Rights 542 East Monroe, Suite D-100, Phoenix, AZ 85004 (602) 496-1020 | Fax: (602) 496-1029 | Email: [email protected] http://cdcr.asu.edu foreword
“This report also helps document a watershed moment in the ongoing social and cultural development of our community. The role and influence of Latinos is increasingly vital to the development of our nation.” The State of Latino Arizona 2009
7 foreword by Sal Rivera
The Arizona Latino Research Enterprise (ALRE) was created in 2004 trends—fueled to a large degree by increases in the Latino popula- by a group of Latino professionals who sought to make a positive tion—will continue as the economy recovers. In short, there is much impact on Arizona and the Latino Community. ALRE is a non-parti- more change in store for Arizona and its growing Latino population, san, Arizona nonprofit corporation that unites Arizona leaders in a and our community promises to play a steadily more important role professional and respectful environment where they can (1) intel- in our state’s future. ligently analyze issues facing Arizona and the Latino Community; (2) thoughtfully consider potential solutions; (3) passionately act to As part of our organization’s mission to serve as a force for positive facilitate greater awareness and change; and (4) facilitate discus- change, ALRE is very proud to help support and present this ground- sions on issues in a social network that allows debate, exploration, breaking project in cooperation with the Arizona State University and cultural celebration. Office of Public Affairs, Arizona Public Service, the Department of Transborder Chicano/a and Latino/a Studies, and the many other ALRE has accomplished many things in its short history. It is espe- people who participated in the creation of this document. We want cially proud, however, of its role in the creation of this report, The to do more than just help generate a report, however. Instead, we State of Latino Arizona. One of ALRE’s goals is to bridge the gap be- look forward to working with our many partners to pursue the strate- tween academicians and policy makers. Much can be accomplished gies set forth here. We also hope this document will be the first of through the implementation of research-based strategies, and this many meaningful partnerships between ASU and ALRE, and a rally- report provides important guidance for addressing the many chal- ing point for positive change. n lenges facing our state.
Sal Rivera is a partner and shareholder of Rivera and Rivera P.C., a full-service litiga- This report also helps document a watershed moment in the ongo- tion and government relations firm. Mr. Rivera practices in the areas of government ing social and cultural development of our community. The role and relations and tort and commercial litigation. He is very active in political, legal, com- influence of Latinos is increasingly vital to the development of our munity, and charitable organizations. In 2008, Governor Janet Napolitano appointed nation. American Latinos are now the nation’s largest and fastest him to serve as the founding President/CEO of the Arizona Economic Resource growing minority group. And although experts predict that one in Organization (“AERO”). Governor Napolitano and Mayor Gordon have appointed him to chair or serve on key committees and commissions. Before attending the four Americans will be of Hispanic origin by 2040, the Latino com- University of Chicago Law School, Mr. Rivera was a legislative assistant to an Arizona munity in Arizona has already surpassed that mark. congressman.
Our state has dramatically changed in the past two decades, and much of that transformation results from international and interstate migration. The recession has recently slowed the state’s popula- tion growth, but most experts predict that overall upward growth introduction
“We were convinced that the historical narrative too often erroneously depicts (or worse, ignores) the sheer wealth of experiences contributed by Mexican- origin populations and other Latinos, who shaped not only the state of Arizona but the entire southwestern United States.” The State of Latino Arizona 2009
9 mirando adelante by Carlos Vélez-Ibáñez
This is a labor of love written by the faculty of the Department of The demographic information in the second chapter must be Transborder Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies (TCLS) with fine con- contextualized within this historical framework or these data will be tributions by Eugene Garcia, Christine Marín, Loui Olivas, Bárbara mere numerical representations relevant to the immediate present Robles, and F. Arturo Rosales, media professional Ruben Hernan- but with little meaning for the future. Eileen Diaz McConnell and dez, and playwright James Garcia. All gave of their expertise, energy, Amanda Skeen offer the fact that between 2000 and 2007, Arizona and time with the conviction that we had to be looking toward the enjoyed an increase in Latino population of more than 45.2%, and future—mirando adelante—in order to influence policies along a today the state’s total Latino population is mostly of Mexican origin broad front. We were convinced that the historical narrative too (88.6%). The impetus for this growth really began much earlier, with often erroneously depicts (or worse, ignores) the sheer wealth of the economic integration of the southwestern United States and experiences contributed by Mexican-origin populations and other northern Mexico. So, as Diaz McConnell and Skeen’s work indicates, Latinos, who shaped not only the state of Arizona but the entire Arizona will have a population that is one-third Latino well before southwestern United States. 2025, consisting mostly of Mexican-origin people. This population will be young, with higher birth rates, and a sizeable percentage will Peoples have been migrating and trading from south to north, from be foreign born. Another demography-related nugget should offset Mesoamerica to this region, since as early as 700 AD. The Span- the present hysteria over Mexicans crossing the border illegally: ish and Mexican populations later followed the same ancient native one-third to one-half of all unauthorized immigrants in the United trade routes so that for 1,300 years, people have traveled back States are estimated to be visa “overstayers,” who enter legally and and forth between Arizona and Mexico. Thus the Latino presence then become unauthorized. Thus, of the 320 million people living in in Arizona today should be inexorably linked to the past, but public the United States, about 6 million have crossed the physical border knowledge of that history is too often absent. Among other knowl- illegally from all entry points. That figure includes all immigrant-send- edge nuggets in the history section by Arturo Rosales and Christine ing countries, with Mexico accounting for about 3.75 million people. Marín is the information on the little-known Sonoran homestead- Thus, the massive border interdiction and anti-immigrant legislation ers who established many of the ranches in central and southern are aimed at about 1.5% of the total U.S. population. Arizona following the 1862 Homestead Act. This kind of information is not recognized or worse yet, it is ignored. People also should not Economic and educational concerns define the issues noted by Lisa be surprised that Arizona Sonorans, Tejanos, and Nuevo Mexicanos Magaña, Miguel Montiel, and James Garcia in the next chapter, The fought in the American Civil War, on both the confederate and union Impact of Politics, Legislation, and Civil Rights on Arizona Latinos. sides, and that they have long defended the United States, from the Immigrant rights play a major role in Arizona Latinos’ political con- charge up San Juan Hill to the actions in the mountains of Afghani- cerns. The hostility toward immigrants has certainly spilled over into stan and the streets of Mosul today. serious civil rights issues, including racial profiling and public-accom- 10
modations laws. As Raul Yzaguirre, Presidential Professor of Practice respite from the more dismal aggregate numbers that directly affect in community development and civil rights at ASU, has stated, this educational achievement. Yet, the article points out that education has dire impacts on educational quality for a demographic popula- is tied directly to the formation and development of wealth in Latino tion that is both young and undereducated. populations. Reversing the great loss in numbers of Latino students that occurs between secondary and post-secondary school is a key The education essay by Eugene García, Mehmet Dali Öztürk, and J. to the future creation of wealth, earnings, and income for the entire Luke Wood reinforces the critical needs for improved Latino educa- population. By implication then, the intervention programs sug- tion in Arizona. The number of Latino children in the state increased gested in the education essay are crucial to the future well-being of from almost 270,000 to 416,000 between 1998 and 2008. Of the entire Latino population, particularly given the projected demo- those who are under the age of six, 75% live in low-income families graphic growth. and suffer from a low preschool preparation rate, which affects their school performance across all grade levels. Thus, economic and The essay on health by Hilda García-Pérez and Seline Kupinski- poverty issues not only plug up but also create breaks in the univer- Quiroga supports this contention. Their findings point out that sity and post-graduate pipelines. The authors call for a remedy that serious wealth and income and educational issues directly affect would involve first-rate intervention programs at all levels. As the physical health among Latinos. Interestingly, second-generation authors point out, “We cannot afford to take years to raise the con- Latinos seem to be less healthy than first-generation immigrants, dition of Latino education to levels comparable to other . . . groups even though the first generation is more likely to be at or below the in the state or the nation.” poverty line. The authors point out that Arizona Latinos are at a disadvantage because only 42% of working Latinos have employer- In their essay on economic mobility, Bárbara Robles and Loui Olivas provided insurance compared to 66% of other working Arizonans. give cogency and substance to those economic and educational There is a direct relationship between health access, health, and issues. They provide a snapshot of the current state of Arizona’s the availability of insurance, which leads to deteriorating health over Latino population’s economic mobility, dynamic wealth creation, and time. Latinos are most likely to die of heart diseases followed by future progress. The information may have both negative and posi- cancer and unintentional injury, stroke, and diabetes. All are related tive portents for our ability to offset the educational gap. The essay to late treatment or the inability to access health care. Thus, the indicates that Latinos in Arizona overall have lower wealth parity future health of Arizona’s Latinos is directly associated with demo- with non-Hispanic Anglos. Nevertheless, both high and low indica- graphic growth, educational attainment, political and civil participa- tors and a significant growing middle-class population exist. This tion, the development of wealth, and access to affordable insurance knowledge nugget is extremely important because it provides some and timely health care. The State of Latino Arizona 2009
11
The final chapter, on the arts, provides early examples of the expres- Carlos G. Vélez-Ibáñez is chair of ASU’s Department of Transborder Chicana/o sive arts. The authors also give examples from film, theater, music, and Latina/o Studies, Presidential Motorola Professor of Neighborhood Revitaliza- tion, Professor of Transborder Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies and of the School and literature that portray the issues discussed in this volume. The of Human Evolution and Social Change, and emeritus professor of Anthropology, Chicano Arts Movement of the 1960s was directly tied to political University of California, Riverside. His research and six books have won numerous and civil protests by a variety of university-based groups like MEChA academic prizes, including the Bronislaw Malinowski Medal. He is an elected Fellow and community-based organizations like CPLC, Valle del Sol, Barrio of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Society for Applied Youth Project, and Friendly House. The Movement’s incipient artists Anthropology, and the American Anthropology Association, and a former fellow at the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University. formed the cadres that would exhibit street art and open their own galleries in Arizona. Like the their literary brethren, these artists literally created art forms from the ground up, with thematic issues of community revival, the use of Mesoamerican motifs, and picto- rial narratives in the form of murals. Today, despite being somewhat hamstrung by funding and support constraints, the explosion in the arts continues. Across all the forms—painting, sculpture, film, the- ater, music, literature, and more—Latino work is burgeoning, and it is appealing to wider, national and international, audiences even as it continues to inspire members of the Latino community.
Mirando Adelante The question then is what does the future portend? The issues and problems presented in this volume give us clear signposts of what must be done, and there are no clearer signposts than the fact that important and massive interventions in education must be under- taken with great attention to preparation in the humanities, the sciences, mathematics, and research. That must be accompanied by social scaffolding that not only supports but also guarantees a timely, successful entrance into higher education, and more impor- tantly, an egress of excellence for all our children and young adults. This is the future of the Latino population mirando adelante. n Edith Auslander Matt Molina history
“Mexican immigrants, zanjeros, also worked on a system of canals that delivered a steady supply of water to valley farmers, later known as the Salt River Project, and they played major roles in the building of Phoenix’s streets.” The State of Latino Arizona 2009
15 histories of mexican-origin populations Valley in New Mexico. The Gads- River Project, and they played ma- den Purchase gave Mexicans in jor roles in the building of Phoe- in arizona the acquired territory the same nix’s streets. by F. Arturo Rosales and Christine Marín rights as provided by the Treaty of In the early 20th century, the Guadalupe Hidalgo (Officer 1987, federal Newlands Reclamation Act With the discovery of silver near modern-day No- 133). allowed Anglo farmers to plant Initially, Sonorans kept their cotton and lettuce on irrigated gales in 1736, the Spanish crown advanced its land holdings, and many even acreage in the vast desert sur- migrated farther north, into el rounding Phoenix and Yuma, and efforts to expand into an area inhabited by na- salado, the Salt River Valley and industrial metals, particularly cop- tive peoples and already colonized by the famed today’s Maricopa County. The per, abundant in the eastern part 1841 Preemption Act and the of the state, were exploited. Both Spanish missionary Eusebio Kino. Over the next 1862 Homestead Act let these industries relied on Mexico as a 150 years, españoles mexicanos (Spanish Mexi- people acquire land, and with that, primary labor source. By 1910, the cultural and economic life of Mexicans accounted for 13% of cans) settled in the Santa Cruz Valley. They faced Sonora arrived in Central Arizona. Arizona’s population of 200,000 droughts, periodic uprisings by the native O’odham By the 1860s, despite opposi- (Benton-Cohen 2009). tion from Anglo civilians, more Nevertheless, the economic peoples, and Apache warriors who raided through- Sonorans migrated north from the and political fortunes of Mexicans out the valley. After Mexico became a republic in Altar and the Santa Cruz valleys. in the Southwest declined consid- In 1863, Tucson became the erably under U.S. government rule. 1821, southern Arizona was part of Sonora. For the capital of the new Arizona Terri- Although the Treaty of Guadalupe tory. Two years later, in an attempt Hidalgo granted U.S. constitu- next 31 years, Mexico gave out land grants (mostly to protect miners from Apache tional and land-holding rights to in southern Arizona), laying the foundation for the raids in the Salt River Valley, Fort Mexicans, and the Homestead McDowell was established. This and Preemption acts also allowed region’s ranching and agricultural development. created jobs, which attracted even them to acquire land, many of the more Sonorans. The 1870s and promised guarantees were not When Mexico lost the Mexican- and, ostensibly, protection of their 1880s saw a flood of new immi- upheld. As the territory’s Anglo American War in 1848, the United property, language, culture, and grants, drawn to jobs generated by population increased, entrepre- States acquired the territories of religion. In 1853, under pressure the growing agricultural economy neurs, developers, and farm- New Mexico, Arizona, California, from the United States, General and the building of the Southern ers competed to take land from and parts of Nevada, Utah, and Antonio López de Santa Anna, Pacific and the Maricopa and the Mexican population. On the Colorado for $15 million. The Trea- Mexico’s president, sold the lands Phoenix railways. Mexican immi- political front, in 1864, territorial ty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed at that are now southern Arizona grants, zanjeros, also worked on governor John Goodwin moved the end of the war, granted Mexi- and southwestern New Mexico—a a system of canals that delivered the capital to Prescott in northern cans who remained in U.S. terri- region that extended from Yuma a steady supply of water to valley Arizona—far from the center of tory citizenship and voting rights along the Gila River to the Mesilla farmers, later known as the Salt the Mexican origin population. 16 As these populations lost Americans wrongfully accused of Mexican miners. Opposing a dual- in the 1930s, Arizona’s Hispanic power, the need to protect their crimes. He used his journalistic wage system that paid Mexicans population (about half of whom civil and workplace rights inspired forum and his position in several less for doing the same work that were U.S.-born) reached 60,000 them to form organizations. Re- Phoenix organizations, including Anglos did, five thousand work- out of the total population of sponding to police mistreatment the Comisión Honorífica Mexicana ers, about 70% of whom were of 400,000. in the 1880s, for example, Tucson (Mexican Honorary Commission), Mexican origin, struck in Morenci, Anglo society influenced young Mexicans led by newspaperman La Cruz Azul (the Blue Cross), and Clifton, and Metcalf. During World Arizona Mexicans, and they began Carlos Velasco formed El Centro Woodsmen of the World to forward War I, aware that Arizona mine practicing “Mexican American- Radical Mexicano (The Mexican his work. In 1925, this vigilance owners were reaping huge profits, ism,” an ideology dedicated to Radical Center). In southern and led to Mexicans in Tempe waging the International Workers of the acculturation, breaking down eastern Arizona, Mexican railroad the first successful school deseg- World (IWW), the Wobblies, initiat- segregation codes, and fight- workers and miners began forming regation case in the United States. ed many strikes. Lázaro Gutiérrez ing discrimination (García 1990). labor unions. In 1894, Mexicans in Unfortunately, school segregation de Lara, a Mexican immigrant and Mexicans and Mexican Americans Tucson founded La Alianza Hispa- continued for children of recent political radical, was a Wobblie in mining, farming, and ranching no Americana (Hispanic American immigrants and poorer families leader. In retaliation, employers, communities, as well as those Alliance) as a mutualista (mutual until the 1940s (Rosales 1999, principally the Phelps-Dodge Cor- living in urban areas, founded the aid society) and political organiza- 30-31). poration, accused the Wobblies of Latin American Club of Arizona tion. Mutualistas spread across Mexican origin populations un-American activities and sabo- in 1929 dedicated to the “bet- the Southwest, and by the 1920s, were also the first to be involved taging the war effort. The most terment of living and economic they had a respected record in in aggressive union organizing in infamous incident occurred in conditions.” The group’s first protecting Mexicans’ civil rights. Arizona. Mexican and Mexican 1917. Phelps-Dodge, in collusion president was Luis S. Cordova, a The Liga Protectora Latina (Latino American workers led strikes that with Bisbee city officials, rounded Southern Pacific railroad worker Protective League) was organized rocked southeastern Arizona’s up the mostly Mexican strikers from Phoenix. By 1938, the Latin in 1914 in Phoenix to address civil mining regions in 1903. Mexicans and loaded them at gunpoint onto American Club had “more than rights and labor abuses. One of William “Wenceslao” Laustau- railroad cars. Ultimately, they left 5,000 active members from al- its early successes was opposition nau and A. F. Salcido, along with them stranded in the New Mexico most every community in Arizona” to legislation that threatened to Italian Frank Colombo, convinced desert (Mellinger 1995). (Arizona Silver Belt 1938). At the prohibit non-English speakers from about two thousand workers in During the Great Depres- Arizona Normal School in Tempe working in the mines. La Liga also Morenci to stay out of the mines sion, hundreds of thousands of (now Arizona State University), defended Mexicans in the justice for three days. Armed miners Mexicans across the United States students founded Los Conquista- system (Rosales 2006, 175-76). milled through the town making returned to Mexico. Some left vol- dores, a vehicle for advocating for One of the most active civil demands until the governor sent in untarily, but many were coerced or greater educational opportunities. rights leaders in the 1920s was the Arizona Rangers, who arrested physically deported (Meeks 2001, In 1939, club members attended Jesús Franco. As the publisher of and jailed Salcido, Laustaunau, 190-95). These deportations also a conference sponsored by the Phoenix’s El Sol and the Ari- and Colombo. Laustaunau died included many Mexican Americans Mexican American Movement zona correspondent for El Paso’s in prison in 1906. In 1915, the who were U.S. citizens, especially (MAM) in Los Angeles. Returning La Patria, Franco took up the Western Federation of Miners children born to Mexican immi- to Tempe, Los Conquistadores cause of Mexicans and Mexican successfully and broadly organized grants. Despite the out-migration, worked to apply the ideological Mary Jo French Councilman Adam Diaz The State of Latino Arizona 2009
19 precepts of MAM, whose mission researcher also reported that Mexican American civil rights all three former Arizona Migrant was “to improve our conditions telephone companies would not leaders continued their struggle to Opportunity Program (MOP) among our Mexican American and hire Mexican women because of eradicate discriminatory practices employees, he established the Mexican people living in the United “their accent in speaking English.” during the 1950s. Alianza Hispano Arizona Farm Workers Organizing States” and to pursue “citizenship, In addition, a cab dispatcher said, Americana member and lawyer Committee (AFWOC). By 1969, higher education . . . and a more “Why, those damn, dirty Mexicans, Ralph Estrada, with the help of the AFWOC struck local grape active participation in civic and I wouldn’t have them around me other local community leaders, ar- growers and obtained contracts cultural activities by those of our at all. We just don’t like them. We gued the 1951 González v. Sheely (García 2000, 42-43). national descent” (Rosales 1996, wouldn’t have a Mexican driver” case in U.S. District Court, which Mexican Americans in Arizona 99-100). Although self-improve- (Meeks 2001: 210). abolished segregation in Tolleson, also fought to increase their influ- ment became an integral part of Despite this pattern of discrimi- three years before the decision ence at the ballot box. Carlos Mc- this generation’s goals, they also nation, when the United States in Brown v. Board of Education. Cormick, president of the Alianza understood the debilitating effects declared war against the Japanese The Alianza continued to exert Hispano Americana, led a national of racism and stood firmly against in 1941, Mexican Americans and pressure on segregated schools coalition of Mexican American job discrimination and segrega- some Mexican immigrants joined in Arizona. Then in 1954, the organizations that resulted in the tion, all of which continued to be the armed forces, while others Peoria school district, the state’s Viva Kennedy! Clubs that helped commonplace throughout the organized civilian-led “home-front” last holdout, caved and voluntarily to elect President John F. Ken- 1930s and 1940s. efforts, such as U.S. Treasury ended the segregation of Mexi- nedy in 1960. The Viva Kennedy! In 1941, the constitution of bond drives. After the war, the cans. These initiatives had foiled campaign energized the Mexican the Brotherhood of Locomo- discrimination and social rejection the desires of school officials, who American community. The Political tive Firemen and Enginemen continued, prompting stepped- stubbornly clung to the idea that Association of Spanish-Speaking in Tucson explicitly barred the up efforts to break down barriers Mexican Americans deserved to Organizations (PASSO), based in promotion of non-whites: “Mexi- to social and economic mobility. be segregated because of their Texas, was at the vanguard in this cans, Indians, or those of Indian Returning veterans, for example, culture (Muñoz 2006, 185-86). effort. In the early 1960s, PASSO or Spanish-American extraction protested restricted housing poli- Arizona’s economy dramatically established the American Coordi- are not eligible” for the positions cies in Phoenix. In the late 1940s, changed after the war, as elec- nating Council of Political Educa- of fireman or brakeman (Meeks Frank Fuentes and Ray Martínez tronic manufacturing overshad- tion (ACCPE) in Phoenix. The Ari- 2001, 210). As part of a sociologi- organized the first American owed the mining- and agriculture- zona organizers, however, sought cal study on Mexicans in Tucson Legion post for Mexican Ameri- based economy. Nonetheless, independence from PASSO, citing in the late 1940s, a University of cans in Phoenix. Using Post 41 many Mexicans continued as the need to develop homegrown Chicago doctoral student, Harry T. as a home base, they challenged low-paid agricultural laborers. strategies. ACCPE soon estab- Getty, interviewed an official from discrimination by white veter- In 1968, the achievements of lished chapters throughout the Tucson’s Southern Pacific Railway. ans’ organizations and fought for civil-rights and farm-labor leader state, which bolstered the political This Anglo told the researcher, integrated housing under the GI Cesar Chavez and the United Farm power of Mexican Americans in “I haven’t hired any Mexicans, Bill. Post 41 became a civil-rights Workers Association in California Arizona’s smaller communities. At not because I’m prejudiced, but vehicle, as well as a volunteer inspired Gustavo Gutiérrez to orga- its height in the 1950s and early because… I think our own boys community-service organization nize farm workers in Tolleson. With 1960s, the organization had about should have a chance first.” The and a social club (Marín n.d.). Mel Hewey and Carolina Rosales, 2,500 members and successfully community commentary
In truth, it would be difficult to separate the history of the growth and develop- ment of Arizona from the history of Latino Arizona. Latinos have contributed to 20 “ every segment of Arizona’s development. The State of Latino Arizona provides for an excellent synopsis of the long proud legacy of the Latinos of Arizona.” Frank Barrios
backed the election of Mexican Chicanos por la Causa (CPLC), a nomic development, job training, ing Mexican origin community Americans to city councils and radicalized civil-rights and com- and housing issues. It also opened (30% of the population). In 2006, school boards, but ACCPE eventu- munity-development organization. service centers in Tucson and an estimated 200,000 people ally folded. CPLC would be a lasting legacy of Yuma (Rosales 2000, 379-80). marched in Phoenix in solidar- After World War II, thousands of the Chicano Movement in Arizona. In 1969, UA students Salomón ity with hundreds of thousands Anglos immigrated to Arizona. By After obtaining a small seed grant “Sal” Baldenegro, Raúl Grijalva, nationwide to protest stepped-up 1965, the state’s population had from the Ford Foundation through Lupe Castillo, and others founded law enforcement efforts aimed at topped one million. Many Mexican the Southwest Council of La Raza, the Mexican American Liberation immigrants. Many Mexican origin Americans took advantage of the CPLC’s ambitious, idealistic young Committee (MALC). MALC orga- and non-Latino community lead- resulting prosperity, and by the militants began working to trans- nized walkouts at Pueblo and Tuc- ers argued that bigoted attitudes early 1970s, more Mexican Ameri- form Phoenix’s growing Chicano son High Schools, which brought toward Latinos had inspired these cans were enrolling in Arizona community. They initially focused attention to overcrowding and the measures. The march was the colleges and universities than ever on education issues and poli- need for bilingual education and largest in Arizona history. That before. At the University of Arizona tics, supporting a slate of barrio Mexican culture classes. In 1970, year, Governor Janet Napolitano (UA) and Arizona State University residents for an inner-city school MALC successfully convinced (who now heads the U.S. De- (ASU), some of these students board election in 1969. In 1970, Tucson officials to turn the Del Rio partment of Homeland Security) joined the Chicano Movement. CPLC helped organize walkouts at Golf Course into a people’s park joined other Arizona Democrats Activists rejected the assimilation Phoenix Union High School (with and to build a community cen- and called for a state law punish- strategy of older Mexican Ameri- a predominantly minority student ter (Navarro 2000, 205-6). The ing employers who knowingly hire cans and took on the task of end- body) to protest inadequate fund- zeal and fervor of the Movement illegal workers. At the time, State ing social repression and poverty ing and the lack of culturally rel- eventually subsided, but it had Representative Steve Gallardo in the state. evant courses. That year, the Ford spawned a generation of political suggested that Democrats had In 1968, ASU students or- Foundation fully funded CPLC. activists like Ed Pastor and Gri- decided to use employer sanctions ganized the Mexican American Soon, the organization’s militant jalva, both of whom now represent as a “poison pill, threatening to Student Organization (MASO), as edge gave way to more pragmatic Arizona in the U.S. Congress. attach it to every immigration bill part of a growing nationwide trend objectives, as it evolved from an The issue of how to reform the put forward by Republicans. . . [so to press higher education offi- advocacy group to a community- nation’s immigration policy and that it would force] the business cials to meet the needs of Latino service organization. The federal enforce U.S. immigration law is a community to go to the Republi- communities. In 1969, students government began funding CPLC high priority for Arizonans, perhaps cans . . . and get them to kill the and community activists founded in 1974, which let it pursue eco- especially for the state’s burgeon- bill” (Arizona Republic 2009). The The State of Latino Arizona 2009
strategy backfired because Arizo- Hispanics to Arizona in the wake of ASU departments. She was a founder of tral Arizona, 1910-1965.” PhD disserta- 21 nans, including many in the Phoe- 19th-century U.S. expansion, the ASU’s prestigious Department of Transbor- tion, Department of History, University nix Latino community, favored chaos of the Mexican Revolution, der Chicana/Chicano and Latina/Latino of Texas at Austin. Studies. An annual award named in her Mellinger, Philip J. 1995. Race and Labor employer sanctions. The state and the post-World War II eco- honor is given by the Chicano/Chicana and legislature approved the measure, nomic boom—is now threatened in Western Copper: The Fight for Equal- Latino/Latina Faculty & Staff Associa- ity, 1896-1918. Tucson: University of and it took effect in 2008. by growing anti-immigrant senti- tion to a faculty or staff member for their Arizona Press. outstanding service to ASU students. Illegal immigration and efforts ment and the baseless fear that Muñoz, Laura K. 2006. “Desert Dreams: to pass a so-called comprehensive the Latino community is somehow Marín is the recipient of Arizona Humani- ties Council’s Distinguished Scholar Award, Mexican American Education in Ari- immigration reform bill in the U.S. “not American enough.” Yet, so- and she is a member of the council’s zona.” PhD dissertation, Department of Congress continue to be hot- ciologists say that it is the accul- board of directors. Her recent publications History, Arizona State University. button, politically volatile issues turation of Arizona Latinos—not include Latinos in Museums: A Heritage Navarro, Armando. 2000. La Raza Unida in Arizona. State lawmakers have the Latinization of Arizona—that Reclaimed. Party: A Chicano Challenge to the U.S. approved numerous proposals is, by far, the more likely historical Two-Party Dictatorship. Philadelphia, References and Additional Readings PA: Temple University Press. ostensibly intended to stem illegal legacy to come. n Arizona Republic. 2009. “Napolitano to NewsMax.com Wires. 2005. “Arizona immigration, such as prohibit- Face Immigration Questions.” Arizona Hispanics Protest Anti-Illegal Immi- Arturo Rosales is a professor of History ing state-funded adult-education Republic. January 15. gration Measures.” NewsMax.com in the School of Historical, Philosophi- classes and child-care assistance, Arizona Silver Belt. 1938. “Latin-American Wires. May 11. Available at http:// cal, and Religious Studies, Arizona State archive.newsmax.com/archives/ar- as well as requiring students to University. He received his Ph.D. from Clubs Elect Luis S. Cordova as Supreme prove U.S. citizenship in order to President.” Arizona Silver Belt (Miami, ticles/2005/5/11/112020.shtml (last Indiana University in 1978. Since writing accessed on July 3). pay lower in-state tuition rates at a dissertation on Mexican immigration to Arizona). August 5. the Chicago area, he has published over Benton-Cohen, Katherine. 2009. Bor- Officer, James E. 1987. Hispanic Arizona, public colleges and universities. 1536-1858. Tucson: University of Other proposals have included 40 articles and essays and six books on derline Americans: Racial Division and the Mexican immigrant experience and Labor War in the Arizona Borderlands. Arizona Press. efforts to bar local governments on Latino civil rights. His book Chicano! Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Phoenix Business Journal. 2008. “EEOC from using taxpayer money to A History of the Mexican American Civil Press. Reports Increase in Claims By Hispanic finance day-labor centers that Rights Movement accompanied a PBS García, Ignacio M. 2000. Viva Ken- Workers.” February 15. help immigrants and others find documentary of the same name. Professor nedy: Mexican Americans in Search of Rosales, F. Arturo. 1996. Chicano! A Rosales other works include ¡Pobre Raza!: Camelot. College Station: Texas A&M History of the Mexican American Civil work (NewsMax.com Wires 2005). Violence, Crime, Justice, and Mobilization Claims of discrimination and Press. Rights Movement. Houston, TX: Arte Among México Lindo Immigrants, 1890; Público Press. workplace harassment against Testimonio: A Documentary History of the García, Mario T. 1990. Mexican Ameri- Hispanics in Phoenix are on the Mexican American Struggle for Civil Rights cans: Leadership Ideology and Identity, ______. 1999. ¡Pobre Raza!: Violence, 1930-1960. New Haven, CN: Yale Justice and Mobilization among México rise due to the employer-sanctions in 2000; and A Dictionary of Latino Civil Rights History. University Press. Lindo Immigrants, 1890-1936. Austin: bill (Phoenix Business Journal Marín, Christine. n.d. LULAC and Veterans University of Texas Press. 2008). The federal government Christine Marín, Ph.D. in History and spe- Organize for Civil Rights in Tempe and ______. 2000. Testimonio: A Documen- also reports that hate crimes cialist in 20th-century Mexican American Phoenix, 1940-1947. Available at http:// tary History of the Mexican American against Hispanics have increased history, is the archivist and historian of www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/Sir- Struggle for Civil Rights. Houston, TX: nationwide. the Chicano/a Research Collection and veOras/68016185989478386754491/ Arte Público Press. the Arizona Collection in ASU’s Hayden p0000001.htm (last accessed on July Thus, for Latinos, the promise ______. 2006. Dictionary of Latino Civil Library Archives and Special Collections. 3, 2009). Rights History. Houston, TX: Arte Pú- of the “American Dream”—which She has taught courses on the history of Meeks, Eric V. 2001. “Border Citizens: blico Press. has drawn Mexicans and other Mexican Americans and Latinos in various Race, Labor, and Identity in South-Cen- demographics
“Between 2000 and 2007, Arizona’s Latino population grew by 45%. The percentage change of Latinos in Arizona—and in each county—is reported to have been larger than that of the total Arizona population growth comprised by non-Hispanic Whites and Blacks.” The State of Latino Arizona 2009
23 contemporary characteristics of a The Latino population has diversi- household had 3.62 members, fied even more in recent years. compared with 2.59 for the overall dynamic population The nativity of Latinos is also population. The majority of Latino by Eileen Diaz McConnell and Amanda Skeen heterogeneous. In 2000, approxi- households are headed by a mar- mately 60% of all Latinos in the ried couple (53.9%), with much The state of Arizona has experienced tremendous United States were native born. smaller proportions of households Latino immigrants are predomi- headed by males (8.2%), females growth and change in recent decades. Since 2000, nantly from Mexico; however, the (17.8%), or non-family households the U.S. Latino population has also experienced con- increase of “other” Latinos in comprised of unrelated people or recent years is partially due to one person living alone (20.0%). tinued growth and change. This population’s demo- increasing numbers of immigrants from the Dominican Republic, El Population Growth in Arizona graphic portrait is based on the most current data Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, The total population of Arizona collected by the U.S. Census Bureau’s American and elsewhere in Latin America. has grown dramatically since Latinos have also become more 1980, with significant increases Community Survey (see the appendix). geographically dispersed. Between across all racial and ethnic groups. 1990 and 2000, Latino popula- Arizona’s population grew by 88% National Context The population rose from 35.3 tions increased by 81% in the Mid- between 1980 and 2000, an ab- It is important to place the million in 2000 to an estimated west, 71.2% in the South, 51.8% solute size increase of 2,412,417 discussion of Arizona’s Latino de- 45.4 million in 2007—a growth in the West, and 39.9% in the people. The total population mographics in a national context. of 28.7%. During this period, Northeast. In that same period, of Maricopa County more than According to the U.S. Census Latinos accounted for half of the the Latino population more than doubled, as it experienced an Bureau, approximately 14.6 million total population growth of the doubled in states like Minnesota increase of 103.6% over the 20- Latinos lived in the United States United States. The Census Bureau and tripled in states like Georgia year period. Other counties in the in 1980. By 1990, this figure estimates that within 25 years, and North Carolina. Arizona also state, such as Mohave, Pinal, and had grown to 22.3 million and by Latinos will likely comprise 20% to experienced significant growth in Yavapai, had percentage increases 2000, it had reached more than 22% of the U.S. population. its Latino population. that exceeded the state growth 35 million. The U.S. Latino growth The Latino population is diverse Additional characteristics about rate as a whole. rate has exceeded the growth of in terms of heritage and national the total U.S. Latino population Between 2000 and 2007, Ari- the total U.S. population; between origin, nativity, and geographic should be considered in under- zona’s Latino population grew by 1990 and 2000, for example, location in the United States, standing Latino demographics 45% (figure 2-1). The percentage the U.S population increased by among other factors. For ex- in Arizona. For example, Latinos change of Latinos in Arizona—and 13.2% with Latinos accounting for ample, although the majority of in the United States are a young in each county—is reported to approximately 40% of the entire U.S. Latinos in 2000 reported population. In 2000, the median have been larger than that of the net population increase over the being of Mexican heritage, signifi- age of the U.S. Latino population total Arizona population growth decade. cant proportions report that they was 25.8 years, compared with comprised by non-Hispanic Whites The growth of the Latino popu- are Puerto Rican (9.6%), Cuban 35.3 for the overall U.S. popula- and Blacks. For example, Mari- lation continues to be significant. (3.5%), or other groups 28.4%). tion. In 2000, the average Latino copa County alone saw a 283.6% 24 Figure 2-1. Racial/Ethnic Population Change (2000-2007) ethnicity determines differences coupled with the fact that they (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data) in the age structure in Arizona comprise 30.5% of the county’s (figure 2-4). For example, more population in 2007, suggests that Total Latino White Black than one-third of Latinos in Ari- they will continue to account for a zona, 37.3%, are under 18 years significant proportion of children 120 of age compared with 19.6% of attending kindergarten through 107.1 non-Hispanic Whites and 33.3% 12th grade in the near future (see 100 of African Americans. Latinos are figure 2-5). less likely than African Americans 80 and non-Hispanic Whites to be Nativity 66.7 66.5 65 years of age or older. More Estimates by the Census Percent 65.2 than one-quarter of the Latino Bureau’s American Commu-
60 54.9 50.1 49.8 population in Maricopa County is nity Survey (ACS) indicate that 45.2 estimated to be between five and in 2007 the majority of Arizona’s 40 17 years of age, compared with Latinos—62.7%—were born in 27.7 26.3 26.3
23.5 14.9% of non-Hispanic Whites the United States. Approximately
20 14. 6 13.9
13.2 and 23.9% of African Americans. 72.4% of Latinos in Pima County
7.2 The age composition of Latinos, are U.S.-born, compared with an 0 Arizona Maricopa Pima Pinal
Figure 2-2. Racial or Ethnic Makeup of Arizona (2000-2007) increase in the number of Latinos, from El Salvador and Guatemala), (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data) or more than 760,000 individu- Puerto Rican, South American, 4% als. In 2007, approximately 88.6% and “other Hispanic or Latino,” 4.1% of Latinos in Arizona identified which includes individuals from 3.4% themselves as Mexican. Due to Spain and other categories that Arizona’s geographic location were not elsewhere classified. Per- 29.7% and the long, rich transnational sons between the ages of 18 and Hispanic connections between Mexico and 64 years of age are the largest Non-Hispanic White Arizona, an even larger propor- proportion of Arizona’s population Non-Hispanic Black tion of the state’s Latinos are of across all three groups (Latinos, Non-Hispanic Native American and Alaska Native Mexican descent than is true for non-Hispanic Whites, and Afri- Other Race the nation as a whole. (See figure can Americans). Indeed, 2007 2-3 for the estimated breakdown estimates indicate that between of Latinos by group in Arizona.) 58% and 62% of each group’s Other groups identified themselves population are between 18 to 64 as Central American (primarily years of age. However, race and 58.8% The State of Latino Arizona 2009
25 Figure 2-4. Age Distribution for Arizona Residents (2007) (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data)
Under 18 years 18 to 64 years 65 years and over 80 70 62.1 60.4 60 58.0
Percent 50
Figure 2-3. Latinos in Arizona, by Group (2007) 40 37.3 (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data) 33.1 30 19.6 .6% 20 18.3
1.2% 6.5
10 4.6 2.2% 6% 0 1.6% Mexican Latino Non-Hispanic White African American Puerto Rican Central American South American Dominican/Cuban Other/Hispanic Figure 2-5. Age Distribution for Maricopa County Residents (2007) (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data)
Latino Non-Hispanic White African American
80 70 63.3 59.7
88% 58.1 60
Percent 50 40 25.9
30 23.9 16.1
20 14.9 12.8 10.3 6.1 10 5.7 3.2 0 Under 5 5 to 17 18 to 64 65 and over 26 estimated 69.3% of Pinal County’s third and one-half of unauthorized ties—were not naturalized U.S. Latinos, and 58.9% of Latinos immigrants in the United States citizens. For example, in the state in Maricopa County (figure 2-6). are estimated to be visa “over- of Arizona, 78.6% of immigrants According to ACS’s 2005-2007 stayers,” persons who entered born in Latin America were not estimates, nearly a million foreign- the country legally through a port naturalized citizens; in Maricopa, born individuals resided in Arizona of entry using a visa or tempo- Pima, and Pinal counties, the during that three-year period. The rary Border Crossing Card. These figures were 81.4%, 72.5%, and majority of foreign-born are from individuals became unauthorized 76.3%, respectively. As noted Latin America (figure 2-7). Data in- when they remained in the country earlier, the majority of Latinos dicate that most immigrants in the after their documents expired. The in the state and all three coun- state are from Mexico, followed by remainder entered the country ties in 2007 were U.S. citizens at the Philippines, India, and China. clandestinely. Recent estimates birth. Taken together, 2007 ACS About two-thirds of Arizona’s suggest that about 78% of unau- estimates indicate that 72.3% of immigrants from Latin America thorized immigrants in the United all Latinos in Arizona were born in have arrived in 1990 or later, with States are from Mexico or other the United States or are natural- 33.9% having arrived between Latin American countries. ized U.S. citizens. The remainder, 1990 and 1999, and 33.2% ar- ACS data from 2007 provide or 27.7%, of Arizona’s Latinos are riving after 2000. The remainder estimates of the citizenship status not U.S. citizens. Between 68.3% arrived before 1980 or between of the foreign-born population and 80.7% of Latinos in Maricopa, 1980 and 1989 (figure 2-8). Asian by region of origin and period of Pima, and Pinal counties were immigrants in Arizona have fairly entry. This information differenti- born in the United States or are similar trends to Latin American ates between whether immigrants naturalized U.S. citizens. immigrants, although larger pro- are naturalized U.S. citizens or portions are estimated to have en- non-citizens. Non-citizens can tered the United States in earlier include persons who are Lawful Figure 2-6. Latinos, by Nativity (2007) periods and smaller proportions Permanent Residents, temporary (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data) entered more recently (figure 2-9). migrants with visas, refugees and other humanitarian migrants, Pinal 69.3% 30.7% Citizenship Status of as well as persons without legal Immigrants permission to live or work in the Pima 72.4% 27.6% Recent estimates suggest that United States. Therefore, ACS Native Born there are between 400,000 and data do not specifically identify Foreign 530,000 unauthorized immigrants whether non-citizen immigrants Maricopa 58.9% 41.1% in Arizona. Discussions about the have legal permission to reside immigrant population—nationally and work in the United States. Arizona 62.9% 37.1% and in Arizona—tend to focus on In 2007, most Latin American those who entered the country immigrants in Arizona—and in illegally. However, between one- Maricopa, Pima, and Pinal coun- The State of Latino Arizona 2009
Figure 2-7. Origin of Foreign-Born Population in Arizona, Figure 2-8. Latin American and Asian Foreign-Born by Region (2005-2007) Arizona Residents, by Period of Entry (2005-2007) (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data) (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data)
80 78.8 27 33.9 71.8 35 70.9 33.2
70 67.9
Percent total foreign born by by born foreign total Percent Latin American 30 Latin America 28.3 60 27.3 Asian
World Region World Asia 25 50 Europe 22.4 22 Other
40 Percent 20 17.9 15 30 15
20 10 14.3 13.8 12.8 11.2 9.3 9.3 8.2
10 7.6 6.6 6.1 6.0 5.4 5
0 Arizona Maricopa Pima Pinal 0 2000 1990 1980 Before or later to 1999 to 1989 1980
Figure 2-9. Latin American Foreign Born, by Period of Entry (2005-2007) (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data)
19.1 Before 1980 23.9 11.2 Pinal 17.0 Pima 1980 to 1989 20.7 Maricopa 16.4
40.6 1990 to 1999 25.8 36.4
23.4 2000 or later 29.6 36.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percent 28 Birth Rates births. The remainder resulted in ried couple are the most common Estimates suggest that abortions or fetal deaths. The total type. The proportions of Latinos approximately 98,302 women birth rate per 1,000 females aged living in each type of household in between the ages of 15 and 50 15 to 44 in Arizona in 2007 was Arizona are similar to the Arizona gave birth in Arizona in 2007. Of 78.9, with birth rates of 112.8 totals (figure 2-10). Approximately these, 39,872, or 40.6%, were for Latinas, 58.9 for non-Hispanic 50.6% of Latino households are Latinas. Another 47.3% were White women, and between 78.1 headed by married couples—8.4% non-Hispanic White women. The and 78.7 for women of other are headed by males, 18.6% are remaining 12.2% of women giving races. headed by females, and 22.5% are birth were of other racial groups, “other” or non-family households. particularly American Indian Household Size and Type and Alaska Native and African The most recent data on aver- Americans. Of the women in age household size for Arizona is that age bracket who gave birth from the 2000 Census. There are in 2007, nearly 61,000 resided differences by race and ethnic- Figure 2-10. Arizona Latino Households, by Type (2007) in Maricopa County and 44.4% ity for the state and by county. (Source: Prepared by the authors based on U.S. Census data) were Hispanic, 44.8% were non- For example, average household Hispanic Whites, and 10.7% were size in Arizona in 2000 was 2.35 Married couple family
of other races or ethnicities. The for households headed by non- 60 59.6 Male householder, racial and ethnic compositions of Hispanic Whites, 3.66 for Latino no wife present 51.8
50.5 Female householder, women giving birth in Pima and households, and 2.24 for African 50 Pinal counties are similar. In the American households. There are no husband present state and in each of the three also differences for each racial 42.5 Other households 40 counties, the proportion of women and ethnic group across Arizona’s giving birth who were Latina was counties. In the case of house- Percent larger than the total proportion of holds headed by Latinos, the 30 28.6 22.5 21.7 women of that age group who are average size in 2000 ranged from 21.4 18.6
Latina. For instance, in the state, 2.43 in Yavapai County to 3.89 20 17.5 17.7 16.8 31.5% of women between the in Maricopa County. The average 9.4
ages of 15 and 50 are Hispanic, household size for non-Hispanic 10 8.4 7.2 but they comprised 40.6% of the Whites ranged from 2.01 to 2.72, 5.9 women giving birth. Reasons for and African American-headed 0 this pattern include their relative households ranged from 2.43 to Arizona Maricopa Pima Pinal youth and a variety of other 3.18 across the counties. factors. Data from 2007 about house- The Arizona Department of hold type is available for the state Health Services reports that there of Arizona and Maricopa, Pima, were 113,756 pregnancies in and Pinal counties. In Arizona, Arizona in 2007, with 102,687 live households comprising a mar- Ernest Calderón, President, Arizona Board of Regents 30 Future Demographics gested that Latinos would likely Appendix consistently available (Maricopa, of Arizona represent 32.2% of Arizona in The American Community Sur- Pima, Pinal), and it does not focus As noted at the beginning of 2025. Given that Latinos rep- vey (ACS) is a national, continuous on identifying county-level differ- this demographic profile, the resent about 30% of Arizona in survey that provides annual mea- ences in the estimates.ACS data nation as a whole and Arizona 2007, they are likely to comprise sures of the social and economic are available at http://factfinder. have experienced strong popula- more than one-third of the state’s characteristics of the U.S. popula- census.gov/ and other technical tion increases in recent decades. population well before 2025. Lati- tion. Each year, the ACS samples ACS information are available at Population projections released by nos may represent an increasingly approximately three million http://www.census.gov/acs/www/ the Arizona Department of Eco- important component of Arizona’s addresses, with nearly two million Downloads/ACSGeneralHandbook. nomic Security in 2006 indicate population in the coming decades, interviews (in contrast to the U.S. pdf. that Arizona’s population might be as suggested by such factors as Census of the Population taken Decennial census data used in as large as 10.9 million in 2034— the group’s strong growth rate be- every ten years that is available at the profile come from Summary this suggests a 72% increase in tween 1980 and 2007, its relative every geographic level, from the Tape File 1 (STF1) of the 1990 population over the 2007 esti- youth, higher birth rates, and im- nation to street blocks). Census of the Population and Sum- mate of approximately 6.3 million. migration from Latin America dur- As the ACS is not based on a mary Files 1 and 3 (SF1 and SF3) Additional projections suggest ing the last thirty years. However, complete enumeration of the U.S. of the 2000 Census. These data that there may be as many as in light of recent changes in the population and has a fairly small are available at http://factfinder. 12.8 million Arizonans by the year national and state-level economy, sample, it aggregates data from census.gov/. Census data for 1980 2050, with more than 7.6 million housing market, and other factors, multiple years to produce reliable were accessed using the Census- residing in Maricopa County alone. it is difficult to accurately predict numbers for small counties and Scope project developed by the So- Latino population increases in how the state’s population and smaller geographic units. One-year cial Science Data Analysis Network the state (and the nation) have racial and ethnic composition, estimates, in this case from 2007, (SSDAN) at http://www.censuss- been larger than past projections including the proportion of Latinos, are available for areas with popu- cope.org/. National-level projections would indicate. For example, a will change in future decades. lations larger than 65,000, which through 2050 are based on the 1996 Census Bureau report sug- includes the state and selected U.S. Census Bureau 2004), and counties. Three-year estimates state-level projections are based on (2005-2007) are available for the Arizona Department of Eco- areas with populations of 20,000 nomic Security 2006). n ...in light of recent changes in the national or more. For some characteristics, and state-level economy, housing market, only three-year ACS estimates are Eileen Diaz McConnell (Ph.D., Sociology) is available, even for the largest Ari- Assistant Professor in ASU’s Department and other factors, it is difficult to accu- of Transborder Chicana/o and Latina/o zona counties. In order to provide “ Studies. Her research interests include rately predict how the state’s population a consistent demographic profile, Latina/o social demography, the experi- and racial and ethnic composition, includ- this report uses 2005-2007 or ences of Latinos in non-traditional areas of 2007 estimates. This demo- the United States, and racial, ethnic, and ing the proportion of Latinos, will change in graphic profile focuses on provid- nativity differences in housing and wealth accumulation. future decades.” ing a description of Arizona and its counties where data are most The State of Latino Arizona 2009
Amanda Skeen is a Hispanic National Pew Hispanic Center. 2006. “Modes of of the United States, by Race and His- 31 Merit Scholar from San Antonio, Texas. Entry for the Unauthorized Migrant panic Origin: 2000 to 2050. Available Currently, she is an honors senior at Ari- Population.” Washington, DC. May 22. at http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/ zona State University, double majoring in Available at http://pewhispanic.org/files/ usinterimproj/ (last accessed on June Transborder Chicana/o and Latina/o Stud- factsheets/19.pdf (last accessed on 29, 2009). ies and Political Science. Her interests June 29, 2009). ______. 2008. “A Compass for Under- include policy formation in the Southwest ______. 2008. “Arizona: Population and standing and Using American Commu- and immigration reform. Labor Force Characteristics, 2000- nity Survey Data: What General Data 2006.” Washington, DC. January 23. Users Need to Know.” U.S. Government Further Readings and References Available at http://pewhispanic.org/files/ Printing Office,Washington, DC, October Arizona Department of Economic Security. factsheets/37.pdf (last accessed on 2008. Available at http://www.census. 2006. “Arizona Population Projections June 29, 2009). gov/acs/www/Downloads/ACSGeneral- 2006—2055.” Research Adminis- SSDAN (Social Science Data Analysis Net- Handbook.pdf (last accessed on June tration, Population Statistics Unit. work). 2001. CensusScope. University 29, 2009). Phoenix, AZ. Available at http://www. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. Available U.S. Department of Homeland Security. azcommerce.com/econinfo/demograph- at http://www.censusscope.org/ (last 2008. “Estimates of the Unauthorized ics/Population%20Projections.html (last accessed on June 29, 2009). Immigrant Population Residing in the accessed on June 29, 2009). U.S. Census Bureau. 1980. Census of United States: January 2007.” Michael Arizona Department of Health Services. Population and Housing, 1980. Public Hoefer, Nancy Rytina, and Bryan C. 2008. “Arizona Health Status and Vital Use Microdata Sample. Washington, Baker. Office of Immigration Statistics. Statistics 2007.” Bureau of Health DC. Washington, DC. September. Available Statistics. Table 1A-1, Table 1B-2. at http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/ Available at http://www.azdhs.gov/plan/ ______. 1991. 1990 Census of Popula- statistics/publications/ois_ill_pe_2007. report/ahs/ahs2007/toc07.htm (last tion and Housing, Summary Tape File 1. pdf (last accessed on June 29, 2009). accessed on June 29, 2009). Available at http://factfinder.census.gov/ (last accessed on June 29, 2009). Guzmán, Betsy. 2001. The Hispanic Population: Census 2000 Brief. ______. 1996. “State Population Rank- United States Census Bureau. May. ings Summary, Arizona’s Population Available at http://www.census.gov/ Projections: 1995 to 2025.” Population prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-3.pdf (last ac- Paper Listing #47, “Population Projec- cessed on June 29, 2009). tions for States, by Age, Sex, Race and Hispanic Origin: 1995 to 2025.” Guzmán, Betsy, and Eileen Diaz McCon- U.S. Bureau of the Census, Popula- nell. 2002. “The Hispanic Population: tion Division, Washington DC. Available 1990-2000 Growth and Change.” at http://www.census.gov/population/ Population Research and Policy Review. projections/state/9525rank/azprsrel.txt 21(1-2): 109-28. (last accessed on June 29, 2009). Passel, Jeffrey S. 2006. “The Size and ______. 2001. Census 2000 Summary Characteristics of the Unauthorized Mi- File 1, Census 2000 Summary File 3, grant Population in the U.S.: Estimates Washington, DC. Available at http:// Based on the March 2005 Current factfinder.census.gov/ (last accessed on Population Survey.” Pew Hispanic June 29, 2009). Center, Washington, DC. March 7. Available at http://pewhispanic.org/files/ ______. 2004. “U.S. Interim Projec- reports/61.pdf (last accessed on June tions by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic 29, 2009). Origin.” Table 1a. Projected Population politics and civil rights
“Even as the topic of immigration continues to grab headlines, Arizona Latinos are also witnessing the emergence of a new generation of young, educated, and economically successful Latino activists, politicians, and entrepreneurs.” The State of Latino Arizona 2009
33 the impact of politics, legislation 12.5% share of immigrants in the cussion in Arizona today about U.S. population overall in 2006 grassroots activism and traditional and civil rights on arizona latinos (Pew Hispanic Center 2008a, 1). partisan political engagement is by Lisa Magaña, Miguel Montiél and James Garcia All of these demographic charac- an ongoing and often contentious teristics help account for lower lev- debate among Latinos regard- els of voter participation compared ing civil rights. Many define the More than 40 years since the passage of the . to other groups. predominant civil rights initiative Voting Rights Act, the political clout of Latinos in In the 2008 presidential elec- of our time as the need to orga- tion, the Latino vote meant the nize to counter the state’s growing Arizona and nationwide has grown significantly. Yet, difference between winning and anti-immigrant sentiment, which the community’s ability to shape the outcome of losing in some states, but the increased after a 1990s federal community’s clout at the ballot crackdown on illegal immigration elections, legislation, and public opinion on the major box in Arizona was less signifi- in California and Texas fueled a issues of our time lags behind its proportional demo- cant. Nationwide, Arizona ranked sharp increase in the number of 29th in terms of its total share undocumented immigrants enter- graphic representation. of Latinos eligible to vote, ap- ing through Arizona. An increase in proximately 673,000 individuals hate crimes against Latinos, legis- (Pew Hispanic Center 2008b, lative efforts by ultra-conservative As the Latino community strug- Because Latinos are the fastest 1). Election-day exit polls nation- politicians and other public offi- gles with the challenge of boost- growing ethnic group in Arizona wide found that President Barack cials, and stepped-up and some- ing turnout at the polls, it faces a and nationwide, the major po- Obama won 67% of the Latino times abusive law enforcement closely related—and what some litical parties and candidates are vote, while John McCain received activities targeting immigrants— view as a more acute—problem of trying to appeal to these voters 32%. This represented a 5% including federal legislation that defining and advancing its evolving like never before. Yet, certain decrease compared to 2004 when grants local police the authority civil rights agenda. characteristics hamper voter turn- approximately 37% of Hispanic to enforce immigration law—have “I think the leadership [in out: Latinos have higher school voters supported George W. Bush. added up to a widespread and in- the Latino community] is frac- dropout and poverty rates than In Arizona, McCain lost the Latino creasingly institutionalized assault tured,” notes Edmundo Hidalgo, other major U.S. ethnic groups vote to Obama, 56% to 41%. The on the rights of Latinos. This fact, President/Ceo of Chicanos por (Magaña 2005), and they tend exit polls in Arizona revealed that along with the group’s improved la Causa. “I don’t think we’ve to be younger than the general Latinos’ policy concerns were economic status and better edu- clearly defined the issues regard- population. Although Latinos are similar to those of non-Latinos. cation, have been the driving force ing civil rights, our empowerment, about 30% of Arizona’s popula- For all groups, economic concerns behind a proliferation of Latino especially when it comes to the tion (nearly double the nationwide were the top priority, but the issue advocacy groups in Arizona. segment of the Latino population figure), an estimated 40% are of immigration reform had rela- One anti-immigrant group, that has the ability to vote. We foreign born, although many of tively little influence on the Latino Protect Arizona Now (PAN), placed can protest and rally, but ulti- them are now U.S. citizens. These voters’ candidate of choice for Proposition 200, on the 2004 mately, we have to get people out immigrants are 15% of the state’s president (Gimpel 2009). general election ballot. Its financial to vote.” population, slightly higher than the Underlying much of the dis- backers—a coalition consisting of The Honorable Barbara Rodriguez Mundell The State of Latino Arizona 2009
35 the Federation for American Immi- immigrants with a path to citizen- march was dwarfed on April 10, emergence of a new generation of gration Reform (FAIR), Americans ship; and Latino advocacy groups, 2006, when between 125,000 young, educated, and economi- for Better Immigration, and POP. including Alianza Indígena Sin and 200,000 people marched cally successful Latino activists, STOP—hoped to use the Arizona Fronteras, the Arizona Hispanic two-and-one-half miles from the politicians, and entrepreneurs. The vote to help spread their agenda: Community Forum, the Arizona fairgrounds to the state capitol. Arizona Latino Research Enter- a militarized border, a significant Hispanic Chamber of Commerce, The rally was one of many nation- prise (ALRE), a cosponsor of this decrease or end to legal immigra- the American Civil Liberties Union wide, involving millions of people, report, is a nonpartisan organiza- tion, deportation of undocument- (ACLU) of Arizona, the Arizona in a national day of action to sup- tion whose members are predomi- ed immigrants, and opposition to AFL-CIO, the Arizona Democratic port immigration reform. nantly young professionals intent so-called immigrant amnesty and Party, and the Arizona Education Some political observers believe on shaping public policy based on guest-worker proposals (Avalos, Association (Diaz 2004). In the that the marches failed to sub- a philosophy that economic and Magaña, and Pantoja, in press). end, 56% of Arizona voters cast a stantially increase Latinos’ political political clout go hand in hand. In the Arizona legislature, the con- ballot in favor of Proposition 200, influence, especially with regard to Despite the efforts of these servative Republican leadership including about 30% of Arizona’s immigration policy. Congress failed many groups, an assault on the advanced this agenda. Latino population. Support for to pass immigration reform, but its rights of Latinos continues. “It’s Although ultimately unsuccess- the initiative was highest among attempt to make undocumented more subtle than it used to be,” ful, a broad coalition of organiza- Republican voters. immigration a felony was thwarted. said Daniel Ortega, a leading civil tions, representing Latinos and Historically, undocumented im- Since then, immigrant advocacy rights attorney and community non-Latinos, vocally opposed migration into the United States groups have shifted their strat- activist in Phoenix. “We find our- Proposition 200. It included a has been a civil offense, but in egy away from mass protests to selves, as Latinos, whether docu- bipartisan array of politicians and early 2006, Congress considered efforts to increase the number of mented or not, in a social situa- organizations representing busi- making it a felony. In response, registered Latino voters. They are tion in which our civil rights are ness, labor, the health industry, immigrant advocacy groups, many running voter registration drives not being respected.” He believes and church leaders and commu- that had formed in response to throughout Maricopa County, that public officials, like Maricopa nity activists. Arizonans for Real Proposition 200, orchestrated the particularly in densely populated County Sheriff Joe Arpaio, State Immigration Reform (ARIR) united largest street protests in Arizona’s Latino districts. “We are building Senator Russell Pearce, and oth- around a campaign called “No on history. On March 24, 2006, more electoral power for our community ers, are using the political system 200.” It was chaired by former than 20,000 protesters from so they can have a say, not only in ways that ultimately, even if Arizona Attorney General Grant Phoenix, mostly Latinos, marched on the streets but at the ballot less overtly, discriminate against Woods, a Republican, and sup- and chanted “Somos America” box,” said Ruben Villarreal, an or- Latinos. Critics complain that a ported financially by the Service or “We Are America.” The protes- ganizer for the Arizona Coalition for manipulation of public policy has Employees International Union tors called for an end to so-called Migrant Rights, a Phoenix-based provoked growing public discon- (SEIU). Other Proposition 200 op- anti-immigrant legislation and for organization working with the We tent with immigrants. For instance, ponents included then-Governor federal immigration-reform efforts Are America Alliance, a national Pearce routinely claims that immi- Janet Napolitano; U.S. Senator that would include the legalization group. grants are responsible for a “ma- John McCain, a vocal supporter of of the millions of undocumented Even as the topic of immigration jority” of the crimes being commit- immigration reform and measures immigrants living in the country. continues to grab headlines, Arizo- ted in Arizona. Yet, overall crime that would provide undocumented That impressive, history-making na Latinos are also witnessing the rates have actually dropped in the 36 state in recent years, and stud- Latinos believes there is a legisla- community commentary ies have shown that immigrants tive assault on immigrants. “We (including the undocumented) do came to that crossroads when Because the backgrounds of Latinos are multifaceted and not commit crimes at a greater the state passed Proposition 300, complex in Arizona, not surprisingly, so is the Latino view of rate than do nonimmigrants. The a voter-approved bill that barred civic participation. Latino civic influence in Arizona refers to spreading of misinformation by undocumented immigrants from both political activities (such as voter turnout, numbers of Pearce and others has provoked accessing many state taxpayer- “ elected representatives, grass roots strategies and commu- growing hostility toward Latino im- funded services, including tuition nity activism) as well as the sometimes understated influence migrants and Latinos in general. scholarships for college and that comes from business success and leadership. “The hostility has spilled over to university students. Prior to that, I citizens in the form of racial profil- think other issues were at the top While it is essential to highlight the emergence and establish- ing, which is occurring at all levels, of the [civil rights] agenda.” ment of political activists and leaders, it is just as important whether it involves getting services Raul Yzaguirre, executive direc- to understand the quiet yet tremendous influence of Latinos or public benefits, finding a job or tor and presidential professor of in law, banking, healthcare, education, the arts, the military, in areas of law enforcement. The practice, ASU Center for Commu- and entrepreneurship. Latinos, who increasingly serve as color of your skin and how you nity Development and Civil Rights, decision-makers in a variety of industries, are making tre- look now make [Latinos] suspect. argues that a lack of access to mendous contributions to the social and economic conditions People are afraid of their govern- a quality education presents the of all Arizonans. Latinos today are positioned to provide a ment. Employers are afraid to of- greatest challenge to Latino civil much-needed voice on issues in their professions that may fer jobs. We are not only suspect, rights today. “The reality is that not otherwise be considered. They also shape policy debates but we have to be afraid of being even though virtually every child on topics that would be ignored if not for their presence. suspected [of violating the law], in the United States has equal Furthermore, the positive impact of their prominence in the even if we’ve done nothing wrong,” access to a public education, community is a valuable reminder of how much has been ac- Ortega noted. This has perpetu- there is no guarantee that they complished despite how much more needs to be done. ated a culture of fear among La- will receive a qualitatively equal tinos, even though three-quarters education. ‘Separate but equal’ Given the real diversity of Latinos in Arizona, it is no doubt of Arizona’s Latino population are is history, but our public schools that civic participation is complex and constantly changing. U.S. citizens. systems today might best be de- Some Latinos continue to participate in marches and voter CPLC President Edmundo scribed as ‘no longer separate but turnout efforts, while others have sought to develop their civic Hidalgo says that it is difficult to often unequal.’” influence through pursuit of business and leadership that are separate the issue of immigrant Yzaguirre argues that these more available today than in the past. Regardless, Latinos rights and civil rights, given that inequalities arise because of how continue to pursue the advancement of civil rights and civic so many U.S.-born Latino families we finance our public schools. opportunity in varied, sometimes subtle, yet legitimate ways.” have relatives or recent ancestors Wealthier school districts col- who are immigrants. The issue of lect more taxes and spend more Paul Berumen, senior advisor to the chief of Staff at the Transportation immigration also remains at the money per student on average Security Administration (TSA), U.S. Department of Homeland Security. forefront in Arizona because an than do poor school districts. overwhelming majority of Arizona That means the quality of educa- Senator Alfredo Guitierrez 38 tion that a child receives greatly resources—and doing all of that depends on the state, city, and in a more equitable manner—is a even the neighborhood where vital prerequisite to doing every- she or he resides. Unequal public thing else it takes to prepare our school funding is especially hard children for the challenges of the on Latinos, African Americans, future. and other children of color. Latinos That said, Yzaguirre believes and Blacks nationwide still tend to that “a minority of Americans has live in the lowest-income school silenced a majority of Americans districts, which spend about in the debate over immigration. $1,300 per pupil less than dis- The hate, the venom, and the community commentary tricts serving predominantly white xenophobia characteristic of this students. The ramifications can be debate have poisoned relations The hostility has spilled over to citizens in the far reaching and, in some cases, between Hispanics and the body form of racial profiling, which is occurring at all catastrophic. Per-pupil spending at politic for generations to come. levels, whether it involves getting services or public schools helps determine if [Nevertheless,] the future of our “ a child is able to pursue a higher civil rights struggle depends on us. public benefits, finding a job or in areas of law education. Schools that do not Power, rights, inclusion, and social enforcement. The color of your skin and how you offer advanced academic courses, and economic equality will not be for instance, are ill equipped to forthcoming without action and look now make [Latinos] suspect. People are prepare students for admission to perseverance.” n afraid of their government. Employers are afraid the best colleges. to offer jobs. We are not only suspect, but we Efforts to address this problem Lisa Magaña is an associate profes- have been pursued at the state sor in ASU’s Department of Transborder have to be afraid of being suspected [of violating Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies. She level, typically through litigation has published in the area of immigration the law], even if we’ve done nothing wrong.” based on state constitutions that and Latino public policy in the Harvard require “equal educational op- Hispanic Policy Journal, the Journal of Daniel Ortega, a leading civil rights attorney and commu- portunities.” Yet, progress in the Policy Studies, and the Journal of Social nity activist in Phoenix courts has been slow and limited. Psychology. She is the author of Straddling the Border and The Politics of Diversity. “What’s needed now is legislative action and leadership from state Miguel Montiel is Motorola Presidential governors and legislatures, as Professor Emeritus in ASU’s Department of well as Congress and our presi- Transborder Chicana/o and Latina/o Stud- ies. Montiel chaired the City of Phoenix dent.” More money alone cannot Human Services Commission, is on the guarantee educational excellence, Board of the Arizona Center for Public but spending on teacher salaries, Policy, and is a member of the Arizona school construction, technol- Judicial Council. Montiel’s books include ogy, and other basic educational Debatable Diversity: Critical Dialogues on Changes in American Universities (with The State of Latino Arizona 2009
39 Raymond Padilla, 1998) and Resolana: and Its Effect on the INS. Austin: Uni- Wingett, Yvonne, and Susan Carroll. 2006. Emerging Dialogues on Community and versity of Texas Press. “20,000 in Phoenix Rally for Migrants: City’s Biggest Demonstration Ever Part of Globalization (with Tomás Atencio and Tony ______. 2005. Mexican Americans and National Wave; Marchers Call for Legal- Mares, 2009). the Politics of Diversity, ¡Querer es izing Undocumented Immigrants.” Arizona poder! Tucson: The University of Arizona Republic, March 25. Available at http:// James E. Garcia is a Phoenix-based Press. journalist, playwright, university instructor, www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/news/ Magaña, Lisa, and Armando Mejia. 2004. and media consultant. He is the founder articles/0325twomarches.html (last ac- “Latino Protest Politics.” In Latino/a and producing artistic director of Phoenix’s cessed on August 5, 2009). American Political Participation, ed. New Carpa Theater Company; a board Sharon Ann Navarro and Armando member of the Arizona Latino Research Xavier Mejia. Santa Barbara, California: Enterprise; and the president of the Phoe- ABC-CLIO. nix chapter of the National Association of Latino Independent Producers. Garcia has Montiel, Miguel, and Felipe de Ortego y written and produced more than a dozen Gasca. 1997. “Chicanos, Community, plays. His upcoming work includes, among and Change.” In Commuity Organizing others, The Tears of Lives (Playhouse on in a Diverse Society, ed. Felix G. Rivera the Park). The Crossing won the national and John L. Erlich, 3d. ed. Boston: Allyn short play competition at the Kennedy and Bacon. Center American College Theater Festival Montiel, Miguel, Tomás Atencio, and E. in 2003. A. Mares. 2009. Resolana: Emerging Chicano Dialogues on Community and References and Additional Readings Globalization. Tucson: University of Note: All direct quotations are from inter- Arizona Press. views by James E. Garcia. Pew Hispanic Center. 2007. 2007 National Survey of Latinos: As Illegal Immigration Avalos, Manuel, Lisa Magaña, and Adrian Issue Heats Up, Hispanics Feel A Chill. Pantoja. In press. “The Latino Vote in Washington, D.C.: Pew Hispanic Center, Arizona.” In Latinos in the Presidential December. Available at http://pewhis- Election, ed. Louis De Sipio and David panic.org/files/reports/84.pdf (last Leal. Notre Dame, IN: Norte Dame accessed on August 5, 2009). Press. ______. 2008a. Arizona’s Population Diaz, E. 2004. “66% in State Favor Anti- Growth Parallels America’s Demog- Immigrant Issue.” The Arizona Republic, raphy of the State’s Population and September 10, B1. Labor Force, 2000-2006. Fact Sheet. Gimpel, James G. 2009. Latino Voting in Washington, D.C.: Pew Hispanic Center, the 2008 Election: Part of a Broader January 24. Available at http://pewre- Electoral Movement. Backgrounder search.org/pubs/702/arizona-population Report for the Center for Immigration (last accessed on August 5, 2009). Studies, Washington, D.C. Available ______. 2008b. Hispanics in the 2008 at http://www.cis.org/articles/2009/ Election: Arizona. Fact Sheet. Washing- back109.pdf (last accessed on August ton, D.C.: Pew Hispanic Center, Febru- 5, 2009). ary 1. Available at http://pewhispanic. Magaña, Lisa. 2003. Straddling the org/files/factsheets/vote2008/Arizona. Border: The Immigration Policy Process pdf (last accessed on August 9, 2009). education
“Policy makers, educators, and Arizonans, in general, must focus on increasing the academic success of Hispanics at every educational and income level. This long-term and complicated process needs to be multifaceted, and it must take into account issues related to race, class, language, and culture.” The State of Latino Arizona 2009
rigorous and relevant education. they have the most options and 41 each of us has a role The achievement gap continues opportunities to choose from at by Paul Luna to limit the opportunities available the end of their secondary educa- to Latino youth. Fortunately, pro- tion career. gressive efforts like ASU’s Ameri- Each of us has a role in building Many young Latinos in Arizona and across the na- can Dream Academy, Teach for Latino youths’ belief that postsec- tion encounter barriers, and a quality education is America, and the Center for the ondary education is a viable op- Future’s Beat the Odds Institute tion and to guide them toward the the best way to help them overcome these obsta- are breaking down the barriers variety of postsecondary pathways cles. Education lays the foundation for long-term and increasing the success of that exist in our state. In addition, Latino students. we must remove the financial bar- success and opens the door to greater personal Starting in their earliest years, riers that often deter families from and professional opportunity. we must nurture the social, encouraging students to pursue emotional, and intellectual growth postsecondary education. of our children—laying the foun- One of the greatest gifts we can Improving educational out- A point of pride for all Latinos dation for long-term academic give our Latino youth is to create comes for Latino children is the is that our children are grow- achievement. That means making a culture within our homes and shared responsibility of students, ing up in an increasingly diverse high-quality early childhood edu- across the state that values life- parents, and the larger commu- Arizona. However, evidence that cation both affordable and acces- long learning and fosters educa- nity. Increasing academic achieve- non-Hispanic White and Asian sible for all children, especially for tional attainment from the earliest ment, improving postsecondary peers consistently outperform our the 75% of Latino children under years on. Parents play a critical access, and fostering parent and children academically should also the age of six who live in poverty role in encouraging their children community engagement are key create great concern for all of us who too often start kindergarten to excel academically. among the many steps to advance who care about their future and less prepared to succeed than The lagging performance of the educational attainment of our the future of our state. their peers. Latino youth seen in standardized children. All Arizona youth are entering As they progress along the test scores should be a rallying Latinos are the largest ethnic a much more competitive global education continuum, we must cry for our community to fight for minority in Arizona and the second environment. Ensuring that stu- challenge students to take tougher improvements across the educa- largest segment of our state’s dents graduate with the skills and courses (including advanced tional system. We must encourage population. Nearly as many Latino knowledge they need to pursue a science and math), perform at participation and achievement, babies (43.1%) were born in postsecondary education and suc- higher levels, and graduate from create greater access, and ensure Arizona in 2003 as non-Hispanic ceed in future careers is funda- high school. This will set the stage that our children have the skills White babies (44%). Hispanic mental to their ability to compete for postsecondary and workforce and knowledge to compete and children accounted for nearly 87% effectively with people around the preparedness and prosperity. succeed not only in school but of the total growth in the K-12 world. Today’s employers are seek- Postsecondary education is an throughout their lives. n population over the last ten years. ing individuals who have the ability option for all students. Early in By sheer numbers, Latinos are an to think critically, solve complex their academic careers, we must Paul J. Luna is president and CEO of Helios Education Foundation, whose mission is incredible force moving along the problems, communicate effec- talk to our children about their to create opportunities for individuals in pre-kindergarten through postsec- tively, and work collaboratively—all aspirations, helping them plot their Arizona and Florida to succeed in postsec- ondary education continuum. skills developed by completing a academic coursework to ensure ondary education. 42 the critical condition of latino level. Deficits in early reading skills panic and White students by class can result in lower reading scores to understand how poverty and education in arizona at every subsequent level of edu- race or ethnicity affect student by Eugene E. García, Mehmet Dali Öztürk and J. Luke Wood cation (Miller and García 2008). performance. The study deter- National and state assess- mined a student’s class based on ments reflect the effects of whether a student qualified for the Arizona’s school-aged Latinos are an ever-greater income disparities at all grade federal reduced-lunch program. presence in the state’s K-12 schools. Between 1998 levels. The National Assessment NAEP reading scores for 4th-grade for Educational Progress (NAEP) students revealed that 58% of His- and 2008, Hispanic enrollment ballooned from measures a student’s academic panics were Below Basic, double performance on a four-point scale: the rate for White students (28%), 268,098 to 416,705, accounting for 86% of the Below Basic, Basic, Proficient, and and nearly three times higher than total student population growth. Other ethnic minori- Advanced. Using data on Arizona Asian students (20%). students, so-called Underrepre- Among the low-income stu- ties—African Americans and Asian Americans, for sented Minorities (URM) perform dents, a statistically significant example—also experienced net gains in enrollment, at lower rates than White and difference emerged (p< .001), Asian Americans at every grade indicating that Hispanics scored, but the number of White students dropped 4% to level in reading, mathematics, and on average, 21 scale points be- 459,367 in 2008 (figure 4-1). science. The study compared His- low White students. Statistically
Close to half of all children in indicates that Latino children—es- Figure 4-1. Arizona Enrollment Trends: Grade Level K-12, Arizona under the age of 18 live pecially English-language learners by Race/Ethnicity and Net Gain/Loss (1998-2008) in low-income families, with the from immigrant families—need (Source: ADE 1999, 2008c.) figure for Latino children, 69%, to improve their reading skills in Native American and for American Indian children, order to keep pace with White and White 72%; about 75% of Latino children Asian students. Data from the Asian under the age of 6 are low in- Early Childhood Longitudinal Study -2.4 Black come, compared to 30% of White found that only 20% of Latino chil- children (NCCP 2008). A recent dren understood beginning word -4.2 Hispanic study found that poverty precludes sounds as compared to 34% of many Latino families from enrolling Whites and 42% of Asian Ameri- 8.7 their children in preschool (Neva- cans (ECLS-K) . The discrepancies 11.5 rez and Rico 2007). Parents cite likely are even higher, since ap- the cost of tuition and the lack proximately 30% of Latino children 86.3 of transportation as major deter- were excluded from the assess- rents. Preschool academic devel- ment because they did not reach opment is important. Research the minimum recordable reading -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent The State of Latino Arizona 2009
43 significant differences between Figure 4-2. Arizona NAEP 4th-Grade Reading, Math, Figure 4-3. Arizona NAEP 8th-Grade Reading, Math, the not-low-income students also and Science Proficiency Levels, by Race/Ethnicity and Science Proficiency Levels, by Race/Ethnicity (Source: For reading and math, U.S. Department of Education 2007a, 2007b. For (Source: U.S. Department of Education 2007a, 2007b. For science data, U.S. were found (p< .001). Hispanic science, U.S. Department of Education 2005.) Department of Education 2005. Note: Data were not reported for Asian American students scored, on average, 15 students.) Reading Reading scale points lower than White 120 Advanced 120 students. Advanced In 2007, 39% of Hispanics 100 Proficient 100 Proficient Percent scored Below Basic in mathemat- 80 Basic Percent 80 ics, compared to only 11% of Basic 60 Below Basic White and 9% of Asian students. Below Basic 60 Fewer than 1% of Hispanics at- 40 40 tained Advanced math achieve- 20 20 ment. The science test had similar 0 0 outcomes: 69% of Hispanics White Asian Black Hispanic Native White Asian Black Hispanic Native American scored Below Basic, whereas American fewer than 1% scored in the Math Math Advanced category (figure 4-2). 120 120 Trends seen in 4th-grade NAEP 100 100 scores persisted into the 8th Percent Percent 80 80 grade (figure 4-3). 60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0 White Asian Black Hispanic Native White Asian Black Hispanic Native American American
Science Science 120 100
100 80 Percent
Percent 80 60 60 40 40
20 20
0 0 White Asian Black Hispanic Native White Asian Black Hispanic Native American American Daniel Fontes Kent Paredes Scribner 46
Parental Education AIMS Scores The analysis also explored the Arizona’s Instrument to Measure relationship between parents’ Standards (AIMS) is a state-level education levels and a student’s standardized test that examines Figure 4-4. Arizona AIMS 4th-Grade Reading academic success. Educational reading, math, and science perfor- and Math Proficiency, by Race/Ethnicity status was determined by the mance. AIMS data are also evalu- (Source: ADE 2007.) mother’s or father’s highest level ated on a four-point scale: Falls Reading of completed education (Did Not Far Below, Approaches, Meets, 150 Exceeds Finish High School, High School and Exceeds. Findings from 2007 120 Meets Graduate, Some Education After AIMS scores corroborate the racial Percent High School, College Graduate, or ethnic disparities the NAEP data 90 Approaches and Unknown). For Hispanic stu- identified. The AIMS scores for 8th Falls far below 60 dents, there were few significant graders mimic the results for 4th differences in those categories. graders (figures 4-4, 4-5). 30
However, analysis revealed that Poor performance on 4th- and 0 both 4th- and 8th-grade students 8th-grade state assessment tests White Asian Black Hispanic Native American whose parents had completed portends similar performance in some education beyond high high school. Analyzing 12th grad- school scored higher in math and ers by race or ethnicity, we find Math reading, on average, than those that the percentage of all students 120 whose parents had not finished who score at Falls Far Below is 100 high school or whose educa- high, but minority students are
Percent 80 tion level was unknown. White much more likely than Whites 60 students outperformed Hispanic and Asians to score at this level students independent of parental (figures 4-6 and 4-7). 40 education. For children whose 20 mothers had not completed high 0 White Asian Black Hispanic Native school, the research found that American 8th-grade White students scored, on average, 14 points higher in reading than the Hispanic students in this group (p< .001). Similar differences were found for the other levels of parental education. The State of Latino Arizona 2009
47
Figure 4-5. Arizona AIMS 8th-Grade Reading Figure 4-6. Arizona AIMS 12th-Grade Math and Math Proficiency, by Race/Ethnicity and Reading Proficiency, By Race/Ethnicity (Source: ADE 2007.) (Source: ADE 2007.)
Reading
100 Exceeds 120 Exceeds 80 Meets 100 Percent Percent 80 Meets 60 Approaches Approaches Falls far below 60 40 40 Falls far below 20 20 0 0 White Asian Black Hispanic Native White Asian Black Hispanic Native American American
Figure 4-7. Arizona AIMS 12th-Grade Writing Proficiency by Race/Ethnicity, 2007 (Source: ADE 2007.) Math Exceeds 120 120 Meets 100 100 Approaches 80 Percent Percent 80 Falls far below 60 60 40 40 20 20 0 0 White Asian Black Hispanic Native White Asian Black Hispanic Native American American Figure 4-8. Arizona High School Dropout Rates (2001-2008) (Source: ADE 2008c.)
15 Asian/Pacific Islander 48 Black 12.3 12 11.7 Hispanic Native American 10.0 9.7
9.3 White 8.8 8.9 8.7
9 8.2 Percent 8.0 7.6 7.1 6.2 6.1 6.1 5.5
6 5.3 4.9 4.8 4.4 4.2 4.3 3.9 3.7 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.9 2.6 2.4 3 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.3
0 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08
High School Dropouts and males graduate from high school Graduation (Hispanic females’ rate is 70%). Arizona defines dropouts as In contrast, graduation rates were “students who are enrolled in 78% for white and 82% for Asian school at any time during the males. Female students in all school year but were not enrolled racial or ethnic groups graduate at at the end of the school year and markedly higher rates (tables 4-3 did not transfer, graduate, or die” and 4-4). (ADE 2005, 1). In one encourag- ing note, from 2001-2002 to the College Readiness 2007-2008 school years, the A joint study by the Arizona dropout rate for Hispanics de- Community Foundation and clined from 9.7% to 4.3% (figure Arizona State University as- 4-8). Despite this decrease, sessed Maricopa County schools Hispanics still have the second- for their college-enrollment rates highest dropout rate in Arizona and student-readiness rates in (Native Americans had an 8.2% English and math (Arizona Indica- rate in 2008). ADE statewide data tors 2008). Although statewide indicate that 59.6% of Hispanic data are not available by racial or The State of Latino Arizona 2009
49 Table 4-3. Arizona High School Dropout Rates, by Ethnicity, 2001 through 2008 (Source: ADE 2008c.)
Asian/ Black Hispanic Native White Pacific American Islander 2001-2002 2.9 8.8 9.7 12.3 4.9 2002-2003 2.9 8 8.7 11.7 4.4 2003-2004 2.4 6.1 7.6 10 3.9 2004-2005 1.9 5.5 7.1 6.2 3.3 2005-2006 1.8 4.8 6.1 9.3 3.1 2006-2007 1.7 4.2 5.3 8.9 2.6 2007-2008 1.3 3.7 4.3 8.2 2.4
Table 4-4. High School Graduation Rates, by Race/Ethnicity and Gender, 2007 (Source: ADE 2008d.)
Ethnicity Gender Number Number Graduation Total Graduated in Cohort Rate by Graduation Gender Rate Asian Female 839 945 88.8% 85.5% Male 801 974 82.2% Black Female 1481 1904 77.8% 72.3% Male 1280 1914 66.9% Hispanic Female 8632 12333 70.0% 64.7% Male 7435 12485 59.6% Native American Female 1558 2631 59.2% 55.0% Male 1282 2529 50.7% White Female 15357 18137 84.7% 81.3% Male 14689 18810 78.1% 50 ethnic group, an analysis of col- of 19. However, Hispanics scored lege enrollment rates for students above American Indians and Afri- in the Phoenix Union District may can Americans in every subject. be instructive, with the caveat Compared to nationwide data for Table 4-5. College Enrollment and Readiness Rates in the that it is inappropriate to gen- all students, Hispanics scored Phoenix Union High School District, 2007 (Source: Arizona Indicators 2008. Note: Bostrom Alternative Center is excluded from these data.) eralize to all Latino students in approximately 1% to 2% below the the state. Among the district’s mean (table 4-6). College Enrollment Readiness Rate schools, the college-enrollment The SAT breaks the scores for Students Rate English Math and English- and math-readiness Hispanics into three categories: rates varied widely. College enroll- Mexican/Mexican American, Alhambra High 174 58 % 54 % 28 % School ment ranged from 11% (Metro Puerto Rican, and Other Hispanic/ Tech High School) to 68% (North Latino. In examining the Mexican/ Camelback High 140 45 % 61 % 42 % High School). The percentage of Mexican American scores—about School students identified in each school 86% of all Hispanics in Arizona are Carl Hayden High 112 39 % 35 % 46 % as being prepared for college- of Mexican origin—data confirmed School level English ranged from 35% that the scores were 54 points Central High 138 57 % 68 % 42 % (Carl Hayden High School) to 76% below those of Whites in critical School (North High School). In general, reading, 53 points below in math, Cesar Chavez High 171 46 % 59 % 41 % math readiness rates hovered and 52 points below in writing. School close to 40%. The lowest rate was In all subject areas, Hispanics Maryvale High 176 54 % 52 % 40 % 28% (Alhambra High School) and scored below the state average. School the highest was 48% (North High Utilizing the national mean scores Metro Tech High 58 11 % 48 % 36 % School). More students district- for all racial or ethnic groups as School wide were English-ready than benchmarks, Mexican/Mexican North High School 203 68 % 76 % 48 % math-ready (table 4-5). Americans in Arizona scored below South Mountain 125 39 % 66 % 43 % The ACT and the SAT standard- those benchmarks in critical read- High School ized tests also measure college ing (29 points), math (21 points), Trevor Browne High 155 65 % 56 % 35 % readiness. ACT scores range from and writing (20 points) (table 4-7). School 1 to 36, whereas the SAT uses a 600 to 2400 scale. In measuring Attainment of College and the average ACT score for each University Degrees subject group—English, math, Latinos’ proportional pres- reading, and science—Hispan- ence in colleges and universities ics consistently scored below has not kept pace with Latino White and Asian students and population growth in Arizona. It below the state average in all is critically important to increase subjects. Hispanics scored lowest Latino representation in higher in English, with an average score education. To achieve that, policy The State of Latino Arizona 2009
51 makers must develop diverse cess of Hispanics at every educa- educational stakeholders. We can- Eugene E. García, Ph.D., is the ASU vice college preparation programs that tional and income level. This long- not afford to take years to raise president for Education Partnerships and a professor of education. He was encourage and educate fami- term and complicated process the condition of Latino education dean of the ASU College of Education lies based on a support system needs to be multifaceted, and to levels comparable to other from July 2002 to July 2006. Dr. García that helps students gain access it must take into account issues ethnic and racial groups in the has published extensively in the area of to higher education (Turner and related to race, class, language, state or the nation. The social and language teaching and bilingual develop- García 2005; Nevarez 2001; Miller and culture. economic benefits are potentially ment. He served as a senior officer and director of the Office of Bilingual Education and García 2004; Villalpando Accomplishing this goal in our great and the cost of failure would and Minority Languages Affairs in the U.S. and Solórzano 2005; Tierney and difficult financial times will require be grim. n Department of Education from 1993-1995 Auerbach 2005). steadfast determination from all and chaired the National Task Force on In 2007, Arizona State Univer- Early Childhood Education for Hispanics. sity (ASU) awarded 12.2% of its Table 4-6. Arizona Total Mean SAT Scores, by Ethnicity, 2008 bachelor’s degrees to Hispanics. (Source: College-Bound Seniors State Profile Report for Arizona 2008. Note: Benchmark is the average score for students in the country.) The figure for University of Arizona (UA) was 14.6%, and for Northern Native Asian Black Mexican/ White Total Benchmark Arizona University (NAU), 12%. American Mexican Regarding graduate degrees, ASU American awarded 6.1% to Hispanics, and Critical Reading 481 524 458 477 531 516 502 UA and NAU had slightly higher Math 486 565 451 483 536 522 515 rates, at 8.6% and 13.3%, re- Writing 456 511 442 462 514 500 494 spectively. ASU awarded 5% of its doctoral degrees to Hispanics; the rate for UA was 4.3%; but NAU’s Table 4-7. Arizona Average ACT Scores for Graduating Seniors, by Race/ rate was substantially higher Ethnicity, 2008 rate (11.3%). Considering that (Source: ACT High School Profile Report 2008. Note: Benchmark is the average score for students in the country.) Hispanics make up almost 30% of the total Arizona population Race/Ethnicity English Math Reading Science Composite and account for 41% of the K-12 All 21.3 22.1 22.3 21.3 21.9 school population, these percent- African American / 17.5 18.8 19.0 18.5 18.6 ages reveal that Latinos continue Black to be underrepresented in degree Native American 14.7 17.8 16.6 17.6 16.8 attainment in public higher educa- tion (IPEDS 2009). Caucasian/White 22.7 23.1 23.7 22.3 23.1 Hispanic 19.0 20.4 20.4 19.6 20.0 Conclusion Asian American / 22.7 24.6 23.3 22.6 23.4 Policy makers, educators, and Pacific Islander Arizonans, in general, must focus Other/No Response 22.2 22.8 23.0 21.6 22.5 on increasing the academic suc- National 20.6 21.0 21.4 20.7 21.1 Benchmark 52 Mehmet Dali Öztürk, Ph.D., is the execu- ______2005. Dropout Rate Code Book. NCCP (National Center for Children in P9, P12, P13, P,17, P18, P19, P20, tive director for Research, Evaluation, and Phoenix: Research and Policy Section, Poverty). 2007. 50-State Data: Income P23, P27, P28, P33, PCT5, PCT8, Development in ASU’s Office of Education ADE. Status of Children under Age 6, by PCT11, PCT15, H1, H3, H4, H5, H11, Partnerships, which works with university- ______2007. AIMS Report Wizard. Phoe- Race. New York: National Center for and H12. school public and private sector partners nix: Research and Evaluation Section, Children in Poverty. U.S. Census Bureau. 2005-2007. Ameri- to enhance the academic performance of ADE. Accessed on February 1, 2009, ______. 2008. Demographics of Low- can Community Survey. Retrieved Feb- students in high-need communities. Dr. from www.ade.state.az.us/profile/pub- Income Children. New York: National ruary 1, 2009, from http://factfinder. Öztürk has produced dozens of academic licview/. Center for Children in Poverty. census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&- and scholarly research papers, publica- ______2008a. 2008-09 October Enroll- National Vital Statistics Report. 2003. geo_id=04000US04&-context=adp&- tions, and conference presentations. His ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&- most recent publication is entitled Global ment File. Phoenix: Research and Live Births by Hispanic Origin of Mother Evaluation Section, ADE. and by Race for Mothers of Non-His- tree_id=3307&-_lang=en&-_ Competition: America’s Underrepresented caller=geoselect&-format=. Minorities Will Be Left Behind (Teachers ______2008b. AIMS Report Wizard. panic Origin: United States, Each State College Record, June 2007). He is the Phoenix: Research and Evaluation and Territory, 2002. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Department of Education. 2005. In- recipient of the University of Southern Section, ADE. Accessed on February 1, National Center for Health Statistics. stitute of Education Sciences, National California’s Outstanding International 2009, from www.ade.state.az.us/pro- Nevarez, Carlos. 2001. Mexican Ameri- Center for Education Statistics, National Leadership Award. file/publicview/. cans and Other Latinos in Postsecond- Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2005 Science Assessment. ______2008c. Dropout Rate Study Re- ary Education: Institutional Influences. J. Luke Wood is the co-coordinator ports. Phoenix: ADE. Eric Digest 12: 1-4. Retrieved February U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Program for Policy, Ethics, and Educa- 25, 2009, from: http://eric.ed.gov/ Education Sciences, National Center for tion Leadership (APPEEL) and is a PhD ______2008d. Graduation Rate by ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_ Education Statistics, National Assess- student in Educational Leadership and School. Phoenix: ADE. storage_01/0000019b/80/19/78/02. ment of Educational Progress (NAEP), Policy Studies, with a concentration in Arizona Indicators 2008. College Enroll- pdf. 2007a Reading Assessment. Higher Education, at ASU’s Mary Lou Ful- ment and Readiness, Maricopa County Nevarez, Carlos, and Timo Rico. 2007. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of ton College of Education. He was a Sally High Schools, Class of 2006. Phoenix: Latino education: A synthesis of recur- Education Sciences, National Center for Casanova Pre-Doctoral Fellow at Stanford Arizona Indicators. ring recommendations and solutions Education Statistics, 2007b Mathemat- University and the Sacramento Observer College-Bound Seniors State Profile in P-16 education. New York: College ics Assessment. listed him among the Top 30 under 30. He Report for Arizona 2008. State Profile Board. Retrieved February 25, 2009, Villalpando, Octavio, and Daniel Solórzano. has published in Educational Studies and Report: Arizona. New York: College from http://www.collegeboard.com/ 2005. The Role of Culture in College the African American National Biography. Board. prod_downloads/prof/counselors/Latino- Preparation Programs: A Review of the Wood is a graduate of California State ECLS-K (Early Childhood Longitudinal Education-A-Synthesis.pdf. Research Literature. In Preparing for University, Sacramento (CSUS) with a Study). 2009. Study information. College, ed. W. G. Tierney, Z. B. Corwin, bachelor’s degree in Black History and Tierney, William G., and Susan Auerbach. Washington, DC: National Center for and J. E. Colyar. Albany: State Univer- Politics and a master’s degree in Higher 2005. Toward Developing an Untapped Education Statistics. Retrieved February sity of New York Press. Education Leadership with an emphasis in Resource: The Role of Families in 5, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/ecls/ Student Affairs. College Preparation. In Preparing for Kindergarten.asp. College, ed. W. G. Tierney, Z. B. Corwin, References and Additional Readings IPEDS (Integrated Postsecondary Educa- and J. E. Colyar. Albany: State Univer- tion System). 2009. Degree Attainment sity of New York Press. ACT High School Profile Report. 2008. The by Race/Ethnicity- Peer Analysis Sys- Graduating Class of 2008-Arizona. Iowa Turner, Caroline S.V., and Eugene E. Gar- tem. Washington, DC: National Center City, IA: ACT. Retrieved on February 2, cía. 2005. Latina and Latino Students for Education Statistics. 2009, from http://www.act.org/news/ in Higher Education: Enhancing Access, data/08/pdf/states/Arizona.pdf. Miller, L. Scott, and Eugene E. García. Participation, and Achievement. Journal 2004. Better informing efforts to of Hispanic Higher Education 4, no. 3: ADE (Arizona Department of Education). increase Latino student success in 178-80. 1999. 1998-99 October Enrollment higher education. Education and Urban File. Phoenix: Research and Policy Sec- U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Sum- Society 36, no. 2: 196-205. tion, ADE. mary File 1, Matrices P1, P3, P4, P8, Carl Hayden High School Robotics Club Students Front row left to right: Yuliana Flores, David Carter, Elizabeth Perez, John Freer. Second row left to right: Gonzalo Lopez De Dios, Eduardo Fernandez, Maria Castro, Mary Cuevas, Staphany Ramirez Solis, Hugo Ceballos, Norma Irigoyen, Judith Beltran, Faridodin “Fredi” Lajvardi. Third row left to right: Britney Childers, Jonathan Harris, Ezequiel Barrera. economic and financial issues
“Latino businesses are truly the economic engines that fuel local economies as both key employers and providers of goods and services to the general population they serve.” The State of Latino Arizona 2009
55 economic mobility: earnings, income, ery, factories, plants, land, and to navigate local institutions; to investment and retirement portfo- understand mainstream markets; and wealth indicators lios); high-appreciation items, like and to access affordable housing, by Bárbara Robles and Loui Olivas paintings, jewelry, and artifacts; financial services, and transporta- and inherited items. Assets also tion helps increase family wealth include intangible factors that are and financial stability. Additionally, The mythos of the American Dream has two es- often overlooked or not included the adaptation strategies that im- sential components: economic mobility and financial in direct measures of wealth: (1) migrants pass on to younger gen- cultural capital, including language erations (as well as the youth in- security. The American Dream offers the potential to assets (being bi- or multilingual) terpreting and translating for their and biculturalism, that is, under- elders) can also act as a form participate in upward economic mobility, which forms standing how to navigate other of wealth building through inter- the basis of the success stories of our immigrant- cultures; (2) social capital, includ- generational knowledge transfers ing social networks or membership (in youth-elder and elder-youth rich heritage. The history of economic mobility and in social, civic, religious, or union interactions) that benefit the entire financial security in the southwestern United States organizations that provide access community. Carlos Vélez-Ibáñez to both physical and financial (2004) coined this phenomenon a is complex, and it remains a persistent and ongoing resources; and (3) human capital, “fund of knowledge” owned by the saga of our collective colonial past. Add to this the including educational attainment, community. such as university, post-graduate, ethno-racial dynamic of the peoples of the South- and professional degrees, and Arizona Latino Economic specialty certifications, as well as Mobility Indicators west, and of Arizona in particular, and the story employment experience, appren- The Latino community in takes on an even higher order of complexity. ticeships, or semi-skilled crafts. Arizona has roots going back For Latino communities, the to the colonial era, long before ability to own and control assets the U.S. nation-building period These issues lie at the root Overview of Wealth and Eco- and to engage in wealth-creating and statehood. The legacy of of Arizonan Latino communities’ nomic-Mobility Indicators activities relies on a variety of both Latino contributions in agricul- history of contributions to the eco- Wealth is a broader measure tangible and intangible factors. ture, mining, ranching, large and nomic prosperity of Arizona and of economic mobility than is Biculturalism and bilingualism are small businesses, and the arts of advocacy for full participatory income. Wealth includes income asset-building factors that can and entertainment is part of the inclusion in all venues of wealth- (earnings as well as any other command a higher wage premium state’s ongoing economic and building activity. This chapter income-generating activities, such in the labor market, especially in dynamic progress. These sectors provides a snapshot of Arizona’s as revenue from rental property, industries with global markets. For have produced Latino leaders Latino population in terms of its royalties, and other transfers) and Latino entrepreneurs and busi- that have been pivotal resources economic mobility, dynamic wealth asset holdings. Assets can be ness owners, this cultural capital supporting the participation and creation, and future progress, tangible investments like hom- can guarantee an expansion of inclusion of the growing Latino based on cultural, social, human, eownership; business ownership; one’s customer base. In neglected community in accessing wealth- and financial capital and assets. physical capital (vehicles, machin- Latino communities, the ability enhancing opportunities. Although 56
little researched, Hispanic mutual aid societies—major contributors Figure 5-1. Arizona Family Income for Non-Hispanic Whites and to community well-being in the Hispanics, in Inflation-Adjusted 2007 Dollars (Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.) nineteenth and twentieth centu- ries—became the blueprint for 25 the current Latino-led non-profits Hispanic serving the populations of the 22.9 Non-Hispanic White Southwest. In Arizona, aggregate Latino 20 wealth indicators display a persis-
16.8 tent lack of parity with the non- 16.4 Hispanic White community, but as 15 15.0 Percent 14.1 with all communities, Latinos have 12.6 12.5 12.4 both high- and low-wealth families 11.8 11.4
10.6 as well as a significant, grow- 10 10.2 9.0 ing middle-wealth population. In
7.3 figures 5-1 and 5-2, the compara- 6.8 tive distribution of family income 5 and earnings for the non-Hispanic 2.9 2.8 White and Hispanic communities 1.8 in Arizona indicate the different 0 income-category concentrations. Related to the income and earnings indicators are the distri- bution of occupational categories by total respective populations Less than $10,000$10,001-$19,999$20,000-$35,999$35,000-$44,999$45,000-$59,999$60,000-$74,999$75,000-$99,999 $150,000 or more $100,000-$149,000 (figure 5-3). The skewed distribu- tion of occupational categories contributes to the lack of parity in the income and earnings distri- butions between non-Hispanic Whites and Hispanics in Arizona’s labor market. The State of Latino Arizona 2009
57 Figure 5-2. Non-Hispanic White and Hispanic Median Earnings Figure 5-3. Hispanic Occupations as a % of All Hispanics by Sex, 2007 Employed, and Non-Hispanic White Occupations, as a % of (Source: U.S. Census Bureau 2007, table B20017H. Note: FT-YR = full-time, year around.) Total Non-Hispanic White Employed (Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.) Hispanic Non-Hispanic White Hispanic as a % Non-Hispanic White of total Hispanic as a Total NH-White $60,000
17.0
$50,703 Construction $50,000 5.1 Agriculture 1.7
$40,372 0.2
$40,000 $38,020 12.2 Administrative 15.1
$30,000 $29,342 $26,844 Sales 9.1 $24,820 $24,847 13.8
Service 26.3
$20,000 $17,334 14.4 $15,549 $12,652 $11,786 Installation, Production, 18.1 $10,000 $9,504 and Transportation 11.3 Professional and 15.7 Management 40.2 $0 Male Male- Male- Female Female- Female- 0 10 20 30 40 50 FT-YR Not FT-YR FT-YR Not FT-YR Percent
Demographers agree that there is a strong correlation between population growth and small- business growth. Since 2000, one-half of Arizona’s population growth has been attributable “ to Latino births. Moreover, on or before 2040, Arizona’s population will have gone full circle, as Hispanics once again become the dominant population, just as they were prior to 1912. From that, we can predict that this will generate more Latino businesses.” Figure 5-4. Arizonans over 25 Years of Age and without Figure 5-5. Arizona Enrollment by Educational Level for the Population 3 a High School Diploma, by Sex Years of Age and Older, Non-Hispanic Whites as a % of the Non-Hispanic 58 (Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.) White Population, and Hispanics as % of Hispanic Population (Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007, Table B14001.)
Less than HS HS Diploma NH White Hispanic 80 100 77.1 92.6 92.0 70 66.8
80 60
61.6 50 57.5 Percent Percent 60 40 33.2 42.5
40 38.4 30 22.9 20 17.4 20
10 8.6 7.5 7.1 8.0 7.4 4.8 4.4 3.9 2.4 0 0 NH White-M Latino-M NH White-F Latino-F Enrolled Enrolled in Enrolled in Enrolled in Enrolled in Not Enrolled in school Nursery School, Grade 1 to Grade 9 to College or in School Kindrgarten Grade 8 Grade 12 Graduate School
There are also significant gaps whole-language policies that could pipeline for Latino students is the Homeownership is another in education that affect Latinos prepare students for a twenty-first- transition from secondary to post- significant anchor affecting wealth- wealth-accumulation possibili- century, global-market workplace; secondary schooling (figures 5-4 and asset-building capacity (figure ties. Complex educational policies and (3) continuous waves of im- and 5-5). The key to income and 5-6). Although Arizona Latinos have implemented at the local, state, migrants arriving from countries earnings enhancements in current a higher rate of homeownership and federal level are behind these that have different compulsory- and future labor markets requires (56%) than the national homeown- disparities. Crucial components schooling frameworks and under- obtaining a university degree. ership rate for Latinos (50%) (U.S. producing educational-attainment funded educational systems when Ideally, completing a professional Census Bureau 2007), caution rate discrepancies between the compared to the United States,. and post-graduate degree would is required when analyzing these non-Hispanic White and Latino These factors play a significant produce a large private as well data given the current volatility populations include: (1) a signifi- role in generational legacies of as public benefit in the form of of the housing market combined cant underfunded school system wealth inequality for Latino fami- increasing tax revenues, especially with the waves of foreclosures anchored in local property-tax lies. Perhaps the most significant given the youth bulge in Arizona’s that have occurred since 2007. values; (2) a lack of multilingual, stoppage in the educational Latino population (Robles 2009). The least understood and most The State of Latino Arizona 2009
Figure 5-6. Non-Hispanic White and Hispanic Homeowner Status in Arizona, 2007 (Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007.) 59 Hispanic White Non-Hispanic under-researched wealth-stripping 48th state. Thanks to historians, phenomenon regarding home and we have a record of the com- 80 73.5 property foreclosures is tax liens. munities that prospered because 70 Although eclipsed by the current of Mexican merchants, traders, mortgage foreclosure crisis, this is farmers, cattle ranchers, and 60 56.2 a particularly acute issue for La- trade routes that connected these tino families in Arizona and other regional settlements prior to the
Percent 50 43.8 border states. This particular issue arrival of the original “undocu- has its roots in the complicated mented” (non-Hispanic) settlers in 40 inheritance laws and protocols the Southwest. 30 26.5 that leave many Hispanic families The most recent data published unaware of their tax obligations on by the U.S. Census Bureau (2006) 20 inherited properties. Since land for 2000 and 2002 reveals that ownership enhances and ampli- there are well over 35,000 Hispan- 10 fies wealth building, not having ic-owned businesses in Arizona, sufficient legal, tax, and financial generating $4.3 billion in gross 0 Owner Occupied Renter Occupied advice about navigating the regis- receipts and supporting more than tering of land-title transfers, paying 39,000 paid employees (figure outstanding property taxes, and 5-7). The majority of these employ- settling outstanding financial obli- ees are Latinos. Given Arizona’s Figure 5-7. Minority Business in Arizona by gations associated with inherited population growth trends projected Race or Ethnicity, 2002 (Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006.) homes creates truly disadvanta- by the U.S. Census Bureau, it is geous circumstances, where loss demonstratively clear that Latinos Hispanic of generational lands can occur are driving population growth. Black in a blink of an eye. Unaware of Demographers agree that there Black their legal recourse, families end is a strong correlation between Asian Asian 6,330 up devastated over the loss of population growth and small-busi- 10,563 11% Native American ancestral lands. ness growth. Since 2000, one- 18% half of Arizona’s population growth Native Hispanic Business in Arizona Hispanic-Owned Businesses has been attributable to Latino American in Arizona: Contributions to births. Moreover, on or before 6,548 - 35,104 Firms in Arizona 11% - $4.3 billion in gross receipts Arizona’s Wealth and Economic 2040, Arizona’s population will Hispanic - 39,363 paid employees Mobility have gone full circle, as Hispanics 35,104 Hispanic-owned businesses in once again become the dominant 60% Arizona have a rich and sustained population, just as they were record of growth dating back to prior to 1912. From that, we can the territorial days, well before predict that this will generate more 1912 when Arizona became the Latino businesses. These small 60
Congressman Raúl M. Grijalva The State of Latino Arizona 2009
61 and not-so-small businesses will in the United States, analyzed a Figure 5-8. Arizona Minority Business Profile with contribute economically by creat- number of business characteris- a Focus on Hispanic-Owned Businesses, 2007 ing jobs and with that, sales- and tics (SRP 2007). It found four key (Source: SRP 2007.) property-tax revenues for federal, things that were higher for His- Total Non- Total Hispanic- Non-Hispanic state, county, and city coffers, as panic-owned businesses than for Minority Minority Owned Minority well as business-tax revenues. non-Hispanic minority-owned ones Businesses Owned Latino businesses are truly the (figure 5-8). Among other things, Overall Businesses economic engines that fuel local these features reflect the multi- Sample Size 777 663 441 222 economies as both key employ- generational, extended-family Ownership* ers and providers of goods and characteristics of Arizona’s Latino Sole Propietorship 38% 39% 40% 39% services to the general population population: they serve. As employers, they pay Corporation 23% 23% 22% 25% their fair share of business taxes 1) median income is $226,000; S Corporation 22% 17% 17% 17% while providing employment to His- 2) 13% are partnerships, as the Partnership 8% 11% 13% 11% panic and non-Hispanic workers. legal form of ownership; LLC* 7% 9% 8% 11% These employees, in turn, con- 3) 67% are family owned; and 2006 Median $270,000 $201,000 $226,000 $181,000 tribute income taxes to the state 4) the median number of em- revenue and federal governments. They ployees is 4. Median number of 3 4 4 3 are also consumers in the com- employees munities in which they work and Future Wealth and Economic Median age of 15 yrs 9 yrs 9 yrs 9 yrs live. These heads of household Mobility Prospects for Latinos company are also difference makers in their in Arizona Business communities, people who partici- Looking ahead at state, na- Descriptions pate in their PTAs, volunteer for tional, and global market restruc- Family owned 57% 64% 67% 60% nonprofit organizations, and make turing, the Latino community charitable contributions. in Arizona is clearly poised to Home-based 39% 38% 38% 39% Beyond looking at Hispanic- become an important economic Web-based 10% 9% 9% 10% owned businesses from a demo- driver and to remain an anchor of Mail order 1% 1% 2% ** graphic and economic perspec- sustainable wealth for the state’s Not for profit 4% 4% 6% 1% tive, an examination of owner economy. Arizona Latino-owned profiles and firm characteristics businesses are growing at a pace Geographic Scope compared to the characteristics faster than any other, and they Conducts business 19% 16% 16% 17% of other minority- and non-minor- will continue as an economic internationally ity-owned businesses in Arizona engine for the communities they Conducts business 48% 32% 31% 34% reveals some striking differences. serve. The Latino population is nationally The 2007 Arizona Business Study: young, highly entrepreneurial, with Focus on Minority-Owned Busi- bicultural and bilingual assets, and ness, the only study of its type it remains connected to growing 62 export markets in Mexico, Central secondary schools, community Loui Olivas, Ph.D., a fourth-generation Vélez-Ibáñez, Carlos. 2004. “Regions of America, and South America, as colleges, and institutions of higher native Phoenician, joined Arizona State Refuge in the United States: Issues, University in 1979. He is currently As- Problems, and Concerns for the Future well as other international markets education. sistant Vice President, Office of the Vice of Mexican-Origin Populations in the (SRP 2007). Additionally, these high-growth President for Education Partnerships, and United States.” Human Organizations Additionally, the significant markets will also attract the His- Associate Professor of the Management 63 (1): 1–2. demographic shift in the United panic entrepreneur in a variety of Department in the W. P. Carey School States as the baby boomers age domains: general health care and of Business. His teaching and research focus on entrepreneurship, small business opens up the possibility for a large in-home care; green recycling; con- management, and Hispanic demographics surge in two markets that will struction focused on energy saving and marketing perspectives. Among other continue to be foundational as we and weatherization; and organic, publications, he authors the annual DATOS move forward in the new millen- safe-food farming and ranching. Report for the Arizona Hispanic Chamber nium: health care and energy Clearly, Arizona’s Latino leadership of Commerce, and since 1991, he has published the Annual Survey of Hispanic independence. The need for a is represented in our community- Owned Businesses in Arizona. growing labor segment of techni- based organizations (NGOs), our cally trained health-care providers business enterprises, and increas- References and Additional Readings (which also includes social service ingly, in our presence in educational BLS (Bureau of Labor Statistics). 2008. professionals as well as commu- institutions. The key to the future of Occupational Outlook Handbook. nity-based promotores de salud, Latino wealth building in Arizona is Washington, D.C.: Department of Labor. Available at http://www.bls.gov/oco/ community health advocates) the expanding Latino participation (last accessed on July 16, 2009). brings into focus the Bureau of in the public, private, and nonprofit Robles, Bárbara J. 2009. “Exploring Labor Statistics’ labor-market sectors, which will help to create a the Wealth Returns to Latino Higher projections for the period from pipeline of significant Latino leader- Educational Attainment: Estimates of 2008 until 2016 (BLS 2008). In ship to mentor future generations. Work-Life Earnings Profiles.” Journal of both markets, there is projected n Hispanic Higher Education 8 (1): 5–22. above-average growth in wage oc- SRP (Salt River Project). 2007. Arizona Bárbara Robles, Ph.D. in Economics, is cupations clustered in health-care Business Study: Focus on Minority- an associate professor in ASU’s School of Owned Business. Phoenix: Salt River industries (in all segments requir- Social Work. She is also the coordinator of Project and Hispanic Research Center, ing a minimum of an Associate’s the Office of Latino Projects and Research Arizona State University. Faculty, Center for Community Develop- Degree in vocational-technician U.S. Census Bureau. 2006. Survey of ment and Civil Rights in ASU’s College of training) and in green-energy Minority Owned-Business Enterprises Public Programs. She authored Financial (SMOBE) [specifically, the data on markets (where the range of oc- Services and Product Usage by Latinos in Hispanic businesses]. Available at cupations is quite broad, including the U.S. (2007) and co-authored The Color http://www.census.gov/econ/sbo/ (last of Wealth: The Story Behind the U.S. Racial construction and agriculture, two accessed on July 16, 2009). sectors with heavy Latino repre- Wealth Divide (2006). Formerly, she served as a Revenue Estimator for the Congres- ______. 2007. The American Commu- sentation). The key to capitalizing sional Joint Committee on Taxation, sc oring nity Survey. Various tables. Available at on these future career opportuni- tax legislation for Congress. Her research http://www.census.gov/acs/www/ (last ties rests on a strong and dedi- focuses on wealth inequality, asset building, accessed on June 26, 2009). cated education pipeline between community development and micro-busi- nesses, and entrepreneurship. Congressman Ed Pastor health
“The lack of health insurance is an important barrier in the prevention and treatment of diseases for Latinos. Nationally, nearly 33% of Latinos under the age of 65 did not have health insurance in 2007.” The State of Latino Arizona 2009
65 toward a healthy latino population was $38,175, 21% lower than the and diseases, including violence, state median household income. diabetes, obesity, and heart in arizona One in five Latino families is in diseases. Arizona has shown a by Hilda García-Pérez and Seline Szkupinski Quiroga poverty and about 40% allocate steady decline in all mortality more than 30 cents of each dollar causes during the last 25 years, earned to pay for housing. Latinos consistent with national trends. Latinos are the fastest growing minority in Arizona also tend to reside in older dwell- The Latino population mirrored (U.S. Census 2009). This population is not only ings and in overcrowded condi- this until 2000, but the latest data tions (U.S. Census Bureau 2007). seem to indicate a drastic rever- changing the state’s demographic makeup, it is Paradoxically, second-generation sal (table 6-1). In 2005, adjusted also redefining its epidemiologic and public-health Latinos seem to be less healthy mortality rates for the state’s Lati- than first-generation immigrants, nos were higher than those for the profile. Despite the Latino population’s demograph- even though the first generation general population in Arizona and ic weight in Arizona, public and private programs earns less, creates less wealth, the United States, with noncom- and is more than likely to be at or municable diseases and violent and research studies often overlook this group’s below the poverty line. deaths the most probable cause The relative youth of Latinos for rising mortality. health needs. provides a unique opportunity Statewide and nationwide, for health planning and policy heart diseases and cancer are This essay describes the health youngest group, with a median development. Additionally, La- the first and second causes of profile of Latinos in Arizona, age of 26 years, compared to 35 tinos’ strong family and com- death for both Latinos and the emphasizing gender differences years for the state as a whole. munity orientation may facilitate overall population. However, in in disease incidence and overall More than one-third (37.3%) of community-based health policies. 2005, Latino mortality rates were premature mortality. We try to call Arizona’s Latinos are under age However, Arizona is pressed to find higher than the state and na- attention to some barriers that 18 and fewer than 4.5% are 65 ways to meet the health needs of tional mortality rates for seven of Latinos face in accessing appropri- and over. About 36% are foreign- this group. The challenge ahead is the 10 leading causes of death ate health care, and we conclude born residents and many entered complicated by the Latino popu- (table 6-1). Unlike the state’s by offering a list of recommen- the United States in 2000 or lation’s cultural and bio-physical general population, Latinos have dations that might help to close after. Four in five Latinos reported traits that create a particular experienced significant increases the health-care gap between this speaking a language at home epidemiological profile. in deaths from cerebrovascular population and other groups in other than English, and half of diseases, heart diseases, diabetes Arizona. these indicated speaking English A Health Profile of the Latino mellitus, and homicides. The im- less than “very well.” Latinos’ edu- Population in Arizona pact of these trends is substantial, Who Are the Latinos of cational attainment is lower than Several national studies and especially when one considers the Arizona? the state’s average, with close to very limited Arizona data have relative youth of Arizona’s Hispanic In 2007, the Latino popula- 40% of the population that is 25 documented that Latinos are population. tion was estimated to be 1.8 years and over not having finished disproportionately exposed to million or about 30% of Arizona’s high school. The median income health hazards and are affected population. Latinos are the state’s of Arizona’s Latino households by a particular set of conditions Table 6-1. Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates (per 100,000) for Selected Causes of Death by Race or Ethnicity* (Source: NCHS 2008 and ADHS 2006b.)
1980 2000 2005 U.S. Arizona U.S. Arizona U.S. Arizona 66 Primary Cause All Groups All Groups Hispanics All Groups All Groups Hispanics All Groups All Groups Hispanics All Causes 1,039.1 972.7 931.1 869.0 785.6 769.9 798.8 772.5 849.2 Heart Disease 412.1 346.3 307.3 257.6 206.1 204.7 211.1 186.9 189.6 Cancers 207.9 191.3 160.3 199.6 170.4 156.9 183.8 161.8 165.9 Cerebrovascular 96.2 74.9 72.5 60.9 51.7 51.2 46.6 40.6 51.0 diseases Chronic lower 28.3 47.4 26.0 44.2 47.4 24.4 43.2 46.8 31.6 respiratory diseases** Accidents 46.4 57.9 58.8 34.9 41.1 41.6 39.1 51.1 54.8 (unintentional injuries) Suicide 12.2 17.5 11.3 10.4 14.6 7.2 10.9 15.4 10.5 Diabetes 18.1 16.0 28.3 25.0 19.0 41.1 24.6 20.1 46.0 Chronic liver 15.1 17.0 23.5 9.5 12.8 15.8 9.0 12.7 19.4 disease and cirrhosis Assault (homicide) 10.4 10.4 15.9 5.9 7.6 13.0 6.1 8.2 14.6
* Adjusted to the 2000 standard U.S. population. ** Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases in 1980.
Figure 6-1. Median Age at Death from All Causes Figure 6-2. Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for (Source: Mrela CK, Torres C. Differences in the Health Status among Race/Ethnic Groups. Arizona, 2007. Cardiovascular Diseases Among Total Population In Arizona Department of Health Services, (ed): Arizona Department of Health Services 2008: 97) and Latinos by Sex, Arizona 2006
80 300 White Non-Latinos All 258.3
All Groups 243.8 250 Males
216.4 Females Mortality Rates Mortality 203.2 70 Asian Rate Mortality 200 181.1 181
170.2 Age Age
150 149.8 Black 124 60 Native American 100 43.9
50 37.3
Latinos 32.1
50 0 2000 2007 Cardiovascular Cardiovascular Disease of Cerebrovascular Arizona L Heart - L L The State of Latino Arizona 2009
Figure 6-4. Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Unintentional and Intentional Among Total Population and Latinos by Sex, 67 Noncommunicable Diseases reducing colon, prostate, breast, Arizona 2006 The major preventable risk fac- and cervical cancers. Latino males tors for cardiovascular disease are show higher mortality than Latino 80
tobacco use, physical inactivity, females for every type of cancer 72.9 All and an unhealthy diet. When com- (figure 6-3). Lung cancer is the 70 68.5 paring mortality for cardiovascular leading cause of cancer death in Males
Mortality Rates 60 Mortality Rate Mortality Females 52.4 diseases among Latinos, men in the United States. In Arizona, the 51.2 50 Arizona have the highest mortality risk for lung-cancer mortality was (figure 6-2), with their cardiovas- 2.2 times higher in Latino males 40 34.3 32.2 cular mortality rates 40% higher than in Latino females. Latino 30 24.7 than rates for Latino females. males also have a 20% higher 21.6 20 15.4 14.2 13.5 Several types of cancers are mortality for colorectal cancer. 13 8.5 8.2 highly preventable with changes in Limited education, low household 10 6.6 3.1 2 3.3 health behaviors. Smoking reduc- incomes, and lack of health insur- 0 tion; a diet rich in vegetables, fruit, ance are some of the reported Unintentional Unintentional Suicide Suicide Homicide Homicide and fibers; access to immuniza- barriers associated with the lack Injury - AZ Injury - L AZ L AZ L tions (for example, human papil- of cancer screening among Lati- loma virus); and regular screen- nos regardless of gender. ing programs are all critical for Unintended and Intended who are overrepresented among Injuries childhood fatalities with 45% of Arizonans suffer high rates of all childhood deaths in the state unintentional or intentional injury- (ADHS 2006). Drowning and car Figure 6-3. Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Selected Types of Cancer Among Total Population and Latinos by related mortality (figure 6-4). accidents are the top causes of Sex, Arizona 2006 Most traffic injuries, drowning death and injury for children in Ari- accidents, and fire-related injuries zona. Latino children have lower- are classified as unintentional. than-average drowning rates but 200 187 All Homicide, suicide, and war-related the second-highest death rate due deaths are classified as intentional to car accidents (ADHS 2005 and
160.9 Males 154.7 injuries. The injury mortality rate 2006). Educational efforts, includ- 150 Females
Mortality Rate Mortality in Arizona was 68.5 deaths per ing bilingual awareness campaigns 131 Mortality Rates 124.7 100,000 for the general popula- and community-action programs,
98.7 tion compared to 72.9 for Latino can help prevent deaths due to 100 men. An important gap exists unintentional injuries. between the sexes: women are Suicide rates among Latinos less likely to die from unintended in Arizona increased 27.8% from 50 31.6 injuries. 2000 to 2007 (ADHS 2008). In 21.4 15.8 13.8 14.2 13.1 Injuries are also a critical health 2006, the risk of suicide among 0 problem affecting Latino children, men in Arizona (24.7/100,000) All type - AZ All type - L Lung - L Colorectal - L community commentary
The struggle to influence our health status will be directly felt in all areas of
68 community life because of the competitive nature of the American experi- “ ence. The principle that has made this country great includes the notion of merit and equal opportunity as part of the benefits of citizenship... The unmet challenge of Latino health is primarily a phenomenon of an unre- sponsive public sector... The public sector still sits on data that has demon- strated health disparities for decades and wonders why that is so, without examining its institutional roles and responsibilities and without trying to change these in a primary and fundamental way that... addresses these institutional barriers.” Miguel Medina, Community Leader
was 3.7 times higher than the risk the homicide rates for all males, YPLL, homicides rank third among In 2007, the median age at death among women (6.6/100,000). and for Latino females, 6% higher Arizona Latinos and account for for all causes among Latinos was Suicide rates among Latino men when compared to all females. 10.6% of potential life lost in the 54 years, whereas among White (14.2/100,000) were seven times state. The YPLL associated with non-Latinos, it was 78 (ADHS higher than the risk of suicide for Premature Mortality homicide was three times higher 2008, 97) Therefore, half of La- Latinas (2/100,000). The most Years of Potential Life Lost for the state’s Latinos compared tinos in Arizona in 2007 are likely common method of suicide for (YPLL) is an indicator assessing to White non-Latinos and almost to die at age 54 or earlier. Latino Latinos was firearms, followed by the risk of premature mortality double compared to Latinos na- males have a higher mortality than hanging and poisoning. According (table 6-2). According to this data, tionally. do Latino women. to the U.S. Department of Health unintentional injury and cancer Although premature mortality and Human Services, Latino account for more than one-third affects all race and ethnic groups, Child and Maternal Health students were almost two times of potential life lost across all Latinos seem to experience a Access to family-planning pro- more likely than white non-Latino groups. Among Arizona Latinos, greater burden. The median age grams is critical for avoiding unin- or black non-Latino students to unintentional injuries account for a is an indicator that helps illustrate tended pregnancies. It is estimat- attempt suicide (Child and Adoles- significantly larger proportion of all premature mortality because it ed that almost half of the 6 million cent Health Measurement Initia- YPLL (24.5%). The YPLL was simi- divides the total number of deaths pregnancies that occur annually in tive 2005). lar for Arizona Latinos and White into two equal groups. Among La- the United States are unintended. In Arizona, the age-adjusted non-Latinos, but Arizona Latinos tinos, the median age for prema- As a result, approximately 1.4 rate for death by homicide for had a 50% higher YPLL compared ture mortality dropped by 12 years million American women experi- Latino males was 60% higher than to Latinos nationally. In terms of from 2000 to 2007 (Figure 6-1). ence unplanned births and an- The State of Latino Arizona 2009
69
Table 6-2. Rate of Years of Potential Life Lost (YPLL) before Age 70 per 100,000 Population, Latinos and White non-Latinos in Arizona and U.S. Latinos for 2006, Selected Causes of Death (Source: CDC 1999–2006.)
Arizona U.S. Latinos Rate Rate Latinos White Non-Latinos Ratio Ratio LAZ? LAZ? Primary Cause Age- Percent of Age- Percent of Age- Percent of WNL* WNL* adjusted total YPLL adjusted total YPLL adjusted total YPLL All causes 5451.2 100 5709.9 100 4472.4 100 1.0 1.2 Unintentional injury 1320.0 24.2 1285.59 22.5 890.18 19.9 1.0 1.5 Cancers 597.33 11.0 940.13 16.5 691.95 15.5 0.6 0.9 Homicide 576.78 10.6 189.84 3.3 309.2 6.9 3.0 1.9 Heart disease 465.16 8.5 665.88 11.7 461.4 10.3 0.7 1.0 Perinatal period 394.23 7.2 307.70 5.4 314.59 7.0 1.3 1.3 Suicide 278.05 5.1 507.5 8.9 165.51 3.7 0.5 1.7 Congenital anomalies 260.44 4.8 159.0 2.8 206.04 4.6 1.6 1.3 Liver disease 164.8 3.0 131.8 2.3 155.79 3.5 1.3 1.1 Diabetes mellitus 150.06 2.8 107.9 1.9 115.76 2.6 1.4 1.3 Cerebrovascular disease 133.28 2.4 102.37 1.8 129.68 2.9 1.3 1.0
*Latinos in Arizona: White Non Latinos. **Latinos in Arizona: U.S. Latinos. Luz Sarmina The State of Latino Arizona 2009
71 other 1.3 million pregnancies end although rates have decreased Figure 6-5. Arizona Birth Rates, 2004-2006 Average Live Births per 1,000 Women 15-44 years in abortion. Half of the unintended steadily since 2000 (ADHS 2008). (Source: PeriState. Birth rates by race/ethnicity: Arizona, 2004-2006 Average pregnancies occurred among Pregnancy among Latinas aged 15 2009 March of Dimes Foundation 2009.) couples using some type of birth to 17 was 85.6% higher than the control during the month when the state average and for those aged 120 110.5 pregnancy occurred, so ineffec- 18 and 19, it was 65.7% higher 100 tive use of contraceptives is an (ADHS 2008). Overall, in Arizona, 92.5
issue. The other half of unintended Latinas have the highest birth rate Percent 80 68.7 69.9 pregnancies occurred in women among all women of reproductive 60.5 who were not using any birth age, defined as 15 to 44 years 60 control method even though they (figure 6-5). 40 did not intend to become pregnant Access to adequate prenatal (all data are from the Guttmacher care is associated with positive 20 Institute 2006a). health outcomes for both mothers 0 In Arizona, it is estimated that and children (figure 6-6). However, Latina White Black Native Asian approximately 123,000 women in 2007, Latino mothers in Arizona Non-Latina American become pregnant annually. Of reported the lowest level (67.8%) these pregnancies, 70% resulted of prenatal care during the first in live births, 15% in induced 3 months of pregnancy, whereas abortions, and the remainder white non-Latina women had the ended in miscarriages (Guttmach- highest level (86.6%). A proxy Figure 6-6. Inadequate Prenatal Care 2004-2006 er Institute 2006b). The availability measurement of the quality of (Source: PeriState. Birth rates by race/ethnicity: Arizona, 2004-2006 Average of contraceptive services and prenatal care services in Arizona— 2009 March of Dimes Foundation 2009.) programs facilitating access to the Index of Adequacy of Prenatal 30 education and information are two Care—shows that from 2004 27.1 important factors for reducing the through 2006, the level of inad- 25 23.4 92.5 incidence of unintended pregnan- equacy of prenatal care service 20 cies. According to the Guttmacher among Latina mothers (23.4%) 16.4 Percent Institute (2006b), Arizona ranks was almost 3 times higher than 15 32nd nationally for availability of the observed rates among white 9.5 reproductive services, 38th in non-Latinas (8.6%) (PeriStats 10 8.6 public funding allocated to repro- 2009). 5 ductive health programs, and 14th According to the CDC, infant in laws and policies facilitating mortality is increasing in the 0 Latina White Black Native Asian women’s access to contraceptive United States for the first time Non-Latina American information and services. in more than 40 years (MacDor- In Arizona, Latinas have the man, Callaghan, Mathews et al. highest teen pregnancy rates, 2007). From 2000 through 2007, 72 Arizona had a slight increase in its of Latinos under the age of 65 Although it is estimated that na- cational and labor opportunities, overall infant mortality rate, from did not have health insurance in tionally 20% of Latino children are which increases the risk of physi- 6.7 deaths per 1,000 live births to 2007. In Arizona, 35.8% of Latinos uninsured (DeNavas-Walt, 2008), cal and mental health problems. 6.8 deaths (ADHA 2008). How- in that group were not eligible it has been documented that In summary, a health profile of ever, the infant mortality rate for for or waive this benefit (Urban approximately 7 out of 10 Latino Arizona’s Latinos should consider Latinos was 17.5% higher in 2007 Institute and Kaiser Commission uninsured children who might be the following: compared to 2000 (ADHA 2008). 2008). Non-citizen children and eligible for coverage through the One way to address children’s adults under the age of 40 seem Arizona Health Care Cost Contain- 1. Data suggest an urgent need negative health outcomes in to be the population at the highest ment System (AHCCCS) or the to address factors inducing pre- Arizona is diminishing the number risk of being uninsured (Burkholder State Children’s Health Insurance mature mortality. Public health of unintended pregnancies among 2002). Uninsured people are more Program (S-CHIP) are not en- priorities should target noncom- Latinas and increasing access to likely to forego needed health care rolled in either program (Child and municable diseases, including quality prenatal care. due to cost concerns. Almost one Adolescent Health Measurement cancer and heart diseases. in four Latinos in Arizona reported Initiative 2005). Out of the total Medical Insurance that they could not afford needed population of uninsured children, 2. Obesity and lack of physical The lack of health insurance is health care (ADHS 2008). 35% are Latino (figure 6-7). activity are two major factors an important barrier in the preven- The association between contributing to noncommunica- tion and treatment of diseases for maintaining good health and ac- Conclusion ble diseases in the Latino com- Latinos. Nationally, nearly 33% cess to health care is well known. Addressing the health needs of munity. Preventable health-risk Arizona’s Latinos requires full con- behaviors are often established sideration of the complex variables during childhood and adoles- that define this population from an cence and can underlie leading Figure 6-7. Uninsured Children in Arizona epidemiological perspective, in- causes of illness and death (Source: Child and Adolescent Health Measurements Initiative, 2005, cluding migration, poverty, shelter among adults. Obesity, a major National Survey of Children’s Health, Data Resource Center on Child and Adolescent Healty.) quality, work conditions, and age. and growing problem across Regardless of which explanation all ethnic and racial groups in is correct, the Latino community the United States, is a highly in Arizona faces specific health preventable chronic condition. needs that diverge from the health According to the 2007 Arizona priorities of an aging U.S. popula- Behavioral Risk Factor Surveil- Latino tion. Although the Latino commu- lance System (BRFSS), almost 35% nity has strong needs in the repro- three-fourths of adult Latinos in ductive health area, mainstream Arizona are overweight (37.1%) Non-Latino America is more concerned with or obese (36.5%) (CDC 2007). 65% health care at retirement age. These statistics are highly Latinos are also disproportionately correlated with a high level of exposed to social stressors, such sedentarism, common in this as discrimination and lack of edu- population. BRFSS data show Nelba Chavez community commentary
74 When I was the Maricopa County Health Services Director, one morn- rates across race and ethnic ing I saw an elderly Latino patient after she had seen the physician and groups, the rapid fertility-rate received her medicine with clear instructions on dosage, diet, and so declines in some Latin Ameri- “ can countries, such as Mexico, forth. I stopped the lady as she was leaving the clinic...and I asked her suggest that culture is not the if she understood the instructions given to her... Her answer was simply, strongest predictor of fertility. “Sabrá Dios!” (Only God will know!)... She had no idea what to do to help Instead, it may be that women’s education, access to family- herself get well. The instructions had been given to her quickly and in planning information, and public English... Cultural competency was the missing element in quality ser- funding for contraceptive servic- es play a greater role. Although vice.” Arizona has advanced with Adolfo Echeveste laws and policies that facilitate the access to information and contraceptive services, more resources need to be allocated to this effort. that scarcely 48% of Latino appropriate for the Latino male ally appropriate and responsive adults reported that they en- population in Arizona. to the needs of mothers and 8. From a public health perspec- gage in the type and amount their children would reduce tive, Latinos’ relative youth of physical activity needed to 4. YPLL is generally higher for Ari- perinatal deaths. presents a unique opportunity improve and maintain good zona Latinos compared to the for health planning and policy health. state’s White non-Latinos and 6. Infant mortality is an indica- development. Unfortunately, the nationwide Latino popula- tor that is highly sensitive to many Latinos face economic 3. Overall mortality in Arizona tion. The social and economic maternal age and prenatal and social barriers that keep tends to be higher for males burden of premature mortal- care, so it is necessary to them from obtaining preventive than females. Latino males ity for Latino families, and for reduce unintended pregnancies health-care services. This, in have the highest mortality for Arizona in general, should be among adolescents, increase turn, increases the risk of suf- noncommunicable diseases, an area of concern for state the access to prenatal care, fering from preventable diseas- unintentional injuries, suicide, policy makers. A prosperous and improve the adequacy of es. The lack of health insurance and homicide overall. Public society and economy in Arizona prenatal care services offered is an important obstacle to health policy that is sensitive is clearly connected to the to Latino mothers. the prevention and treatment to gender differences should state’s Latino community living of disease among Latinos in be also a priority in Arizona. a longer and healthier life. 7. In analyzing whether inequal- Arizona. n The experience of targeted, ity in access to contraceptive community-based programs in 5. Maternal health should be services and women’s lack of California and elsewhere could another priority. Reproductive reproductive-health information lead to a set of best practices health programs that are cultur- explain differences in fertility The State of Latino Arizona 2009
Hilda García-Pérez (Ph.D. in Epidemiol- CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Pre- org/pubs/state_data/states/arizona.pdf. 75 ogy) is an assistant professor in ASU’s vention). 1999–2006. WISQARS Years (last accessed on July 11, 2009). Department of Transborder Chicana/o of Potential Life Lost (YPLL) Reports. MacDorman, Marian F., William M. Cal- and Latina/o Studies. Her research and National Center for Injury Prevention laghan, T. J. Mathews, et al. 2007. teaching expertise includes women’s and and Control, National Center for Health Trends in Preterm-Related Infant immigrants’ health, community develop- Statistics. Available at http://webappa. Mortality by Race and Ethnicity: United ment and disease prevention, and border cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/ypll10.html (last States, 1999-2004. National Center health policy. accessed on July 11, 2009). for Health Statistics. Available at http:// ______. 2008a. Arizona 2008: Over- www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/ Seline Szkupinski Quiroga (Ph.D. Medi- weight and Obesity. Behavioral Risk pubd/hestats/infantmort99-04/infant- cal Anthropology) is an assistant profes- Factor Surveillance System. Available at mort99-04.htm (last accessed on July sor in ASU’s Department of Transborder http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/brfss/display. 18, 2009). Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies. She has a asp?cat=OB&yr=2008&qkey=4409 commitment to community-based partici- PeriStats. 2009a. Early Prenatal Care by &state=AZ (last accessed on July 11, Race/Ethnicity: Arizona, 2004-2006 patory research, and a research focus on 2009). health disparities and the lived experience Average. March of Dimes Foundation. of illness among vulnerable populations as ______. 2008b. Arizona 2008: Exercise. Available at http://www.marchofdimes. revealed through narratives. She has been Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Sys- com/Peristats/level1.aspx?dv=ms® engaged in Latino health research since tem. Available at http://apps.nccd.cdc. =04&top=2&stop=4&lev=1&slev=4& the early 1990s. gov/brfss/race.asp?cat=EX&yr=2008& obj=1 (last accessed on July 11, 2009) qkey=4347&state=AZ (last accessed ______. 2009b. Inadequate Prenatal Care References and Additional Readings on July 11, 2009). by Race/Ethnicity: Arizona, 2004-2006 ADHS (Arizona Department of Health Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Average. March of Dimes Foundation. Services). 2005. Drowning Deaths, Initiative. 2005. National Survey of Chil- Available at http://www.marchofdimes. Arizona, 1994-2004: Key Findings. dren’s Health, Data Resource Center on com/Peristats/level1.aspx?dv=ls®= Phoenix, AZ: ADHS. Child and Adolescent Health. Available 04&top=5&stop=37&lev=1&slev=4&o at www.nschdata.org (last accessed on bj=1 (last accessed on July 11, 2009). ______. 2006a. Arizona Child Fatality Re- July 18, 2009). view Program Annual Report. Phoenix, Urban Institute and the Kaiser Commis- AZ: ADHS. DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, Bernadette D. sion on Medicaid and the Uninsured. Proctor, and Jessica C. Smith. 2008. 2008. Arizona: Uninsured Rates for the ______. 2006b. Arizona Health Status Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Nonelderly by Race/Ethnicity, States and Vital Statistics. Table 2B-3. Avail- Coverage in the United States: 2007. (2006-2007). Data from the Current able at http://azdhs.gov/plan/report/ahs/ U.S. Census Bureau, Current Popula- Population Survey 2008. Available ahs2006/pdf/2b3.pdf (last accessed on tion Reports, P60-235. Washington, at http://www.statehealthfacts.org/ July 10, 2009). D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. profileind.jsp?ind=138&cat=3&rgn=4 ______. 2008. Differences in the Health Available at http://www.census.gov/ (last accessed on July 19, 2009). Status among Race/Ethnic Groups, prod/2008pubs/p60-235.pdf (last ac- U.S. Census Bureau. 2007. State and Arizona 2007. Available at http://www. cessed on July 19, 2009). County Quick Facts. Available at azdhs.gov/plan/report/dhsag/dhsag07/ Guttmacher Institute. 2006a. Contracep- http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/ ethnic07.pdf (last accessed on July 11, tion Counts: Ranking State Efforts. states/04000lk.html (last accessed on 2009). Phoenix, AZ: ADHS. Available at http://www.agi-ny.org/ July 11, 2009). Burkholder, B. 2002. Magnet Force: pubs/2006/02/28/IB2006n1.pdf. (last U.S. Census Bureau. 2009. State and Immigrants, Health and Social Policy accessed on July 11, 2009). County QuickFacts. Available at in Arizona. An Arizona Health Futures ______. 2006b. Contraception Counts: http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/ Background Report. Phoenix, AZ: St. Arizona. Available at http://www.agi-ny. states/04000.html (last accessed on Luke’s Health Initiatives. July 1, 2009). the arts
“Impressively, this art emerged from the Chicano insistence on relevance and multiplicity of identity that people too often perceived as misspent rage, exotic symbols, and statements seeking justice and resolution.” The State of Latino Arizona 2009
77 genesis and development of latino/a of its Mexican-origin communities. (Brains and Heart) was on May Art, in its many forms, was an 20, 1915. Until 1923, Teatro Car- expressive culture in arizona: theater, integral part of both public and pri- men performed Spanish-language literature, film, music, and art vate life for Mexican-origin people. literary productions, operas, mu- by Carlos Vélez-Ibáñez, Paul Espinosa, James Garcia, This tradition of artistic expression sicals, and melodramas (Sheridan Marta Sanchez and Michelle Martinez continues in a variety of forms to 1986). this day throughout the state. Today’s flourishing theater-arts scene owes its beginnings to Influenced by Spain, the Catholic Church, and Theater these early efforts. Teatro Bravo, Mexico’s indigenous peoples, Mexican arts came to The theater arts have flourished founded in 1999, is led by artistic among Arizona’s Latino popula- director Guillermo Reyes, an ac- Arizona beginning in the colonial period when Span- tion, although waning and waxing claimed playwright and a professor according to economic vicissi- of theater at Arizona State Univer- ish friars introduced European artistic cultural ex- tudes. A contemporary explosion sity. It produces three to four new pression, much of it based on the Roman Catholic in theater owes its beginnings to or established works in English some key early efforts. and Spanish each year. Among liturgy. Paintings and figurines that blend Christian Two theaters, Teatro Cervantes the company’s most noteworthy and native motifs can still be seen today in the San and Teatro Americano, appeared productions are Women of Juárez in Tucson in the 1870s. They by Rubén Amavizca—staged in Xavier del Bac mission church, south of Tucson. hosted traveling troupes like the both English and Spanish; Places During family celebrations and at public events, Compañía Dramática Española, to Touch Him by Guillermo Reyes, whose director, Pedro C. de Pel- which drew strong gay and La- early Españoles Mexicanos also developed a secular lon, founded the first group of tino community support; and a amateur actors in the town—the Spanish-language adaptation of version of the arts, which included sharing music, Teatro Recreo—in 1878. In the Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet participating in pantomimes, poetry and prose read- late 19th and early 20th centu- by Latin American author and poet ries, other theaters included El Pablo Neruda. ings, and elaborate and often music-filled parades Principal, El Clifton, El Lírico, and The New Carpa Theater Compa- and processions. El Royal, which was an important ny, founded in Phoenix in 2002 by venue for La Nacional Dramatic award-winning playwright James Company. However, Carmen Soto E. Garcia (this essay’s co-author), In the late 19th and early 20th similar artistic expressions. By the Vásquez built Tucson’s first theater stages Latino and multicultural centuries, festivities around Mexi- early 20th century, Arizona had a explicitly for Spanish-language works—mostly in English. Major can national holidays—like the thriving Mexican and Spanish the- performances, Teatro Carmen. The productions have included Garcia’s fiestas patrias, celebrating Mexi- atrical, musical, arts and crafts, Sonoran-mission-style building plays Voices of Valor, Dream Act, can Independence, or Cinco de and expository religious-secular was designed by renowned archi- American Pastorela, and A Boy Mayo, commemorating the Battle tradition that expressed much of tect, Manuel Flores. The inaugural Named Cesar. The Phoenix Valley of Puebla in 1862—also included the cultural and ideological values performance of Cerebro y Corazon Theater is home to at least two 78 other fledgling Spanish-language ish to Me, a commissioned work ity tales—were published in 32 and Latina writers although most community theater companies: by Bernardo Solano. During the Spanish-language newspapers and initially self-published their work. Bru’s Musical Theater and Teatro past decade, the Arizona Theater magazines in Tucson (Sheridan El Espejo-The Mirror, published Wirrarika. Company (ATC) has staged La Ma- 1986). Early writers included Fran- in 1968 by Octavio Romano-V, Tucson’s Borderlands Theater linche by Carlos Morton and Anna cisco Dávila, Amado Cota-Robles, was the first anthology of Mexican Company is an internationally in the Tropics, Nilo Cruz’s Pulitzer- Carmen Celia Beltrán, and Ramón American literature. Miguel Mé- recognized professional troupe. prize-winning play. ATC also hosts Soto, with Beltrán publishing ndez and Carlos G. Vélez-Ibáñez It focuses on “Latino/Chicano” a nationwide competition, the through the 1940s. (this essay’s co-author) each theater, although it also presents National Latino Playwriting Award. Before the 1960s, Arizona’s contributed two stories. work “that reflects the diversity Winners present their plays as “Hispanic” writers produced few Throughout the Southwest, an of the voices of the Southwest staged readings, although Felix literary works in English. Some explosion of literary works fol- border region.” Over the years, Pire’s The Origins of Happiness in exceptions can be found among lowed. Bisbee-born Méndez self- Borderlands Theater has present- Latin received a full production. the newly minted veterans return- published Peregrinos de Aztlán ed the works of Bernardo Solano, ing from the Second World War. In (1974; in translation, Pilgrims in Elaine Romero, Luis Alfaro, Victor Literature 1947, Mario Suárez was the first Aztlán [Bilingual Review Press, Hugo Rascon, and Guillermo Through the Second World War, Arizona Latino to have a short story 1992]). It became one of the Reyes. Since 1988, the com- members of Arizona’s Mexican published, in the Arizona Quarterly. most highly regarded Chicano nov- pany’s Border Playwrights Project communities maintained a rich Although he continued to write els of twentieth-century change has helped develop the work of correspondence in Spanish with prolifically, only one other story and migration. Many more works more than 50 writers. Romero, relatives living elsewhere. Much of was published during his lifetime. followed Peregrinos, including a Tucson-based playwright, has this source of literature and fund “Chicanos,” as Mr. Suárez referred Los criaderos humanos: épica de noted that Borderland’s reputation of knowledge has unfortunately to his stories’ characters, were los desamparados y Sahuaros for professionalism and its uncon- been lost, removed by the Arizona not seen fit to be protagonists of (poems; 1975), Cuento para niños ventional approach to live theater educational system, so that later published works. His short stories precoces (1980), The Dream have made it an important voice in generations of Mexican Americans were published only posthumously of Santa María de las Piedras the nation’s Latino theater com- had little or no acquaintance with as Chicano Sketches: Short Stories (1989)), and Entre letras y ladrillos munity. their parents’ or grandparents’ by Mario Suárez (2004), fully 57 (1996, in translation, From Labor Professional theater companies knowledge. years after the appearance of his to Letters: A Novel Autobiography in Phoenix have begun offering But the central point is that the first story. In the case of Frank [1997]). These works earned him audiences more Latino-themed Mexican community was largely Mesa, another Tucson veteran, two high honors in both academic and works in recent years. Arizona literate and fairly well read in orange crates full of manuscripts international circles. Jewish Theater recently premiered Mexican and Latin American liter- and rejection letters filled a corner Similarly ensconced in the hu- Parted Waters, an original work ary classics. The people enjoyed of his small apartment—a rejec- mor and vitality of Mexican-origin about crypto-Judaism in the Latino reciting poetry, participating in tion experience not uncommon peoples are Gary Keller’s early four community. Since 2001, Actors declamation, and writing prose. among Latino writers. short stories, Tales of El Huitlaco- Theater has staged Spic-O-Rama Between about 1877 and 1921, With the emergence of the Chi- che (1984). He followed that with by John Leguizamo, Bordertown by literary works—including essays, cano movement, publishers began Zapata Rose (1992) and Zapata Culture Clash, and Speak Span- poetry, short stories, and moral- to pay some attention to Latino Lives! (1994), among the very The State of Latino Arizona 2009
79 first serial creative short stories. lections include The Iguana Killer, of outrage over the treatment of enjoyment but also important edu- A highly respected literary figure, which won the first Western States farm workers, Marchitas de mayo: cational and enculturative sourc- Gary Keller is singularly respon- Book Award for Fiction, judged by sones pa’l pueblo. es. Since the early 20th century, sible for much of the renaissance Robert Penn Warren. Ríos’s award Like Preciado and Cota-Cárde- films shown in Mexican theaters in Chicano literature through his winning memoir, Capirotada: A nas, Stella Pope Duarte’s literary like the Orpheum in Phoenix and establishment of the Bilingual Nogales Memoir (1999), like Pre- lenses and award-winning books the Plaza in Tucson served as Review Press at ASU. ciado’s work, simultaneously treats are universal and particularistic. mediums of cultural production As prolific as Méndez, Tucson- universal human issues in local Born and raised in South Phoe- and reproduction. For generations born Patricia Preciado Martín and border contexts. It is filled nix, Duarte’s major works include of tucsonenses—from those who produces touching, poignant, with Mexican wit, Anglo hope, and Fragile Night (1997), a collection were descendants of the original feminist, and universal works. Her a borderlands mix of drive and of short stories owing much of 18th-century settlers to those who award-winning oral histories, short wonder. [2] their genesis to a dream about her arrived after the Mexican Revolu- stories, and documentary novellas Margarita Cota-Cárdenas, born deceased father. Let their Spirits tion and during and after World include Images and Conversa- in California’s Imperial Valley, Dance (2003) is a novel about the War II—films featuring Cantinflas, tions: Mexican Americans Recall echoes the border foci of Mén- yearnings for reconciliation after Pedro Armendáriz, Pedro Infante, a Southwestern Past (1983), dez and Ríos, and like Preciado the death of a son in Vietnam. María Félix, the Soler Brothers, Songs My Mother Sang to Me: An filters her characters through a If I Die in Juárez (2008) follows and of course Tin Tan—the fa- Oral History of Mexican American feminist looking glass. Living in three young women to their tragic mous El Paso influenced “pa- Women (1992), and El Milagro Arizona since 1970, she has had deaths alongside hundreds of oth- chuco”—helped ensure language and Other Stories (1996). [1] a distinguished literary career as ers who have met similar fates in maintenance, cultural recogni- Like Preciado Martín, Nogales- a novelist, poet, and teacher. Set that border town. tion, and social connection. They born Alberto Ríos is universalis- within the context of a murder by All these authors represent were also an important basis for tic, prolific, and poetic. He has police of a working-class Chicano, different genres, styles, modes of a transborder and transnational authored nine books and chapter her Puppet (1985) is considered perception, and cultural experi- identity. Rather than traveling to books of poetry, three collections to be the first novel in Spanish by ences. Individually their corpuses Mexico, second- and third-gener- of short stories, and a memoir. a Chicana (an English translation of works make up significant and ation Mexicans in Tucson took the His poetry includes The Theater appeared in 2000). Sanctuar- important creations of Mexican, Laos Bus line to the theater on of Night, winner of the 2007 ies of the Heart = Santuarios Chicano, and Latino literatures in Congress Street. PEN/Beyond Margins Award; The del corazón: A Novella in English the literary and artistic explosion Across the street was the Lyric Smallest Muscle in the Human and Spanish appeared in 2005. that has marked the 1990s to the Theater, which showed second-run Body, finalist for the National Book She is the cofounder of Scorpion present. American movies at prices af- Award; and Whispering to Fool the Press, which published her poetry, fordable to a large working-class Wind, which won the Walt Whit- including Noches despertando in Film population. Here Mexican fami- man Award. His short story col- conciencias and the declaration For Arizona Latinos, films have lies had the opportunity to see not only been great sources of Humphrey Bogart, Gary Cooper, [1] Other works by Preciado Martín include Amor Eterno: Eleven Lessons in Love and [2] Days of Plenty, Days of Want. Less known but historically and culturally authentic and Additional works by Alberto Ríos include The Dangerous Shirt, Teodoro Luna’s Two beautifully told are Plumas (1996), The Dancer (1996), and The Legend of the Bellringer Kisses: Poems, The Curtain of Trees: Stories, and Pig Cookies and Other Stories. of San Agustin (1980). Bettina Nava The State of Latino Arizona 2009
81 Barbara Stanwick, Tom Mix, Betty of his life doing something worth- ent. Los Veteranos of World War hallmark of the music played in Grable, and Roy Rogers, among while. II: A Mission for Social Change in Arizona. The Club Filarmónico de many others, in diverse genres. This theme of struggle is the Central Arizona is Pete Dimas’s Tucson, founded in 1897 by Fed- Language was learned, colloqui- subject of many of Paul Espinosa’s fine documentary of the men and erico José María Ronstadt, born alisms practiced, and the films’ films. He has written award- women who founded VFW Post 41 in Delicias, Sonora, played original optimism often coated over this winning films, like Los Mineros after they were refused member- orchestral compositions, classi- population’s reality of hard work, (1991), a 50-year history of the ship in other American Legions. It cal pieces, and American music low pay, and exploitative practices. struggles of Mexican miners in depicts their fight against discrimi- as well. Ronstadt’s daughter, For those generations, films the Clifton-Morenci copper mines, nation and ill-treatment in post- Luisa, became an internationally were very much a family affair, aired by PBS. He has written, Second-World-War Phoenix. known interpreter of Spanish song indulged in once a month. Yet, directed, or produced many other Most works engaging the Ari- and dance in the 1930s, under Latino actors and actresses, for films that engage the entire border zona Latinos have explored central the name of Luisa Espinel. His the most part, did not get to play region, like The Trail North (1983) issues they face and, importantly, granddaughter, Linda Ronstadt, is positive roles on screen. Instead, and 1492 Revisited (1992). [3] as they continue to do today, how one of the most famous, versatile they stereotypically occupied neg- Other documentaries include they overcame those issues and singers of recent times. Other fa- ative roles—criminals and loose David Lee Guss’s The Border Real won their rightful place in Ameri- mous musical groups that played women, among other things— and Imaginary, Past and Pres- can society. between 1917 and the mid-1930s mostly because of their skins’ mel- ent (1979), a visual essay using include the Quintero Popular Mexi- anin. This seems to have abated photographic still images and Music cano, the Orquesta Navarro, the with the Chicano Movement and music, and Joaquin Rodrigo’s Music has always played a Orquesta León, and the Orquesta because of the pressure exerted Concierto de Aranjuez, unfolding major role in the lives of Latino Típica Mexicana (Sheridan 1986). by Latino actors themselves, like the contradictions and alienation families in Arizona. In Mexican Other influences have blended Ricardo Montalbán. of border life. Louis Hock’s La neighborhoods to this day, melo- easily into Arizona’s Latino com- Films made about or by Arizona Mera Frontera (1997) is about a dies from conjuntos, bandas, munities, including música Latinos have been few. Most are 1918 border clash between Mexi- and trios are often heard floating tropical, introduced by visiting documentaries or docudramas can and U.S. troops in Nogales. from houses and patios. Almost Mexican orchestras, like that elucidating social, economic, or Una Segunda Vista (A Second every extended family has at least of Luis Alcaraz. The 1950s saw cultural issues. An exception is Look: Arizona’s Hispanic Heritage) one musician or vocalist who is the popularization of Cuban and Roosters (1994) written by Milcha (1992), produced by William Mc- called upon to perform at ritual Puerto Rican versions of the Sanchez-Scott, which depicts Cune Productions for Television, activities and family festivities. mambo, cha-cha, and danzón the struggle of a former inmate, is a history of the Spanish and Often generational mixes of rap, and jarocho music from Veracruz. whose dream is to balance out the Mexican presence in Arizona from corridos, cumbias, and bachatas Yet, undoubtedly American swing, time served by spending the rest the early explorations to the pres- will be played. There is no more jazz, rhythm and blues, and the eclectic representation of musical “big band” sound of the 1940s [3] More films by Paul Espinosa: Ballad of an Unsung Hero (1984), The Lemon Grove tastes than the music played at profoundly influenced the music Incident (1986), In the Shadow of the Law (1988), Uneasy Neighbors (1990), The New a baptismal party after a child’s Latinos played, including Mexican Tijuana (1990), The Hunt for Pancho Villa (1993), … And The Earth Did Not Swallow Him (1996), The U.S. Mexican War: 1846-1848 (1998), The Border (1999), Visiones: Taco christening. and Chicano versions of Tommy Shop Poets (2004),and California and the American Dream (2006). Eclecticism is, indeed, the Dorsey and Glenn Miller. Bands, 82 like The Music Makers, directed by A quintent, Los Charritos Alegres, gious values with European ones. and used her or his talents for the Pete Bugarin, played a variety of also formed by Pete Bugarin, From the American period until backdrops in theater presenta- music. Ralph Amado Chavarria’s played traditional Mexican music the 1960s, painting by Latinos tions as well as presented annual Chapito Chavarria Orchestra also and rancheras on KOY Radio in a was largely restricted to work in-school showings. However, played “jaiton” (“high tone,” that thirty-minute, early-morning show made for theater broadsides and few if any were ever afforded the is, danzones and boleros). Louis on Tuesdays in 1935. festival posters or for personal fa- opportunity to display their works León and his Orchestra (Orquesta Mariachi music, of course, is milial showings. In many Mexican in any formal manner and only Luis León) played everything now a staple played throughout households, daughters painted rarely were they exhibited in public from rancheras to Dixieland. Arizona, but it is a relatively recent scrollwork on wooden serving dish- museums, galleries, or in private Tucson-born Lalo Guerrero was an arrival, having been introduced es, cups, and trays, and this type venues. iconic figure who represented the in Los Angeles in the 1950s of “household” art could be seen As was the case with Latino Mexican-American generation of from central Mexico. In the early on walls or hanging over arches literature, it was not until the the late 1930s and 1940s. Raised 1960s, a Catholic priest in Tuc- and entranceways. Scrollwork on advent of the Chicano Movement on traditional Mexican trio mu- son’s Santa Cruz Church orga- iron or wood doors was not un- that any attention was paid to the sic, when he played in Hollywood nized a group of youngsters into usual, and prominent non-Mexican artistic talents of Mexican-origin clubs in the 1940s, American jazz, Arizona’s first Mariachi band, the families in Tucson often ordered populations. The Movement laid swing, and boogie-woogie strongly Changitos Feos (Ugly Little Mon- it specially made for their homes. the foundations for the individual influenced him. His music was al- keys). Former members of that The same ornamental motifs that showings of the present day. In ways varied, and he experimented band founded the first professional were popular in the 18th century the 1970s, the Phoenix area saw with corridos, danzones, boleros, group, Mariachi Cobre, in 1971. are today found on security bars the start of MARS (Movimiento salsas, mambos, música tropical, Tucson’s annual Mariachi Confer- for doors and windows. Needle- Artístico del Rio Salado or the Salt and even the protest music of the ence has given a strong impulse point, home altars, and gardens River Artistic Movement). And in Chicano movement. to this genre. organized around principles 1975, Xicanindio (now Xico, Inc.) Although eclecticism reigns, harkening back to the Alhambra was launched. One of the found- certain sounds are better known The Arts also are part of the artistic sense ers, Zarco Guerrero, is among than others. The Mexican cor- Today, Tucson is home to 133 of beauty and expression. Many the best-known artists, Latino or rido is an icon in the state. The murals painted by Mexican-origin working-class houses had artistic otherwise, in Arizona. A sculptor, Mexican Revolution produced a artists (Vélez-Ibáñez 1996; Pima motifs on their adobe-plastered mask maker (featured in a PBS very large array of these songs Arts Council 1993). However, the walls that mimicked the art on the documentary), and playwright, he and with them, the conjunto, first mural-frescos in Arizona were interior patio walls at San Xavier. has had one of his plays per- consisting of an accordion player, painted by unidentified Hispano- “Art,” then, in many Mexican formed at the Kennedy Center in two violinists, and a bass viola. Mexicanos in the late 1700s. neighborhoods not only was Washington. Guerrero is also a A countless number of conjuntos Examples still survive at San utilitarian and decorative but also performance artist and founded spread throughout Arizona, and Xavier del Bac. The early religious reflected a broader apprecia- one of the oldest Day of the Dead anywhere American Sonorans frescoes not only were a state- tion of artistic expression. It was festivals (apart from the very tradi- lived, conjuntos were present at ment of religious beliefs but also highly likely that in most Mexican tional one held in Guadalupe). His parties, rituals, public settings, pictorial overlays that functioned households there was at least one wife, Carmen, is an arts activist. restaurants, schools, and homes. to spatially replace indigenous reli- “artista,” who excelled in school A communal versus individualis- The State of Latino Arizona 2009
83 A kaleidoscope of artistic expression reflects the cultural shift from communal art to highly individualistic interpretations of hybrid ideas, people, and events. No longer necessarily framed “ by the communal insistence of the mural period, Latino artists use satire as a central mode to criticize how Chicano art is treated as an add-on in public venues. These artists use hybrid modes of expression including performance, plastic, wood sculpture, and canvas renditions.” tic approach is what distinguishes ing education and family. Often individuals, families, students, and Día de los Muertos have provided the art of the 1960s and 1970s transborder, transethnic, and groups both within and outside an outlet for public grief. from that of today. The mural transnational, the themes of these the Latino community. Although In 2007, in the Phoenix area, movement was largely a commu- many murals expressed a defini- this practice seeks to reclaim the Monorchid art space invited Chi- nity and communal approach that tive cultural statement of identity tradition of the Day of the Dead cano artists John Jota Leanos and began in Tucson in 1975, painted and sought to balance the inequi- and is rooted in ancient Mexican Tlsiza Jaurique to show their work. by Antonio Pazos and his group. ties of educational, economic, and indigenous practices, Latino artists Both incorporate imagery inspired They produced at least 10 murals, political representation. blend the traditional imagery and by the Day of the Dead. Leanos strongly identified politically and The Día de los Muertos (Day of sentiment with modern tech- uses digital photography to recre- culturally with ongoing cultural the Dead) has inspired an annual niques, including video instal- ate the human body by combining revitalization actions and edu- outpouring of semi-traditional art lations, paintings, found-object images including precontact indig- cational protests. In the 1980s, and craftwork. Traditional altars in- sculptures, mixed-media paintings, enous bodies and futuristic cyborg 55 murals were commissioned corporating photos, food, flowers, and digital photography. Calaveras limbs. These imaginings play with by artists-in-residence programs, sugar skulls, and the deceased’s adorned with glitter, figurines of the idea that the past and future community centers, city and personal items have always been the Virgen de Guadalupe set on a are interconnected and that sci- county agencies, and a few private at the center of this ritual. How- pedestal made of discarded circuit ence is not something exclusive to businesses. At least 45 more were ever, in recent years, art inspired boards, and heavily adorned the present and future. Jaurique’s painted between 1990 and 1993. by the festivities has appeared in cigar boxes dedicated to popular work also pays tribute to an indig- Another 23 murals are undated, exhibits around the state. Venues celebrity figures like Frida Kahlo, enous past by recreating imagery but most were probably painted in such as the Phoenix Public Library, Selena, and Rita Hayworth are depicting corn and recreations of the post-1980 period. the Mesa Arts Center, ASU’s among the modern altars dis- Mayan drawings in glitter. She has The largely unheard and un- Museum of Anthropology, Visions played. This interest has coincided captured images seen in the Popol stated artistic and political desires Gallery in Chandler, Cuervo Studio with the national tragedies the Vuh, the Mayan creation myth, of Mexican-origin populations are and Gallery, and the City of Gua- United States has faced in the and other ancient stories, such the inspiration for these murals. dalupe in conjunction with Calaca 2000s, including the September as faces in corn stalks and yucca Their themes range from eco- Cultural Arts Organization each 11, 2001, terrorist attacks; the plants. Where one would expect to logical concerns to mythological host an annual call for altars and wars in Iraq and Afghanistan; and see paint, in a technique reminis- depictions of indigenous heroes to artwork that attract submissions Hurricane Katrina. The modern cent of sand paintings, Jaurique pedagogical statements regard- by professional artists as well as artistic rituals associated with El has meticulously and delicately 84 used glitter. Other galleries, in- Melissa Martinez, whose delicate a touring collection Phantom “The Almost Real History of Art in cluding the Trunk Space and the work references nature, literature, Sightings: Art After the Chicano Phoenix,” comments on the city’s Eye Lounge, have featured work politics, and identity. Many Latino Movement. Locals Only was the historical lack of support for Latino by many Latino artists, including artists have included images from first-ever show featuring Latino artists, or perhaps art in its most photographer Annie Lopez and the Mexican game La Lotería in artists living and working in the general sense. Fausto Fernandez sculptor, painter, and installation their work, but Teresa Villegas valley. It featured twelve local calls attention to garment-industry artist Marco Albarrán. brings it to life in her series that Chicano artists, including Martín workers in his series of paintings. Most recently, members of the reinterprets it in bright paintings, Moreno. His work incorporates A mix of fabric, paint, factory blue- Latino community have launched which were featured in early 2007. the aesthetic of the muralists like prints, pattern instructions, and galleries. Martín Moreno founded The Mesa Arts Center also hosted Diego Rivera and José Clemente images of machine parts make a Cuervo Studio and Gallery. This a traveling exhibit of Cheech Orozco and tackles themes stem- bold statement in these paintings. muralist was heavily involved in Marin’s personal art collection: ming from the Chicano Movement. The underrepresentation of the 1960s Chicano Movement, Papel Chicano. Marin gave a lec- Other featured artists included a Latino artists, however, is chang- and he has helped bridge the ture at the opening of this collec- recent MFA graduate from ASU, ing drastically with the efforts of gap between the generations by tion of work on paper by notable Claudio Dicochea’s mixed-media the Advocates for Latin@ Arts and hosting young Chicano artists in artists who emerged out of the work depicts American popular Culture Consortium, Inc. (ALAC). his gallery. Nydia Cortez, of Puerto Chicano Movement, such as Raul icons like Debbie Harry, Michael With the intention of opening a Rican descent, opened Lo Nuestro Guerrero, Patssi Valdez, Diane Jackson, Prince, Paris Hilton, Latino cultural center similar to gallery to help promote artistic Gamboa, Gaspar Enríquez, and Princess Diana, Dorothy from the those in other major cities with work by the Latino diasporas in many others. In September 2008, Wizard of Oz, and the Creature substantial Latino populations, the Phoenix area. the Mesa Arts Center opened an from the Black Lagoon. He inserts ALAC has held fundraisers and The Mesa Arts Center provided exhibit entitled Slow and Low, images of Mexican Balladeer festivals along with workshops and space for the Latino arts and which featured low riders and art Pedro Infante within these densely performances. When it became culture organization Xico, Inc. inspired by low-rider culture. layered paintings that play with the clear that the Museo Chicano— The center’s inaugural exhibit, The Phoenix Art Museum has traditional Spanish casta system Phoenix’s only museum dedicated Spiritual Frontera was inspired only a few pieces by American- of social stratification, mixing race to Latino art, history, culture, and by El Día de Los Muertos, and born Latinos in their permanent and class hierarchy with double education—was closing, ALAC included drawings, sculptures, collection. One is a papier-mâché images and different levels of mobilized to find a brick and and prints by celebrated Chicano sculpture installation by Tucson- completion. mortar home. In July of 2009, artist Luis Jimenez. In the per- based artist Michael Cajera. Photographer Annie Lopez’s ALAC was granted a lease by the manent collection, the Mesa Arts However, the museum has hosted cyanotype images are of antique Phoenix City Council to occupy Center includes works by Daniel a few exhibits featuring Ameri- photographs she has reimagined. an 8,000-foot storefront space in Martín Diaz, an artist who blends can Latino artwork, including A In one series, “Spic Inglish,” she downtown Phoenix. cultural memory with religious Century of Retablos that exhib- has inserted text spelled phoneti- A kaleidoscope of artistic iconography, renaissance styling, ited colorful wood panels painted cally next to the picture, making expression reflects the cultural surrealism, and musings on what with religious iconography based a statement about the pressure shift from communal art to highly dwells in the subconscious. Since on eighteenth- and nineteenth- on Latinos to speak in English individualistic interpretations of hy- opening, the museum has fea- century New Mexican tradition. In and poking fun at the accent at brid ideas, people, and events. No tured installations by local artist July 2009, the museum hosted the same time. Her other series, longer necessarily framed by the The Adjutant General of Arizona Major General Hugo Salazar Mary Lou Valenzuela The State of Latino Arizona 2009
87 communal insistence of the mural historical and cultural creativity of Enterprise; and the president of the Phoe- 1995 (U Texas Press, 2005). She is a period, Latino artists use satire populations too often reduced to nix chapter of the National Association of book series Editor of Latinidad: Trans- as a central mode to criticize how intemperate labels. Latino Independent Producers. Garcia has national Cultures in the United States for written and produced more than a dozen Rutgers University Press. Chicano art is treated as an add- This short description of Latino plays. His upcoming work includes, among on in public venues. These artists arts in Arizona cannot do justice to others, The Tears of Lives (Playhouse on Contributors: Rick Rodriguez, Ruben use hybrid modes of expression in- the complex history of Latino the- the Park). The Crossing won the national Hernandez, Devon Leal Bridgewater, and cluding performance, plastic, wood ater, literature, music, and plastic short play competition at the Kennedy Patricia Bonn Center American College Theater Festival sculpture, and canvas renditions. art in the state. This array of work in 2003. This shift, however, also reveals not only illustrates the enormous References and Further Readings Albarran, Marcos. Personal interview with the multiplex and multidimensions changes that Mexican and Latino Michelle J. Martinez is an Arizona born Michelle Martinez. 11 July 2009. of the very identities that the Chi- populations in Arizona have experi- writer, poet, artist, and community college cano movement interpreted from enced as the generations pass but and university instructor who teaches Cano-Murillo, Kathy. Personal interview with Michelle Martinez. 11 July 2009. its early, complex identity frame. it also reveals the heterogeneity courses in Chicano/a and Latino/a studies and cultural production, film, and literature Diocechea, Claudio. Personal interview . This individualistic art, as a recent of popular culture, reflecting the for various programs at South Mountain with Michelle Martinez 11 July 2009. newspaper article (Nilsen 2009) much broader demographic and Community College and Arizona State Gonzalez, Rita, Howard N. Fox, and Chon University. articulated, blurs working-class historical changes since the 19th A. Noriega. 2008. Phantom Sightings: and elite art; is satirical; uses lo- century. Latino arts in Arizona will Art After the Chicano Movement. Los Paul Espinosa is a Filmmaker and a Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum cal and pop culture motifs, bright not decline; instead, we are seeing Professor in the Department of Transbor- of Art. colors, hybrid cultural expression; an explosion in all the expressive der Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies at and emphasizes community and arts. n Arizona State University which he joined Mesa Arts Center. Mesa Arts Center. Avail- family as central features. Like its in 2004. Through his company, Espinosa able at http://www.mesaartscenter.com (last accessed on July 8, 2009. predecessors, however, this new Carlos G. Vélez-Ibáñez is Presidential Productions (www.EspinosaProductions. com), he has been involved with producing individualist art continues the tra- Motorola Professor of Neighborhood Moreno, Martin. Personal interview with Revitalization, professor and chair in ASU’s award-winning films for nearly 30 years, Michelle Martinez. 11 July 2009. ditional use of an almost baroque Department of Transborder Chicana/o and specializing in documentary and dramatic Nilsen, Richard. 2009. Chicano Art: A New penchant for detail. Equally impor- Latina/o Studies, and emeritus professor films focused on the U.S.-Mexico border Vision Chicano Art Shifts Focus from tant, it recognizes and expresses of Anthropology, University of California, region. His films have been screened at Cultural Identity to Larger World. The that most hybrid of experiences— Riverside. His research and five books festivals around the world and have won Arizona Republic. July 8. have won numerous academic prizes. He many awards including eight Emmys. living in the borderlands. Pima Arts Council. 1993. Murals [booklet is an elected Fellow of the American As- Espinosa received his B.A. degree from with map]. Tucson: Tucson/Pima Arts Impressively, this art emerged sociation of the Advancement of Science, Brown University and his Ph.D. from Stan- Council. from the Chicano insistence on the Society for Applied Anthropology, ford University. relevance and multiplicity of identi- and the American Anthropology Associa- Sheridan, Thomas. 1986. Los Tucso- ty that people too often perceived tion, and a former fellow at the Center Marta E. Sánchez is Professor of Trans- nenses: The Mexican Community in for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral border Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies Tucson, 1854-1941. Tucson: University as misspent rage, exotic symbols, Sciences, Stanford University. at Arizona State University. She is the of Arizona Press. and statements seeking justice author of Contemporary Chicana Poetry: A Vélez-Ibáñez, Carlos. 1996. Border and resolution. Whether individu- James E. Garcia is a Phoenix-based Critical Analysis of an Emerging Literature Visions: Mexican cultures of the South- alistic or communal, Chicano and journalist, playwright, university instructor, (UC Press, 1985), the first critical analysis west United States. Tucson: University Latino Art like its artistic brethren and media consultant. He is the founder of poetry by Chicanas, and “Shakin’ Up” of Arizona Press. and producing artistic director of Phoenix’s Race and Gender: Intercultural Connec- in literature, film, music, and the- New Carpa Theater Company; a board tions in Puerto Rican, African American ater all emerge from the complex member of the Arizona Latino Research and Chicano Narratives and Culture 1965- credits and acknowledgments
This report would not have been possible Nancy Jordan ASU Office of the Vice President Tony Reyes without the generous support of many people. Virgil Renzulli of Educational Partnerships Salvador Reza Thank you to all those who participated in Terri Shafer Eugene Garcia Pete Rios the discussions and planning, who took part Mehmet Dali Öztürk as readers, writers, and editors, contribut- Barbara Shaw-Snyder Rick Rodriguez ing ideas, photos and time to this report. Shawna Tibbett J. Luke Wood Tio Tachias In particular, we acknowledge the following Paulina Vasquez-Morris individuals and groups. Creative Services ASU WP Carey School of Business Santos Vega Jennifer Bostick Loui Olivas Mary Rose Wilcox Arizona Latino Research Allison Perlis Enterprise Tom Story ASU Senior Vice President and Photographs Paul Berumen Steve Swain General Counsel Edith Auslander James Garcia Kyle Thompson Jose Cardenas Ernest Calderón, President, . Eric Gudiño Arizona Board of Regents Sal Rivera Photography Patricia Rosas Translations Carl Hayden High School . Lisa Urias Tom Story Patricia Rosas Robotics Club Students Tim Trumble - p. 48 & 49 Governor Raul H. Castro Arizona Public Service Community Reviewers Nelba Chavez Miguel Bravo ASU Office of the President and Contributors Councilman Adam Diaz . with Francis Diaz Michael Crow Amanda Aguirre Daniel Fontes Arizona State University Denise Quiroz Catherine Anaya ASU Department of Transborder Frank Barrios Mary Jo French Chicana/o and Latina/o Studies Congressman Raúl M. Grijalva ASU Center for Community Devon Leal Bridgewater Edward Escobar Development and Civil Rights Richard De Uriarte Senator Alfredo Gutierrez . with David Ramirez Paul Espinosa College of Public Programs Adolfo Echeveste Matt Molina Hilda García Pérez Patricia Bonn Tupac Enrique The Honorable . Lisa Magaña James Garcia Margie Emmerman Barbara Rodriguez Mundell Miguel Montiél Alejandro Perilla Maria Felix Bettina Nava with Bianca Nava Marta Sánchez Bárbara Robles Peter Granillo Congressman Ed Pastor Seline Szkupinski-Quiroga Raul Yzaguirre Adelita Grijalva Council Member Regina Romero Carlos Vélez Ibáñez Zarco and Carmen Guerrero Luz Sarmina Linda Mazon Gutierrez ASU School of Historical, The Adjutant General of Arizona . ASU Office of Public Affairs Philosophical, and Religious Ruben Hernandez Major General Hugo Salazar Paul Berumen Studies, College of LIbaral Yolanda Kizer Arts and Sciences Kent Paredes Scribner William Dabars Paul Luna F. Arturo Rosales Mary Lou Valenzuela Liza del Mundo Manuel Medina Sandra Ferniza Jaime Molera Hayden Library Archives Printing of the report was made Eric Gudiño and Special Collections Danny Ortega possible through the generous donation of Arizona Public Service. Kenja Hassan Christine Marín Mike Ortega