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Rapid Soil Development in Response to Land Use Change School Of Rapid Soil Development in Response to Land Use Change Case studies from the northern New South Wales Slopes, Plains and New England Tablelands Robert Gordon Banks BSc Hons, Dip Bus, CPSS A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2018 School of Agriculture and Food Sciences Abstract Soil development and soil formation processes are often considered to take long periods of time from hundreds to millions of years. This thesis investigates the potential for land use change to drive whole soil profile development processes in unexpected ways and at unexpected speeds in Eastern Australia. The major objectives of this thesis were to identify and document locations where rapid soil profile changes occur at a land use boundary, to investigate the nature of soil changes across that boundary and propose mechanisms for observed changes. Alternating arid and humid phases in the Quaternary, coupled with contemporary Holocene and Anthropocene sub-decadal climate variability, makes availability of soil water in Eastern Australia a critical driver to soil development processes. In contrast, many northern climates are constant or at least seasonal and moist. An initial study (Chapter 3) was undertaken using archival soil survey data from the Liverpool Plains region in the north-west slopes and plains of New South Wales (NSW). The desktop study examined key soil fertility properties in relation to land use through an historical soil survey dataset to determine whether large-scale European land use impacts on whole soil profiles could be observed. Land uses compared were cropping, native pasture, improved pasture and woodland. Soil type, land use, and soil × land use were considered in a mixed model restricted maximum likelihood (REML) analysis using general fertility attributes of available water holding capacity (AWC), soil phosphorus (Bray P), cation exchange capacity (CEC), dispersion percentage (DP), salinity (ECe), sodicity (indicated by exchangeable sodium percentage, ESP) and soil pH. Results showed that fertility attribute variation depended on soil type reflecting land selection for agriculture. Soil organic carbon (SOC) values were considered a product of fertility but were most strongly associated with land use with SOC being lowest in cropping regardless of soil type. This approach did not illuminate any man- induced whole soil profile changes. General soil survey data was found to be potentially limited by the method of land use and site history recording. The second study (Chapters 4 and 5) investigated physical and chemical soil profile changes associated with managed tropical pastures compared with volunteer native pastures on sodic-duplex soils in north-western NSW. These soils are limited by low fertility topsoils, poor soil profile drainage and clay-rich B horizons which native vegetation roots and soil water do not readily penetrate. Results indicated that deeper, more abundant tropical pasture roots had initiated changes in soil profile porosity, structure and chemistry. Macroporosity (pores > 30µm) of critical infiltration and root i growth limiting upper B horizons had increased in tropical pasture soils to a point where potential water through flow was 81 fold higher than native pasture upper B horizons. B horizons under tropical pastures were more aggregate stable than under native pastures. Soil stability was investigated through dispersion and flocculation experiments with varying concentrations of synthetic soil water based on tropical pasture topsoil water chemistry. Higher aggregate stability of upper B horizon material was associated with increased ionic strength and composition of soil water from topsoils in tropical pastures. A feedback mechanism was proposed that introduction of a pasture species which utilises deeper subsoil resources created extra macroporosity. Macropores were stabilised by the chemistry of soil water from managed tropical pastures allowing further development of root structures and potential water storage deeper in the profile. A third study (Chapter 6) was undertaken at Tenterfield in the NSW New England Tablelands. The study utilised a boundary between relatively undisturbed native forest and land which was cleared for grazing 140 years prior. Using methods developed in Chapter Four, soil physical and chemical attributes were compared between native forest and managed pasture along the forest-pasture boundary. All forested soil profiles were Red Dermosols, whilst all pasture soils were texture contrast soils including Kurosols and Chromosols. A thin, often discontinuous A2 (E horizon) was apparent in the pasture soils with very clear boundaries between A and B horizons. Forested soils had gradational soil texture profiles and a well-developed AB horizon. The existence of megapores (mean diameter 2 cm) throughout forest soil profiles was a driver of potential soil profile drainage maintaining Dermosols in a freely drained state. A feedback mechanism is proposed whereby clearing and grazing results in compaction of topsoils, infilling/collapse of tree root megapores, and consequent drainage impedance. Drainage impedance creates favourable conditions for clay illuviation and subsequent formation of a texture contrast texture profile. The time frame for development of A2 horizons through clay illuviation was likely to have occurred within 140 years instead of millennia that the literature suggests. The significance of this work is that rapid and deep soil changes can be initiated by man simply through changing plant root architecture and thence water penetration to soil. A change in philosophy of crop and pasture development towards maximising root abundance and penetration is recommended so that benefits of greater subsoil access by plants are realised, especially in landscapes that have low productivity because deep soil resources have been unavailable. Beneficial soil changes ii such as these should be considered crucial to improving soil resilience as climate change impacts on Australia’s grazing systems. iii Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my higher degree by research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co-authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis. iv Publications included in this thesis No publications included. Submitted manuscripts included in this thesis No Publications included Other Publications during candidature Jing YZ, Huang, J, Banks RG, and Triantafilis, J. (2017). Scope to map soil landscape units at the district level from remotely sensed γ-ray spectrometry and proximal sensed EM induction data. Soil Use and Management. 4: 538 – 552. Banks, RG (2017) Tropical pastures make beneficial changes to poor soil. Grasslands Society of NSW Newsletter. 32: 3. 5 – 7. Banks, RG, Wendling, L, Basford, K, Ringrose-Voase, A. (submitted) Beneficial soil profile changes induced by tropical grass pastures on sodic-texture contrast soils in Northern NSW. Submitted to The Rangelands Journal October, 2018. v Contributions by others to the thesis This thesis is the original work of Robert Gordon Banks. Initial concept development was by Robert Banks with advice from Dr Gunnar Kirchhoff. Additional contributions in a review/advisor/editor capacity were made by Dr Laura Wendling, Dr Anthony Ringrose-Voase, and Professor Kaye Basford. Specific advice was provided in: Statistics: Professor Kaye Basford, Dr Vivi Arief Soil Chemistry: Dr Bernard Wehr, Dr Pax Blamey, Professor Neal Menzies, Associate Professor Peter Kopittke. Soil Biology analyses: Dr Vera Banks, Dr Paul Dennis, and Dr Vito Armando Laudicina The University of Queensland School of Agriculture and Food Science analytical services staff were responsible for 100% of soil chemistry analysis. The University of Palermo, Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry Sciences laboratory staff were responsible for all phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis. Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree No works submitted towards
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