IN SEARCH OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS FOR ECOLOGICAL JUSTICE: A GENDERED ECOLOGICAL READING OF GENESIS I-3 IN THE CONTEXT OF THE TONGA PEOPLE OF ZAMBIA by Jonathan Kangwa Submitted in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Gender and Religion (Biblical) in the School of Religion, Philosophy and Classics in the College of Humanities, University of KwaZulu–Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. Supervisor: Professor Sarojini Nadar December 2014 [i] DECLARATION This dissertation, unless specifically indicated in the text is my original work. I therefore declare that I have not submitted this work to any other institution for examination apart from this University. …………………………… …….17/ 12/2014……... Jonathan Kangwa Date As the supervisor I acknowledge that this dissertation is ready for submission ………………… . ………17/12/2014…… Professor Sarojini Nadar Date [ii] DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to my family and the victims of climate change both in the global north and the global south. The souls of the victims of climate change are the seeds (somos semillas) which have power to help us grow a new and safer world. [iii] ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the meticulous supervision of Professor Sarojini Nadar who helped me to clarify my thinking and who didn’t give up on giving me guidance. This dissertation would not have been possible without her guidance and motivation. I would like also to acknowledge the support of my wife Chileshe Kambikambi and my son Mulumbo Kangwa who constantly reminded me to read and check the emails from my Professor. Special thanks go to the synod of the United Church of Zambia (UCZ) and the members of staff at UCZ University College for the support they rendered to me during my studies. Special mention go to the Synod Bishop Rev. Mutale Mulumbwa, the General Secretary Rev. Dr. Peggy Kabonde, Dr. Musonda Bwalya and Rev. Kapembwa Kondolo. Thanks to my family and friends who have always stood with me even when things were difficult. Your support and encouragement made it possible for me to complete my studies. Special mention go to Rev. Dr. Bishop Maimbo Mudolwa of Tanga Diocese of the Anglican Church in Tanzania, Professor. Brian Stanley of University of Edinburgh, Bishop Dr. Tengatenga of the Anglican Church in Malawi, Rev. Ian May of South Leith Parish Church, Jenny Williamson Chinembiri, Carol Finly, Arthur Mathieson, Dr. Lillian Siwila, Indileni Hilukilua and Nampa Utuna Hamutumwa of University of Namibia. Finally I would like to acknowledge the support I received from the World Mission Council of the Church of Scotland and the 10th Leith Boys Brigade to visit the Dynamic Earth in Scotland. The insights I got really stimulated my thinking. To all those that I have not mentioned due to limited space, I say Bravo! Mwabombeni! Ala umwana ni nsokolobe shilya noushatoleleko. [iv] ABSTRACT The emergence of climate change and the current ecological crisis in recent decades has prompted research on the role of religious and cultural traditions as well as sacred texts in either supporting or discouraging human responsibility to the natural world. With regard to the use of sacred texts such as the bible, numerous techniques have been employed in the task of interpretation, moving away more recently from attempts to identify the text’s original community and its functions therein, towards an examination of its literary, rhetorical structure. This study sought to explore what insights an indigenous gendered ecological reading of Genesis 1-3 can provide in the context of the current ecological crisis. This objective was achieved in the following steps. First, the study examined indigenous Tonga culture and the biblical myths of origin. Critical examination of both worldviews uncovered their complementary emphases on human responsibility toward ecological wellbeing. Further, both worldviews uncovered leadership roles of women in social and religious rituals which promoted ecological wellbeing. Second, the interconnectedness of the elements of the universe in African cosmologies was explored through the Tonga people of Zambia. It was found that in Africa an interdependent, participatory relationship exists between humans, nonhuman forms of life and the creator God. In discussing Tonga cultural rituals and the Leza cult, the study explored gendered and ecological values of African indigenous culture. Such rituals illustrated the involvement of women, ancestors and the creator God in maintaining ecological wellbeing. Third, a gendered ecological reading of Genesis 1-3 was offered. Across Genesis 1-3, it was [v] found that the myths emphasise the value of life and the interrelatedness of human beings and nonhuman forms of life. Further, the myths exhibited the belief that the equality of man and woman is from God. The study found that a complementary reading of the biblical myths of origin that supports the equality of man and woman and the interrelatedness of humans and nonhuman forms of life can foster human responsibility to the Earth. Fourth the study showed that such gendered and ecological cultural concepts in indigenous African culture should be retrieved to advocate for ecological emancipation. Fifth, the study recognised that over many centuries the motifs in the biblical myths of origin have been altered to promote the patriarchal interests of the writers and editors. An indigenous African gendered ecological interpretive framework, woven together with gendered and ecological values in African culture was presented as a means to counter the dominant patriarchal interpretations of the text. The study concluded that a biblical interpretive model informed by ecological and gendered values in African culture can promote human responsibility to the natural world and help alleviate the impact of the current ecological crisis. [vi] TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... iv ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................ vii LIST OF ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 13 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 13 1.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 13 1.2. BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION ........................................................................... 15 1.2.1. MOTIVATION ....................................................................................................................... 15 1.2.2. SKETCHING THE ECOLOGICAL CRISIS .................................................................................. 17 1.3. LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 19 1.3.1. Literature on a gendered and ecological reading of Genesis 1-3 ....................................... 20 1.3.2. Literature on ecology from a theological perspective ........................................................ 23 1.3.3. Literature on ecological concepts among the Tonga people of Zambia ............................. 26 1.3.4. Literature on African feminist biblical hermeneutics ......................................................... 31 1.3.5. Research gap, significance and justification of the study ................................................... 34 1.4. RESEARCH PROBLEM, QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES ........................................ 35 1.4.1. Research problem ............................................................................................................... 35 1.4.2. Research question ............................................................................................................... 35 1.4.3. Key questions to be asked .................................................................................................. 35 1.4.4. Research objectives ............................................................................................................ 35 1.5. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................................... 36 1.6. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, DESIGN AND APPROACH ...................................... 39 1.6.1. Library research .................................................................................................................. 40 1.6.2. Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 41 1.6.3. The pole of the world of the ANE ....................................................................................... 43 1.6.4.