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Political Rhetoric and the Challenges to Diversity in Russia

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Political Rhetoric and the Challenges to Diversity in Russia POLITICAL RHETORIC AND THE CHALLENGES TO DIVERSITY IN RUSSIA Viktoria Martovskaya ECMI WORKING PAPER #89 November 2015 ECMI- Working Paper # 89 The European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) is a non-partisan institution founded in 1996 by the Governments of the Kingdom of Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, and the German State of Schleswig-Holstein. ECMI was established in Flensburg, at the heart of the Danish-German border region, in order to draw from the encouraging example of peaceful coexistence between minorities and majorities achieved here. ECMI’s aim is to promote interdisciplinary research on issues related to minorities and majorities in a European perspective and to contribute to the improvement of interethnic relations in those parts of Western and Eastern Europe where ethno-political tension and conflict prevail. ECMI Working Papers are written either by the staff of ECMI or by outside authors commissioned by the Centre. As ECMI does not propagate opinions of its own, the views expressed in any of its publications are the sole responsibility of the author concerned. ECMI Working Paper # 89 European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) Director: Dr. Tove H. Malloy © ECMI 2015 2 | P a g e ECMI- Working Paper # 89 POLITICAL RHETORIC AND THE CHALLENGES TO DIVERSITY IN RUSSIA The author of this publication argues that negative societal trends - namely, raising the levels of inter-ethnic tensions, intolerance to diversity and hostility to the ‘others’ – can be predicted through the analysis of political rhetoric. The method of reconstruction of society through the analysis of rhetoric can serve as an early -warning system detecting the approach of an ethnic crisis. Viktoria Martovskaya November 2015 ECMI Working Paper # 89 I. INTRODUCTION head of the Federal Migration Office, Konstantin Romodanovskiy, claimed that in In January 2014 the state news agency RIA most of the cases the ‘foreigners’ were Novosti published statistics, according to themselves guilty due to their misbehavior.5 which Moscow and Saint Petersburg He stated that they should have learned how occupied leading positions in number of to adapt to the Russian realities and not to attacks committed on ethnic grounds in annoy the local population.6 The rhetoric 2013.1 As a result of the attacks that took used by the official justified the actions of place in 32 regions of Russia,2 20 people nationalists and reversed the situation, were killed and 173 injured. In Moscow representing the Russian majority as the real eight people were killed and 53 injured, and victims, which led to the new wave of in Saint Petersburg three people were killed attacks in January 2014. By the end of and 32 injured.3 The research showed that January 2014, nationalists had injured 11 the main victims were immigrants from people and killed one Uzbek immigrant in Central Asia (13 dead, 39 injured) and Moscow7 and thereafter (in March 2014) Caucasus (three dead, 26 injured).4 started organizing train-checks. 8 “The white Regardless of the dramatic statistics, the car”9 initiative involved groups of 30-40 3 | P a g e ECMI- Working Paper # 89 masked people searching for non-Russian cognition of a discourse community that looking persons in order to initiate fights. possesses common knowledge, attitudes, The government and the mass media did not ideologies, grammar, rules, norms and address this issue. values.15 At the same time context is Would it be possible to forecast and constructed on the unique experience and is possibly prevent such negative societal formed through the cognitive interpretation developments? Certainly, a key factor for of an event; thus, the contexts are in fact the prevention of violence and inter-ethnic also mental models that are subjective. tension is the political will and environment, Therefore, in order to understand each other which in the case of Russia is not in favour the addresser and the receiver should of promoting diversity. But exactly due to possess similar mental models of the this fact, the case presents rather clearly the specific event. Another important parameters on the basis of which an early characteristic of context is in its dynamic – warning system could be developed and each person constructs a mental model based used by researchers, analysts, policy, and on his/her knowledge, ongoing situation and decision makers. background information, which means that each model is subjective and is temporarily changing. 16 II. BUILDING A THEORETICAL The participant of a communication event chooses the relevant identity in order to MODEL FOR ANALYSIS create a feeling of commonality with the The political rhetoric is a communicative receivers of his/her message. The identity process that bears political features such as presupposes shared knowledge or demonstration of power or its reverse and is community knowledge that allows an conducted in frames of the political addresser interacting with the receivers. The 10 communicative event . Political rhetoric expressions used in communicative events can be accessed through a thorough and reflect elements of person’s mental model 11 multi-layered discourse analysis, the basic along with the ideology that forms certain 12 element of which is the context perceptions of the situation and can affect (“surrounding conditions and the ways of representation. For example, the 13 consequences” that embrace not only the presence of hidden discourse can be tied to event, but various categories of the ideology of the speaker or targeted communicative events (perception of community and therefore can help to participants, processes of adaptation of determine one of the identities that the 14 discourse, etc.)” The basis of context itself speaker possesses (e.g. as a nationalist, is social, because it presupposes shared 4 | P a g e ECMI- Working Paper # 89 representing interests of the nationalists policy). The notion of agenda itself is party). The way to determine the hidden and devoted to “a set of issues hierarchically visible racist rhetoric is to apply the model arranged according to their importance”.21 of “the ideological square”17 designed by According to Van Dijk, the constituent of Teun Van Dijk with the aim of analysing the the context (reflecting agenda) is produced syntactic units of text and talk.18 R. Wodak during the communicative event through the and M. Reisigl elaborated on this idea and presupposed discussion of a specific issue; proposed several questions helping to the agenda is constitutive (agenda-setting or determine the ideological square: defining the policy) when a speaker introduces new topics during the discussion “1) Referential strategies: How are people in a communicative event, and thus can named and referred to semiotically?; 2) promote real actions e.g. in the field of Predicational Strategies: How are these foreign politics of the country. According to people described? What qualities or the work of the scientist of the Institute for characteristics are attributed to them?; Health Research James W. Dearing and the 3) Argumentation: What arguments (explicit American communication scholar and and/or implicit) are used to support these sociologist Everett M. Rogers, in order to characterizations, and/or justify exploiting determine the position of issues in the and discriminating against others?; subsystems of the agenda-setting theory 4) Perspectivization: From whose (media, public and policy) and define it as perspective are such namings, descriptions agenda setting, the frequency of mentioning and arguments expressed? the problem in media should be estimated.22 5) And are there utterances stated explicitly Following the approach of Joseph P. or implicitly? Are they intensified or Overton, who defined the levels of public mitigated?”19 acceptance of ideas as: unthinkable, radical, acceptable, sensible, popular, policy,23 we The most frequent usage of the racist understand that the introduced project can be discourse nowadays can be coded in the text unthinkable first, but when the actor keeps and talk devoted to minority issues and promoting it, the idea will proceed through immigrants.20 all levels from unthinkable to popular and Political rhetoric, which is will become a policy in the end. Thus, the represented as text or talk, can implement agenda can project vertically from bottom to the functions not only as a constituent of the the top. According to the theory of Van context (reflecting agenda), but also as a Dijk, an agenda is a part of context, which constitutive (agenda-setting or defining the means that it is constructed and correlated 5 | P a g e ECMI- Working Paper # 89 with the other elements of context such as addressers and are based on common knowledge, ideology, experience etc. of the presupposed knowledge.27 The type of speaker (media, political representative, political communication itself can be coded, people etc.) and cannot be analyzed so that in order to decode the message, it is separately as an independent phenomenon, recommended to apply the “ideological which is why the notion of agenda in current square”. research is included in the analysis of the The model developed for the analysis context model. of political rhetoric in Moscow is built on Another crucial condition for the the above-mentioned concepts and involves understanding of discourse is knowledge, a triad of semiotics as a model of which plays an important role in communication between the candidates and communication processes. Most knowledge the electorate. Such elements as the is learnt by vision or experience, but in case ideological square and K-device are of absence of the possibility of direct innovative and have never been applied for interaction with the source of knowledge it the analysis of Russian discourse and can be acquired from discourse (text/talk).24 political rhetoric. The model of analysis of Moreover, in order to be able to produce the political rhetoric can be structured in the discourse (to send communicative messages) following way: the addresser should possess knowledge about the knowledge of the receiver, A.
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