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Reservoirs, and Implications for Future Reservoir Works and Site Monitoring

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Reservoirs, and Implications for Future Reservoir Works and Site Monitoring This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Policy, Application and Effect of Legislation Concerning Archaeological Sites in Reservoirs, and Implications for Future Reservoir Works and Site Monitoring Submitted by Emily J. Stammitti In partial requirement of the Doctor of Philosophy in Archaeology University of Edinburgh 2014 Abstract The number of dams and reservoirs in the world is at an all- time high, with global increases expected as water shortages, populations and needs for electricity grow. Despite this high number of existent and planned reservoirs, the archaeological sites submerged in reservoirs have been largely ignored saving predevelopment, project-specific archaeological salvage campaigns. The overlooking of submerged archaeological features derives from ideas that sites in reservoirs are destroyed: a notion that continues to permeate discussions surrounding archaeological features in reservoir flood zones. Heritage legislation, at both the domestic and international level, continues to neglect the pressing issue of monitoring the condition of submerged archaeology. This dissertation analyses the domestic heritage legislation of three specific countries (Britain, the USA and Egypt) and heritage legislation at the international level. Effects of submergence on diverse archaeological features from those countries are also taken into account via the data collected from varying types of archaeological investigation: the desk-based assessment, underwater archaeological fieldwork, and non-intrusive terrestrial fieldwork. Analysis of current legal structures suggests that mechanisms with which to monitor sites and provide mitigating measures would be simple to implement and maintain. Data collected through underwater archaeological fieldwork in Britain and terrestrial archaeological fieldwork in the USA suggests that not all types of archaeological sites are at risk of destruction due to submergence, leading to a classification of vulnerable features, determined on the basis of location in the reservoir and construction materials and methods. Mitigating and monitoring measures of these vulnerable feature classifications can be used in future reservoir planning and archaeological conservation efforts, when combined with changes to regional and domestic heritage policy. Final conclusions focus on the need to classify archaeology in reservoirs as "submerged landscapes", an already recognized underwater archaeological category, thereby helping to grant the long-needed protection, awareness and monitoring these features need throughout their duration in situ. 2 Acknowledgments I would never have been able to finish my thesis without the continued help and support of so many people. There are so many that must remain nameless, but gratitude is due to the people and organizations I have worked with most closely. I am grateful to all of the faculty and staff, especially Jim Crow, Ian Ralston, Lindsay Scott and Amanda Campbell, in the School of History, Classics and Archaeology for their enduring support in times of crisis, guidance, and their uncanny ability to provide an answer for all occasions, and smile even when there was no occasion. Special thanks is directed at Scottish Water for their permission to dive in Scotland's drinking water; to Tam Ward of the Biggar Archaeology Group for providing guidance, and sharing his information; David Strachan of the Perth & Kinross Heritage Trust for sharing data about the Upper Glendevon Reservoir; and Pete Bicheno, for his help in organising fieldwork and his branch of BSAC's generous donation of an air compressor and boat. Thanks goes out to Dr. Max Ruffert, and Dougie McEwan and the staff at the Edinburgh Dive Centre for their assistance. Extra special thanks is due to all of the volunteers (and donors of equipment) who came to Scotland during a wet spring season to dive cold, Scottish waters. I am grateful to NG Archaeology Services for financial and on-site assistance, as well as to Dr. Mike Cressey at CFA Archaeology and my acquaintances at Historic Scotland and the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historic Monuments of Scotland for their support, advice and laughter. On a more personal level, I would like to acknowledge my friends and family for their questions, their willingness to answer the phone at all hours of the day and for their love of a hermit. A special thank you goes to my father for imbuing in me a sense of community, empathy and a love of the water, and my mother for teaching me the value of a strong constitution of character in the face of all of life's obstacles. Gratitude goes out to Nick for his continued support; Dr. David Staley whose encouragement has rung in my ears for over a decade; Dr. William Arrocha for his willingness to discuss heritage politics electronically; Jessie for teaching me the value of second chances; and to Adrian, who brought me to this stage in my life. 3 Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND FOUNDATIONS ........................................................ 9 1.1 WHAT CONSTITUTES A SITE? ..................................................................................... 14 1.2 WHAT IS SUBMERGED ARCHAEOLOGY? .................................................................. 16 1.3 WHY ARE RESERVOIRS IMPORTANT STUDY AREAS? .......................................... 17 1.4 IMPORTANCE OF TOPIC IN CROSS-CULTURAL SETTING ................................... 20 1.5 LAYOUT OF DISSERTATION .......................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 26 2.1 UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY OVERVIEW ............................................................ 27 2.2 SEABED DISTRIBUTION THEORY ............................................................................... 28 2.3 SCOTTISH UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY .............................................................. 31 2.4 FRESHWATER ARCHAEOLOGY PERTAINING TO RESERVOIRS ......................... 33 2.5 THE US NATIONAL PARK SERVICE NATIONAL RESERVOIR INUNDATION SURVEY (NRIS) .................................................................................................................. 35 2.6 WORLD COMMISSION ON DAMS REPORT (WCDR) ............................................... 40 2.7 CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT THEORY .................................................... 43 2.8 IN SITU PRESERVATION VS. EXCAVATION ............................................................. 54 2.9 GAPS IN LITERATURE, DOMINANT CONCEPTS, AND SUGGESTED CONTRIBUTION ................................................................................................................ 58 CLOSING THE LITERARY GAP ....................................................................................................................... 59 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 62 3.1 POLICY ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................ 62 3.2 PHOTOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................ 67 3.3 DESK BASED ASSESSMENT ........................................................................................... 70 3.4 WALKOVER SURVEY ...................................................................................................... 73 3.5 UNDERWATER FIELDWORK ....................................................................................... 74 3.6 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORDING FORMS AND RESULTANT NUMBERS .......... 78 3.7 INTERVIEWS ..................................................................................................................... 81 3.8 SPECIFIC CASE STUDIES ................................................................................................ 82 CASE STUDY: PHILAE ..................................................................................................................................... 82 CASE STUDY: ST. THOMAS ............................................................................................................................ 83 CASE STUDY: SCOTLAND (6 RESERVOIRS) ................................................................................................ 85 3.9 METHODOLOGY RESULTS (HYPOTHESIS) .............................................................. 87 CHAPTER 4 DAMS: AN INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 89 4.1 SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES AFFECTING SITE STABILITY .................................. 91 4.2
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