H. PREFACE

To hoI t t evolopment ot t Unlted. States w111 never bo oompletely understood until the defi nitive hi s tiO% or the 1ndividual utatoo i s wr1tton 13 som&th1ng .Of.6 tI'U.t. I»IOl . of' Since the pUblIcat1on/ Fre derick. 0I &o.1(80n 1'ur-ner' 9 f r ont i er 1 othesis , there has been a t endencY to mako tll.a bistory of l '.£'here.exlats io tne Dol tod Statos an area of fre contl nual rocession and set tlement weat ward hav ,1llerioa. ' s d.evoloprnont .

'ostern s t ates uall of one p1ece"--the buffalo p.ath tollo' b v the .dian bee the trappers' route ltb1ch ever:t ua.ll~ ic.1enod l nto the oovered wagon trail bearIng. missionariea , gold seekers to the '~ est . In s pi to of the

oo.ursey of th1 aneral pattern each state w ot t 8 - slsaippl , like those east of t l'l vor ha nt ist1nct1y its own .

This studY, therefore, 18 o.n invest Igation 0 the t ypi cal ··pects or i!ontanats h1story during t he f"ur tradlng nd trap­

1"1 0d 1804 and 1843 wi t h t he pur poso of dot ning

'bat .influence . i f any ~ t ll era of Mountain l.~e n hed in t tory of t he state. 1 ehel'aeto r l a tics of tn ceky Mountal n r Traae 1 nveoSt1.rto t nd narratod :1 t t onden 's cl l e ,

Thl pec'ta 0 fu r a do pooul l ar t o dof1nit e rop.ion t n1n t hw Roc to b r l.t t on .

o n Op,rtlPLl 8 ttOOl)ts t o sUPj)l y t hts laouna f or onl y ono r e~lton ·.n &::ont>ane. , the Three Forks country_ The stu

plU"sttod mn ':' nly th'l'ou.gO. a ~eQd1ng of fur trader'" conte!!q"'lorory newspapers Ilnd :mtted states Covern.."'lOnt p\~blloat'on .

I n pl"opnrat1on of tM s study tho wrl tel' hQG boon t no reOlplent of mr favors part iculnrl y t rom be l' jor ,Viser,

The vet' phael Hami lton, $ . J . , who direct.ed to' tudy;

• Anne r.~cDonnell , uss~stntlt 11.01'81'1 on at tb ontanll Stete Hi stor1cal Libra!:"y and M1t"s Relon 'MoFllrland, 11brarian at th te t!1stor'cal Sooiety, who supplied valuable source

1 . Sincore Gratitudo Is elso due to Mothor 1;101' 'remoosoo. , l!othor Oeneral of the Sisters of Ct.ar Hy at {,oaven-

1I0l"t,'l . ..ho ae generosity hE4S made pos,ilJ101e the eutn~rlnc:::: ot

erIal from a rcll1v6S 1n :!:oatana, Ka.nsas and ~,U3 Bot.;.rl . COl,

on, . ,~ •• o>ti •••' • ••• • • , vo •• ,•••••• , •• • it, •••• o' ••••••••

I

",'Pi onl r,ur Wltry tUl d Conu>un3.cs ...... ' 10

Che r n

upln ni en, ,voue in the • •••••• j •••••••••••• ••• ••••••• • ~ •• 8

eba rIll

of io tureo 0: the ! ountn1n Men • •••••••••••••• J ••

Chn!)ter I ,10 ';ountn1n n ••••.• .•, •••• '• •- •.•• ••• •' ••••_ '••• ' •••••' ••' . 63

Coo rV cl ine of ',' ,1n •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 83

hunter Cono,luolono •••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,,9

B:1bl 1op;r's'nhy •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 10 INtRODUCl'lOp,

Tn. history ot the UnIted s tates is anamn1gam of many t:actors. 'l'o understand our heritage one needs to be taml11Glr wl ttl t he elerants that trlade tor Our' WlIQue expansIon across continent . one t hose elements are the tur trappers and fur traders; wIthout a ' knowlad,e or theIr actlvlt1eatbe history 'of our country 1s not completely understood.1

~lram Chlttende'o 1s s tlll cons1dered the cla..sl,e ooth. !mor1- eM fur tJoado. In. the malDl tllt. • 1ntroo'uctory chapter hils been culled from hIs two vo waGS" Tnt ,NgerlcAQ lyr trade sat the FiU' y;.,t.

The1r beg1nn1ngs reach back to t,h. openlngdays ot Fr.aIlce. The llu<1aon Bay Compan,y took over the fleld a't the end or ',the Frenoh and Indian war . 'b1s CQtIIPafiY had rocolveda charter May 2, 1670, grantlnc it the Clost comprehensIve privileges. Ab.olllte pr oprietors of an I mmense area, tbey had supreme jurisdiotion 1n oivil and m111 t (;lry arrairs, power to ,Cilake laws and to wale war agaInst the natlv.s.2

2LcOAAld " Narratlye, 1; mts, tile greatest ot all tar companies, .a. the longest- livod and tho' moat pr osperoua ot a11 cOIDa1e£oial monopolies. Unbar­ a8,s.4 by rear ot comp.t!~l on , ttle Hudaon Bay Comp.:m.y was able to oonduct tllo fur tradeaocordlng to its o~n st andards. whicb II

fortunately were very high. they built t aotories and taught the Indiana to br1ng their seasoll"s oatch to these depots for trade. 'nder the Br1tish system, the white men were spared the labor and risks involved 1.n the. trapping business. Their rela tions with the Indians were most oommendable. The sale of liquor and firearms was prohibIted and just pr1ces were paid tor the f 'urs reoeived. They also made erforts to prevent tbe e.xtinction or the. fur-bear1ng animals and sent no more turs to European Clarkets t han t he cond1tion of trade might warrant. Their employees, well-paid and well-treated, were markedly loyal to the oompany.)

3 Katharine Coman, EconomiC:: Beginning. of the It'Qr West, 1:291-292

The first opPosit10n enoountered by the Hudson Bay Company

after the Treaty of Paris of 176) came trom the ~l orthwest COIl­ pany oomposcd ot Sootch merchants from Montreal, who arte·r the French and Ind1an War, took over tIle old Frenoh fur trade. D1rected by forceful and enterprls.1ng men , 'theeompany lost no tIme in explorIng and exploit1ng the entire reg1-on f rom the Great J:.l:jkes to the Pacifio coast. In their mad pursuit of furs, they explored the r1vers and traversed the plains to the base

ot the Rookies, establlshedtrade relatl,ons with t he r~motest . tribe,s, and glea:ned a gre.at harvest of furs. TheIr met hods did not aontorm to the h1.gh standa.rds set by the Hudson Bay Company. They hired yoyageur" free trappe.rs andcoureyts de .iW..t. to go 1nto t he fur-bear1ng re.glons and take tho rurs III t hemselves. Their zeal 1n trapl,l ,ng led to the demorallzat1on ot the Indians and to the depletion ot the ricbest hunt 1ng 4 grounda.

4 .K. Coman, op , cit., 293- 294

In an effort to get aCcess to the Interloroolit'ltry, the North­ wes,t Company Gncroached upon. the territorial domaIn or the

Hudson Bay ComPt'illl thus starting fa bItter rivalry which \faa to

KnQiR no bounds. This compet1 tlon waaag;gr avated In 1311, wh.en the nUd.son Bay Companl granted a tr£1 cto.f land in the Red River Valley to the Earl ot Selkirk for the purpose of toundlnga. ·c~lonl . The Northwest Company considered this an Ittfrlnge.ment upon their territory and mad .• every effort to prevent It. A. sttuggle, tantaCLoWlt to a civil war t f ollowed with the HQdson Day Company ana theoolonlsts on one slde, and the Northwest Company on the other. When t his eo.nfl1ct had taken a tol l ot lives, the BrItish Government, In 1819, lald the ma. t ter before Parliament,. No settlement was reac.hed thoagh a balt million dollars was spont 1n litigation. The oventual solution of the problem was a coa11 tion ot the two e.ompan1es ~tfec ted . 1n 1821 under the older n.deof the Hudson. Bay Company. This anion of the tworlvals was a bappy one. Prof1ting by their combined knowl ed.ge and exporience, the new 'Drgan1zation

S0011 .merited t he replltat lon ot being one 'Or the great.es,t com­ merCi al or gani zations 1n ~he world. Jast and f air 1n 1ts dealtngs witb the Indians, it forbade th,e sale of liquor exoept in oase. or compe·t1tlon. I ts whole system, based on the

,. IV

strictest discipline, absolute subordination of individual interest to t hat of the company and regular promotion accord­ ing to merit, called forth admiration from even its bi tterest enemIes.'

'Leonard, op.cit., 18 ; K. Coman, op.elt.. 1:292

Among these were the newly organized American fur companies who reatly resented the presence ot the Hudson Bay Company within . tho limits ot the United Stutes. The Hudson Bay Company had extended its souther.n line ot operation to the sources of t he lSsissippi and to the lJissouri r iver near the Mandan Villages, thus incurring t he wI'at h of t he Americans trapping in t hat I'eglon. erlcan interest in the great fur trading poss1bilities west of the lfississippl came as a rosul t of the Lewis and Clark erpedltlon, (1804-1806) . Thetr reports told of rouny fine game reKlons and excellent beaver' streams in the Northwest and gave · the real impetus t o the trappIng Industry which operated out f St . Louis. President Jefferson rightly de serves tb.e cr edit for the Lewis and Clark expedition. He apparently pl anned such art undertaking even befor·G the purchase of the Louisiana. territory

in 1803. The object or t i1i s expedl tion i1I~a s the 8.xtenslon of the commerce of the United States and the promo tion of t r ade wl th the Indians. Jerrer~on wc a ospecially eager tha t the v furs the British were getting shoul d o t o St. Louis. 6

Jetfersonchose his private secretary, Meriwether Lewi s, a VIrginian, to lead the expedition. Lewis selected as his companion \V111iam Clark, younger brother of George Roger s Clark, ho had a marked ability for conducting large trains of pack horses t hrQugh dIfficult country. Soldiers, French boatmen, and Kentuckians made up the party of forty-five selected to accompany the expedition. All were young, single men picked because of their abIlity. In preparation for t he journey, they were subjected during t he winter of 1803-1804, to the strictest discipline and military trainlng in their quarters near St. LouI s. It was indeed a case of the "survival of the 1'i ttestt11'or only those who showed a good will and a ready obedience were allowed to go up the issouri. On May 14, 1804, the expedition left St. Louis to ascend. the Missouri by flatboat and keelboat as far as the ;'~ andan and Acricara towns , sixteen hundred mi les from t he mouth, in pres­ ent North Dakota. Here they built Fort Mandan and remained for the winter. While soJourn1ng there, Lewis secured the services ot the. French-Canad1an, Charbonneau and h1s wlfe Saca­ Jawea, a Shoshoni Indian, who had been captured tlve years before by an enemy tribe near the Three Forks of the !.iissouri. VI

Charbonneau was hired becQuse he knew the Indians 1n the upper river territory but his wIfe, SacaJaw e'a, wi th her knowledge of the Indian tongue, pr oved t he more useful of the two . 7

7 R. G. Thwaites, Op r cit., 229; Merrill G. Burlingame, Ill!. Montana Frontier, 4; J. K. Hosmer, Ope ctt., 29-30, Ko ComeJn_#

op.cito l 1:126-186

Lewis and Clark set out from the Mandan V1llage April 7, .1805. They and th·elr party about thirty in all reached the out h of the Yellowstone river April 25. From t here they con­ tinued up the Missouri to t he Orea.t Falls and spent a month exploring this region. They then ascended t he Mt'ssouri to its headwaters--the Three Forks. i1e here t hey named the t hree r1vers after Jeff erson, Madison and Gallatin. From t he Three Forks they went by way of the Je.fferson river to t he untai ns. Here they met t he Shoshoni Indi ans from whom they purchased the necessary horses to continue their trip. By a stroke of l uck, the chief of t his tribe, Cameahwalt, happened to be the brother ot Sacajawea .. By skill and perseverance t hey crossed t he moun­ tains t o the Snake river whtch took them to t he Columbia. Fro.m here it wa s clear sailing to the Pacific, which t hey reached liovember 16, 1805'. Atter spending a miserable winter at Fort Cla.tsop, wh ich they erected near present day Astoria , t hey began their return jour ney in March, 1806, amid the greatest privations. A great shortage of tood seriously hampered their march until they orossed the mount ains where t hey replenished t heir provisions

wi t h wild game. Af ter c.ro ss~lnt; t he RockIes, t he party divided VII

into two groups 1n order to make a.n extensive examination of t he country. Lewi s and ni ne men descended the Missouri to explore the Mar1as rive!!, while Clark with t he remainIng Ulen and Charbonneau's famil y ,. went by "(;:;,'] ot t he B1g Hole to the J efferson. He descended t ho Jeffer son to t he Gallatin, care­ fully explor1ng the Three Forks region and noting its great f ur resources, . Ascending t he Gallatin , he crossed over what is now known as Bozeman Pass to the Yel lowstone Va l ley. Again he took time to examine t he wealth of this valley before 'pro­ ceedi ng down the. Yel lowstone r iver to its mo uth, where he m.et ewls. l'he remaindar of their voyage being uneventful, they reached St. LouiS, S&ptember 2), 1806. 8

8 Olin D. Wheeler, Ahe Trail ot .Lewis and Clark 1804-1904, 1:)66-374

The results of this expedl tlon ~,ere far-reaching. Among them are several whIch .concern this study. l'he geograph1cal

knowledge acquired by Lewis and Clark had til direct bear1ng on t he openIng o~ the Missouri region. Their glowing reports of beaver streams gave an i mmedia t e impetus to fur trade i n that regIon. Coinoident with American i nterest in t he fur trade came th.e growl ngcommero.1al importance of St. Louis and the corresponding development of t he l.Ussouri river as one of the most important fur hi ghways. vary rou.te of trade leadIng to the beaver country and buffalo plains, centered In St. Louis. All travel to the

~ est, . whether sOientif1c, mi l1tary , missionary or oommercial VIII used • Louis as startlng pOi nt. Here fur tradi ng expedi- ions wo.ra equipped and to this place they returned with boatloads of precious hides from the north. 9

As has been noted, it wa s the Missouri river that made the St. IJouis a depot of trade. This river has 1 ts SOllrco a t the Thr ee Forks and flows for a distance of some six t housand miles to the Gulf 0 .( MexIco. Its main tributarles ar e the

Osage, Kans~st Platte and Yellowstone rivors. F'or some one hundred years the history of the Missouri river has been t he history of travel in the region through 'which it flows. It was and remains one of th ost difficult rivera in the world to navi gate because of the constant shift­ ing of its channel. Its rout e i s car ked by dangerous bends, U some of. whlch are tllfonty miles i n length. . The Itcrossings '~he re the current changes from one side of the river t o t he other were an irr1tating problem t o the earll navigators. Or ­ dinarily an entire boating season wa s required to make the trip from St. Louis to the mouth of the Yellowstone at an average of fitteen mi les day.lO

9 IX

Urhe boats, i n generel , had to be ;propellod by oars and sett Ing poles, or· drawn by the hand and by grappling hoo'ks from one r oot or overhanging tree to anot her; or towed by the long cordel1e, or towing line, whor e the shores were sufficiently clear ot woods and t hickets to pcr!'Jlt the men to pass a long the banks. uring t his slow and tedious pr 'ogress the boat would be exposed to frequent danger from floating trees and great ma sse,s of drift- wood , or to be impaled upon snags and sawyers; that Is to say, sunken trees, presenting a jagged or pointed end above the sur.face of the water. ul1

11 Washington -Irving, OPt c1 t., 105'

Despite these dlfflcul ties t snort1yatter Lewi s and Clark: t s return, st. Louis became thebeadquarters for a group of fur tra.ding companies whose act1vities in t he Three Forks region will be t he consideration Qf the following chapter. 10

Chapter I TYPICA L FUR COUNTRY AND COMPANIES '

There Is scarcely any part at the North AmerI can continent which has not at one time or another been the soene of fur trad1ns aot1vlties. Fur t r ading areas were l ar gel y condItioned by transportation routes. Furtruders and trappers were .sure to be found. at the headwaters of any large river accessible by canoe . Typ1cal ot the k1nd ot count ry that the tur trapper ot the RockIes or Mountain Men, delighted in Is that area ot southwestern Montana drained by t he Gallat1n, Madison and Jet ... terson rIvers. These headwaters ot the asourl river flow throllgh a rectangular shaped area hemmed 11'1 on the -west by the, B1tter Root range althe Rocky Mountains and extending to the Big Horn river. Its northern boundary 1s formed by the head­ wa ters ot the Missour1 river or the Three Forks proper; t he region stretches sout h as f !lr as tho 'Wyoming boundary. , From the Three 'Forks region three fur-bearing sections have been selected as typical of the fur countryr Three For ks Valley, Big Hole Valley and Upper 'Yellowstone Valley. These three are a gr assy, t1mbered expanse edged on one side with soow-ti pped mountaIns and along the river banks with belts ot cottonwood and black: alder. When the wh1 'te man first came to t his reglon grea.t variet1es ot wild animals were fOllna t here. l

1 Thomas James, Three Year. Among the Indians and MexiCan" 68 II

Thiseountry furnished such tin abundan.c e of game produc­ tive in furs t hat nearly all early fur companies attempted to get a foothold witbin its boundaries. But while it wa s the richest fur region 1 t via s lik.ewise the most hazardous hunting ground because of the Indians there. Although the Blackfeet claimed it, it was actaally t he debatable ground of numerous hostile tribes who resented the intrusion o.f the wh.1. t es and

made desperate efforts to prevent t heir ·entrance. o fierce s t heir opposition that no grollp ever succeeded i n establish­ Lng a permanent fort in the heart of the Three Forks reglon. The mo st ma jestic of the three valleys in t his region is that or the Big Hol e country just west of the Three Forks Valley. SIxty miles long and fifteen to twenty mIles broad, it lies 1n the heart ottheRocky Mountains. This basin dralned by the Jefferson river and its branches, the BI g Hole and t he Beaver­ head, Is bound on every side by lofty, irreg·ular, picture,sque mountains, the bases of whI ch are girded ,,'V1th dense forests or f ir which in some places extend, into the prairie doma,in. The giant peaks of these snow-covered mountains were a source or protection as well as beauty to the early trapper.s.2

Yellowstone Valley Is east of theCallatln river and sepa­ rated from it by a range of rugged and preCipitous mountains of , - the Cra~y Mountai ns and Sl)ov;y Range , heavily set in fir and plne timber and presenting a s pectacular background for the level c'ountry below. Bozeman Pass frequently used by the early 'trappers I~ in entor1nR and leaving Yellowstone Valley makes a connect ion possible to one going East from th.e Three Forks '1alley. The Yellowstone Valley 1s drained by the river of t he same name and its tributaries. t wo of which were significan.t i n the fur t r ade, t he Blg Horn river and Clark's Fork. The bottom lands of t he Yellowsto-ne which are as level as a .floor vary in. width from one to flva or more miles. The beneh lands whi ch stretch back from the stream and w&re formerly feeding grounds f or the gr eat herds o.f blson are of wide extent. This countr y 1sa s the roving and hunting ground of the Crows, a tribe somewha t friendly t o the whI tes. 'rhat the Crows deeply appreciated the advantages of t heir country 1s evident from t he remarks of an old Crow chief to the traveller

BonnevIlle I ' "The Crow country 1s a good country. The Great Spirit has put it exactly in the right place; ·while you are in it you fare we ll; whenev'er you .go out of it'3whicnever way you travel, yQU fare worse."

3Washington Irving, The ,Adventures of Captain Bonneville, 132

The ea.rly trappers, too, were awar e of t he I mportance of t his valley. The swee t cot tonwood and grass, cleared of snow by the Chinook winds, served as tood for the horses and mules while an abundance of buffalo, deer, elk. grizzly bear and antelope supplied t he wants of the trappers t hemselves. Trade

I i n t he Yellowstone Valley was handled from forts buIlt a t the mouth of the Big Horn which served, in turn, as jumping off places for exp.edi'tlons into the' Three Forks reglon~ 13

By tar the greatest amount of fur t:rapplng and tradi ng 1n the Three Forks region was carried on under t he direction of organlzed companies. Since t his part.1cu1ar t ype of busi­ ness requ.ired l ar ge capitalization and great nwnbers of men in order to insure successful operations in such distant and dangerous terr1tory most of the early trappers were connected in some way with one or another of the companies. or t hese there were four which conduct'ed oper·atlons. in t he Thr ee Forks region during the first half of the nineteenth century. First to eo.ter t h1s reglon was the Lisa, Menard, Morrison and Company in 1807. This group dese rves credit for having led the way and opened a terri tory which wa.s to be the des­ tination of many hunting parties In late.r years. The moving .spiri t in 'the organization of th.e L1sa, Menard, Morrison and Company was Manuel Lisa, born 1n Louisiana of Spanish parents 1n 1776. At th.e age of twenty-three be came to s t. Loui.s and obtained a monopoly fr3lD the Spa,oi5h Govern­ ment to trade with the Osage nation. The return of ,Lewis and Clark to St. Louis i n 1806 with their tales ot the great re­ sources ot the undeveloped fforthwest turned Lisa I s attention to the tl pper Mi ssouri. Of his many trips up the .river two expeditions are of interest to this study. The destination of these was the Big Horn region. The first expedit1on, known as that of Lisa and Drouillard, was composed of rorty­ two men. Drou1llard 'flas the representative or William Morri­ son and Pierre Menard ot , Kaskaskia, p.artners who helped to furnish the capital used. This expedit1on, which left 11

St. LouIs April 19, 1807, was destined for the upper branches ot the Missouri where they Vlere to establish" trade with the Blackfeet. 5"

5'Walter B. Douglas, "M~1\uel Lisa," DoHSC., 31249-251; ChItten­ den, op.c1t., 1:125'-129

" Fortune favored them when they met and secured the ser­ vices of John Colt er at the mouth ot the Platte river. Colter, ho had accompanied Lewis and Clark on their expedition, was we l l acqua1nt ed with the Threo For ks region. He-led the Lisa party into t he Yol lowstone Valley where theyestabllshed a fort at the mouth ot the Sig llor n r 1ver i n Dlovember 1807.

This post,called Fort Raymond or Uanuel'l Fort, .contained t 1NO rooms and a l oft and served as a trading post with the Indlans. 6

6_. B. Douglas, OPe cIt., 255

Atter the fort was erected, .Lisa sent Coiter to solicit the trade of t he Crows and the Bl ackfeet. While on t his mission, Colter, through no fault of his own, incurred the unrelenting hostility of the Blackfeet toward the w-hites. This happened when t he -Black.feet a ttacked the Crows and in the course of t he battle saw Q white mantignting in the hostile ranks. It wa s merely ~ case of se~f-d8fense tor Colter but t hey resented his being with their sworn enemies, the Crows. This incident s to have an .imp ortant bearing on all future fur trade in thls r egiOl"l since t he Blackfee t clai med to be asters of the Three .For ks Valley. /s

Lisa IS \flnt er at the Bi g Horn wa.s evIdently a prof1 t able one for soon after his return to St. Louis i n t he summar o,t 1808 , he became member of the St . Louis Missouri Fur Company " more commonly known as t he Mi ssouri li'ur Company. This company wnich 1ncluded Clany members ot t ho ,original company ma y have been promoted b isa but there is no evidenc e t6 t hat eff ect. Listed among the ten partners we flnd t he names of t hose des­ t i ned t o take an 1mportant part in t he t ur trade f or many .ears. Most pr 'ofil l nent among t hese were: Vlill1run Clark, Pierr e· Chouteau , Pi erre Menard , and And re,w Henry. 7

7 Thomas James, qD' clt., 172

Because t his company, more than any other, st1mula ted activity in the Three Porks region, its organization will be of interest. ach partner had to accompany the expedition 1n person or send in his place some one a,pproved by a majority of the partners. The wishes of t h,e majority " ere to be

obeyed at all tlmes. There Wa,$ no definite amount of capi t al

fixed~ Each member wa s expect ed to furnish t he amount nece,s­ sary to cover e.xpenses. Peltries and other property acquired by t he company we,re to be sont t ,o St. Louis and t bere be equally divided ong t he partners. The par t ners we re to take t urns retur .ning to St. Louis wi t h t he year ,.s harvest. 11liam Clark, agent of t he company , resided at St . Louis; it was his duty to receive Illl proP!3rty or the company which s hould be sent down t he river and to keep the same until a diviSion 16 shoul d be made . The company was, to ex.1st for t hree years. 8

8 W. B. Dougl as , op . cit., 259

I n June 1809 , Manuel 1isa had the prl'nclpal command of' an expedition sponsored by the Missouri Fur Company and des­ tined for the Three Forks area. The e:x:pedl t1,on consisted of thirteen barges carrying three hundred, and fifty men , one half being Americans, t he rest Canadian P'renchmen and Creoles. The French were a ll veteran voyageurs while tbe' Americans were private adve,nturers who joined the company when promised a r 1fle , sufflclentammunltion, six good beaver t ra,ps, 008- fifth of the produc t of thetr huntIng ano four of t he Frenc h yoysgeur.§, who WOllld s'e,rve t hem for a period of three years. In return the fi.merieans were to help navigate the boats up the Mlssourl. 9

9 Thomas Jame s, OPe 01t. , 16

Ar t er reaching the mouth of the Big Horn, the party buIl t another trading post close to Fort Raymond. This was 'known var iously as Fort Manuel~ Fort Manuel L1sa, Lisa ' s po.st or the Big Horn post. In ~arc h 1810 a. party of t h1rty- two men, commanded by Pierre Menard and 'Andr ew Henry started overland from Fort Manuel to the Three Forks" Col ter again acting as I guide. After a l ,ong and hazardous j Durney, the party .finally reached t he Three Jr'orks, ,April ) , 1810. Here they e.rec ted a

- ' 17

far't, SO.metime s referred to a s Fort Lisa, and commenced t heir trapping. Fur .s were plentIful but so were t he .Blackfeet. Ar t eI'

se v~ral bloody encounter~ with t he latter, the party abandoned their fort. Henry \,lth some of the group went south to the wa ters of the Columbia while tlonard and the rest returned to the B1g Horn post. Again during t be winter of 1811-1812, the Missour1 Fur Company was reorganIzed to operate on a more bUsinesslIke sca le. The capi tal stock of $50,000 was to be divided into shares of $1,000 each. Each stockholder wasent1'tled to as ma.ny votes

as he held share,s. A board of three dIrectors, chosen annually,

. bad power to sell, exchange, barter, purchase, hire h~ds and cl,arks, establish tradIng houses and stores, in sho.rt to do whatever was for t he good. of the company'. One of t he directors acted as president and kept the books ot the company, another went up the MlssotU'l annually to bandle the business there. The company was to exist until 1818 unless the owners of two­ 'thirds ot the stock agreed to dissolve prior to .that time.

'rha war of 1812 with its temporary etfeat Qn the fu~ trade forced t l;le Missouri Fur Company to dissolve in 1814. Among

t he directors w'ere a number ot dIstinguished fur lI1en: William Clark, Peter Chouteau, Auguste P. Chouteau. Augus·te L. Chou­

teau, Si lvestre Labbadle, ~4 anuel Llsa , Pierre lJ1enard, Andrew Henry and Reuben Lew! s .10

10 Record Book of the w,ss'9ur1 Fur Companx, 1812-1814, 1-31 /3

~o t unt11 1819 was t he Mi ssour i Fur ,Company again reor- ,gan1zed. The only mem ber of the original company s Lisa, president or the new concern. Uis influence i n tb.e new company as of short duration, as he died one year later (1820 ). He as replaced by Joshua Pilcher who proved t o be worthy suc- cessor. Lisa was dead but his rur- t radingacttvl tie,s had left in t he Three Forks reglon an impress that 'IIollld long survl ve hi .. ,. his perSistent endeavors to penetrate t his area , i n spite of continuous obstacles, he proved to t hose who were t o follow

the fur t rading possibilitles 0 e eo Forks area. man of less energy would have failed to accomplish that. tas,k; . It 1s dif f icult to form a correct opinion of t he man of whom there are so many contradictory evaluations. The concensus of opinion, however, 1s t hat while he possessed many ad!nirable trai,t s, he l a cked the a bIlity to get a long agr eeably with his associates and subordinates, the result evidently of a rest­ less, energetic temperament that ,made h i m i mp atient an domineering wlt.h his companions. However , such wa s not the ca se with regard to the Indians '7ho r eopect ed and trusted him. So successful were his rela t10ns wi t h t hem that the Government sent hi m on several good- will missions to the red men. Durlng the war of 1812, he was appointed sub-agent for all t he Mi ssouri tribes above Kansas.. His a ssignmen t wa s t o prevent 'the Indians from allying w1th. the British. La 'tar , in 1819, when t he famous Yellowstone expedition went up t he issourl, Lisa s sent ahead to prepare the Indians f or its {'f reception and to counteract any British propaganda that mi ght be on the wing.ll

11 _ An announcement to this effect was pu.blished 1n Niles' Weekly Redster October 17, 1818, 117 -

Not only his understanding of the Indians but also his tores.l ght, phy.slcal oourage and abIlIty to accomplish his pur­ pose merIt 'recognItion. That he wa s chosen. to lead praatlcally 11 t he expeditions sent out by the Missouri Fur Company is pr oof enough of his capab.tlity as e. fur man . He likewise deserves the ored! t for hav1ng Inaugura'ted the fur-trading expeditions withi n the Upper Mi ssouri area. Six months after Lewis and Clark returned t o St • .LQ uis from their signifir.:ant

~xp edition Lisa made his first trip up the Missouri, r isking his life in this perilous venture of establishl!lli forh in a country where hardshi ps and danger were nev'er wan ting. With twelve an4 possibly th.irteen trips up and down t he Missouri to his credit, covering a distance ot SOIDe t wenty-six thousand mlles , he merits the title, "Cortes of therur trade. fI While Lewis and Clark iald the fGWldatlon for the scientif1c , geo-. graphic exploration of the far We st, and gave tho impetus to the fur trade , it wa s Lisa 'Who laid the foundati·on of the fur trading industry whIch dldmore than any other single agency to open the country to future, settlement. Hi s was the system that began the erection of trading posts or forts at convenient - 2.0 looations in themountalns.12

Pilcher, who wa.s noted for his tireless energy, and his upright charac tor, pr oceeded to carry out Ll sa's, plans for trading 1n the Three Forks area. Uis first venture was the 8stabllshcent of For.t Benton, at t he mout h of the Big Horn .r1 ver 1n the fall ot' 1.821.13

13 John Work's Jqurnal 30-32

In the spring of 1822, he sent to th1s tort 9 large expedI t ion under Jane,. and Immell, two ot hls most trusted men. After " year's suooessful trapping 1n the Three Forks ar ea, the leaders with torty-three men arrived a t the Three Forks in the spring ot 1823. Thelr purpose s trade w1 th the Blackfeet. Atto.r trappi ng for so.me weeks i n t his pl,ace, not ha.v1ng met any Indians, they determined to re'turn to Fort Benton. En route the party while on the Yellowstone river 'Ra s attack,cd by some three or four hundred Blaokfeet. Im.'Ilel and Jones,together tth, five others were killed, whlle $15,000 worth ot furs, . horses, traps and otherequlpment wasoont'isca ted by the enemy.14

14 ' ~rl0:n State PaUllS , v. II Mi litary .Affa1rs, ,SO; ChItt enden, "~""._'~;al.!~, I:147-49 21

The news ot th1s disaster shattered Pileher's hopes and sounded the death knell of the Missouri Fur Company. I ts history, one of conflIct, ended in t he disaster of 1823. Thus were terminated the various a ttemp ts of t he ssourl Fur Com- puny to seouro a hold on the fur trade in t he heart o.f the 'Three Forks region. The company c on't1nued to do business unt i l 1830 but wa s soon overshadowed by the growing act1vi ty of the Rooky tJountain Fur Company and the Upper Mi ssourI OutfIt. Contact w1 th Andrew Henry of the MissourI Pur Company in 1822 , led William Henry Ashley, of St . Louis, to organize a new company, the Ashley-Henry Fur Compal11. Ashley, like many or the mountain Inen, was a VirgIll1an who later sought. hIs for- tune tn St. Louis. Better equipped than most of his contem- poraries, he had reoelved a good education. He was suooessively interosted in real estate business , the manufac'ture of gun­ powder, m1ning and fur trading. At the same time he took an active part in politics and the state militia. In the mi11tia he advanced trom th.• rank ot oapta1n 1n 1813. to tbatot a general in 1822. Al though be ,va s ls,terdefea.ted as candidate ' f ·or governor or Mlssour1, be was the f'lrst Lieutenant Governor of' t hat state.l~ l~ H. C. Dale, op. olt., 57-61

il1s fur trad1ng venture remained his: eminent aohlevement and enabled him to retire, a wealthy man in 1826. There was an Indomlna't able courage about the man who retused to be 2.2 disheartened by early failures in t he fUr country. Withi n t hree r four years he carried from t he · mo untains $250,000 worth of furs. Ashley's particul ar contribution to the fur trade was the establishment of the rendezvous as an institutlon.l6

16 Ashley did not inaugurat e the rendezvous system. The Hudson's Bay company had used it and earlier American companies knew someth1ng of this system. Ashley was responsible, however, for making a permanent system of trading I n t he mOlmtalns. Dale, OPe Cit., 67

Abandoning the old method of trading posts he employed white men to do the actual trapping. At the end or t he sf;!ason they met a t an appointed place where they were paid a.ccordlng to the number and quality ot furs they had collected. Here, too, they got their supplies for the year. Thls method facil1tated the ·movements ot the mountain men, giving them more time to trap and explore new r egions tor beaver. A measar. of his reputation as an organizer was the response to hisadvert1sement 1n the Missouri Republican. On arch 20, 1822, he called for one hundred men to ascend the lssourl to its source, where they would be ejllployed from one to three years. In res.ponse came sucn notable tur men as: Jededlnh Smith, William Sublette and .his brother M1lton, Thomas FItzpatrick,. Robert Campbell, David Jackson and James Brldger-- to name but a few. Indian trouble thwarted Ashley 's early attempts to invade the Three Forks region. The expedition under Henry in 1822 met 23 with serious losses from t he very beginning, when one of the two keelboats, carrying $10, 000 worth of company property, sank:

1 0 the Missouri. 11 l ater lOBS of f ifty horses stolen by the Asslnlboln Indians completelr crippl ed the expedltion. The seoond expedition in 1823, under Ashler's cOl1l1nand , r eceived a seri ous setback on the Upper Missouri when s 'ttacked by the Aricara Indians. Afte'r t he battle Ashley returned to St. Louis whi le Henrr with a party of ei ghty picked men went overland to the mouth of t he Bi g Horn where theyereoted a fo·rt and pursued their winter hunt. This venture wa s not without mishap. Sev­ eral trappers were kllled and a number ot their horses were carried off by a band of' hosti le Blac.kfeet.17

17 . Ka tharine Coman, op.git., 1:3,6

The Ashley-Henry expeditions (1822-1824) involved the loss of about t wenty-five men and t housands of dollars 1n property. For t his reason t he Three Fork.s reglon was abandoned for the more peaceful Green River Valley, where the Rooky Mountain men dId mos·t of their trapping tor the next flve years. I n t he interim .As~ley sold out in 1826 to Jededlllh Smith, Da'Vld Ja.ok­ son and William Sublette. They operated under t he name lOr the Rocky Mountain Fllr Company.18

18 Au t hors d1sagree upon the origIn of t his term. Some give 1826 as the date and ot hers say it was not until 1830 t hat this title waaused. J '. Cee!l Alter, James Btldger, 112; Leonard, 90, ctt. • , 30 21

At the suggestion ot Jedediah Smith, t he company returned to the Three Forks region in 1829, so as not to entrench upon the terri­ tory east of the divide, claimed by the Hudson's Bay Company . The fInancial results of th1.s expedition were of suf ficient moment to reawa ken intorest in the Three Forks reglon. 19

19 K. Coman, Ope cit., 362

Smith, Jackson and Sublette sold out 1n 1830 to T110mas FitzpatrIck, Milton Sublette, Henry Fraeb, Jean Baptiste GerVais and James Briclger, who contInued to operate under the name ot the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. They continued to trap in t he Three Forks reg1'on tor the next four years. This new company was short-lived because of the growing eompetltionof the American Fur Company, 'the independent traders and the resulting demoralization of the Ind1ans. However, between 1829 and 1835 the operations of the Rocky Mounta in Fur Company 10. the Three Forks area were highly successtu1 in spite ot hostile Indians. severe weather and the American Fur Company rivalry •.

t\n expedition sent out by t he Company in 1830 was accom­ panied by some t wo hWldred men. Their large number en.-lb1ed t hem to take a great amount of turs and to return unharmed by the ,Blackteet. 20

20 Leonard, Ope cIt., 31

This proeedu.re, with some variati on, wa s repeated annually untIl ~[j

1834, when the company wen t out of business. During its twe lve years of eXistence, the Rocky Mountain Fur Company harves.ted more t han a thousand pa.cks of beaver, worth one- half' million dollars,. accomp lished , however, at the cost of the lives of more than one hundred men and. ove,r one hundred thousand dollars 1n property. Among the greatest con­ tributions of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, was the continu­ ance ot the rendezvous, 8S established by Ashley. Another i mportant service rendered by this Company was that it served as a training school for those who were later to assist the Government 1n the exploration ot the West. In its search for fur, it explored and exploited the territories of Colorado, yoming, Montana, Idaho and Utah. The lite ot t he Rocky Mountain Company wa s a brief twelve years. Its successful oper ations gave promise or a longer exis tence were It not for the undermining . competition of the more powerful American Fur Company. Organized 1n 1808 by John Jacob Astor, t his company did not compete for the Rocky Mountain trade until 1822. For ma.ny years it had looked longingly upon this fertile fur-bearing region but the strong opp osition ot the St. Louis traders prevented its entrance. Astor finally overcame this opposition by joining forces wi th some of the lesser fur co~panies such as the Columb.1a Fur Company a.n4 'tne ~rnardPratte &: Company.21

21 K. Coman, OPe clt., 34.8-349 fab

In 1822, t he Upper Missouri Ou t fit, a branch of t h meri- can li'urCompany operating out of St. touis, endeavored t o comb the whole Missouri region for furs. Through a series forts bui lt along the upper ssotlri a nopoly of all t he trade 1n that c.ountry wa s attemp ted by such lca.d.ers as Kenneth McKenzie, WilHam Laidlaw and Daniel Lamont,. experiencod fur traders. In 1834 they built Fort Gass at the mou.th of the Big Horn to carryon trade with the Crow !.ndians. However, the motmtaln trade of t he ,\merican Fur Company never succeeded too well be­ cause the Rocky Mountaln .men never passively accept ed their 1ntrusion. The rivalry t ,'tToen t he two companies be gan as . early as 182 hen McKenzie nt Etienne Provost to lndnce the trappers of the Rocky Mountain Fnr Company tobrlne t heir pelt s t o the Ame.rican Fur post, Fort Floyd at t he mouth of the Yellowstone, rather t nan to the rendezvous. lmultaneously, McKenzie sent i n'!;o t he mountains a. group of thirty men, under Henry Vander:.­ bUl"gh, to secure the trade of the free trappers. In 1832 Vanderburgn met the Rocky Mountain men at the rendezvous , Pierre ' s Hole. The meeting marked a climax. After rejecting t he Rocky MOllntain Company's offer to divide the territory,

Vanderbur~h and his partner, Drips, deliberately trailed Bride:er and Fitzpatrick Int·o the heart ot the Thr ee Forks to discover 'the best trapp ing places of the Rocky \',(onntain Fur Company. Bridger and Fitzpatrlck knew they were being followed so they led thetr competl~ors into that part of the Three Forks region he'ld by hostile Blackfeet. The desired effect followed. Vanderburgh was killed by the Indians. His death 27 served to end the hlgb,.'handed methods of competItion. In 1833 .the two oOClpanlesagreec1 to dlv1.de the terrItory. The Rocky ountllln Fur COlllpag.y took ,tUG tGrrltorYGast or the mountains and, the American Fur Company took that west of tbe mOUD'cains. _'he oontinued courage of BrIdger, FitzpatrIck and Sublett e 1n their now 11m! ted domai n could O,e.ite 11 ttle head':my against the lim1tless rosources of As tor's company. 22

22 • Coman , Opt cit., 364

H Q~evor , when the American Fur Company puroha,sed the Rooky ··ounta1n Fur Com.pany In 13)4, ,they dlds,o wIth a clear realIzation that they wereendlng the activItIes of ,11 formidable rival. The, American.Fur Companyfts ,an Infl Llence In ohanglng t he aspeot ot prair1e and mountain fur traffIc. They Introduced int o these areas some of t he di gnlty characterI stic of the British fur trade, and gave t o the posts they establisbed a reputation attracting not only sportsmen but also schol ars ot sctentifle bent. l?B

Chapter II

TYPICAL ORGANlZATION_ TRAPPING AIm RENDEZVO US IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAD~S

Like other forms of business enterprise t h~ fur trade · became more complex and highl y organized as it expanded. The fur trade and t he beaver trade have o,ften been referred to as if they were synonymous. Of all the varieties of fur­ bearing animals--the beaver probably has boen t he most im~ portant historically. Since the commercial value of beaver. was largely conditioned by th,e season and the conditions under which they were taken and preserved beaver hunting and trappi ng were pursued on a scientific basia. Two hunts were conducted annually, one in t he spring , the other in 'the fall.

During the summer ~eason the furs were interior and the w1nter montha were too severe to permit continuous hunting and trapping . The summer was spent searching out new beaver haunts whi le the winter months. were whiled away in camp.l

1 Because the cold \'Veather is conducive to better, fur, the beaver taken in the spring are superior to those taken in the fall. Frances F. Victor, The River of the West, 68; Edwin L. Sabin, Kit Carson Da s 1809-1868, 1:126~ u.S. Senate Executive Documents 22nd Cong ., at sessl,9O':

Each year after the rendezvous, held sometime in the a,ummer or early fall, the leader of the expedition divided his men into groupaor camps and gave them different routes to follow during the beaver hUnt. To cover the country, the men would t hen divide and sub-divide t heir number until 2'{ sometimes there were just tvo together although t he usual hunting party consisted of' f'our or five 'men . The smaller camp s ' or groups were expected to report period1. cally to the central camp . However, sometimes when the physical condition of the country or t he I ndians prevented t heir return the trap­ pers woul d be gone for months, 'per hap.s even until t he next rendezvous.2

2 F .F. Victor, op.clt., 50j E.L. Sabln, op.clt., 120

In transit t he central camp was commande

3 Ni l es Reg1ster, Oct, ·27, 1832, 43:131

At the end of the I 1ne rode the ' second man in charge , or the " "little booshway" as he was called, whose duty it was to look 30

after the ..eltars of tho entlre camp . 10.n stop pin ~ .t~or the nlght tho C8mpel'S fomed a 01rcle, each ' man t akine; !l pl ace 68- slft"ned by the "littl e booshw6y. tl After the horses were turned loose t o' teed, the trappers and ca.mp keepers were divided :tnto mosses to partake of a substa'Dtlal but not very elaborate meal . During the night t he camp was rigidly policed to guard against a surprise ft'ttsok !"rom the Indiana,. At certain. t i mes through­ out the n ight tbe leader challf,m god tb, £r.uard w1 th n All's ellt" and r ecei ved a S i mila r response 1f there were no causo tor uneas1nes8. At daybreak the oampers arose, fed the horses, ate br oakfa,ot, repacked and Vl ore on the road again. 4

4Warren A. Ferr1 s, Llfo i n the Roclq Yountat DS , 112':'113; F . F. V1 ctor,op.c1t., 53-54; u.s . Senate Documenta, OR.cit., IS

Tho trappero had developed B oertai n techni que for 01"088- i ng la.rge rivers oncounterod along the rou.te. Buff.alo-h1de S . lodges wero spread OD. the gound.; into them were th1'om the

5Several but'!'alo hides were aowed together to :make lodges; they were a180 used f or other pur poses such 8. $ t h o, abovfI one. Infra 4:S lighter articles. A rope wa.s thenr-un through the pin-hole • • 'round the ,eflge or each hide and the whole drawn up 11ke. ret­ icule. The lodges were tilled wit h t ho heavier camp goods and tightly drawn up to torm a perfeot ball. With a rope attached , the ball was launched on the w&te r~ , The cbildren sat on tne 3~ 1 top, the Vlomen clung to t he sidos, and a man, hol dIng the rope, s wam ahead 8uppor tlng h1.mself by holding t o his hor s e f:3 .mane. D-l uol nr. t hi s method of transportation a lar:.c cOtlp or s cme f our hundred frequently cr ossed Q. rive·r in one hour' s 't ime. n the t rappinp. bua1noss onlY' t hose who were sllrow'd enough to out,*1t the " l nte1l1gent fJ bea ver succeeded. In for .. retiDf': out t he beaver haunts, t he trapper usus1l,. ascended x'a ther than desoended the stX"o am . This he clid to detoct any indicat i ons 01' 0. beaver tra1l e vident trom the beaver cuttinGs brought down b y- the currant . r,tost beaver we r e f'ound 1n smo oth, shallow streams banked with sof t-barked treee such as the w1110w , oott onwood, aspen and box-elder. A freshly felled cottonwoo<1 tree was always i nspocted t o Dee it had been out ' for food 6 or tOl' a dam.

6 Edwi n Sab1n, O~ . C1t . , 1:120; F .F . ·Vlctor, op.clt., 68; Ii' .,... lallzenua, A ourney to the ROCKY Mountaina , 110

The traps used to catch the beaver weighed f ive pound. nnd cost from 012 to $16 dollars i n St . Louis or at the trad- ns poats . Cheaper ones could be purchAsed but t ho ct'e not aat l at'aotory becauso the1r· :sprl ng snapped Ulto three orf'our plec·•• when placed 1n exceedl ngly oold water. Tbeir heavy welgb.t , aervea to anchor tho beaver and to drown him ·before he coul d .f ree himself . The ordinary ateel trap us.od for cEl,·tch1rm beaver was atta.chud t o a chain five feet long, w1th a swivel to keep 1t f rom . 1.. nklng and a float to aark i t. looat1on in the stream. The task of setti ng the trap , wh1ch -3Z

incurred much c~re and many difficulties , was usually done i n the evenln l%: since beavers wo rk only a.t night. The catches were

ada ~ enerally in the runway~ arou.~d dams and lodges where the beavers passed from shallow to deeper water . On l ocating such a place , the tI'apper waded out to the runway and set the trap about four or f.ive i nches under the water where it wou l d catch the f oot of the beaver as it entered or left the stream. He t hen stretched the chain to its, entire length and fastened

it securely with a str on ~ stake 1n e middle of t stream so that the beaver coul d notdraiJ: tho trap into a br eathing s pace and gnaw off the 1mpr1soned foot to free h imoelf . A small stick dipped in musk or castor serving as bait was hung diroctly above t h e trap . This bal t , a musky 011 ta.kon f rom

ttvo small boaver g lands had a d.istinct1 ve odor wll1.cb attracted the beaver . This was the commonest bait but the old tra.ppers

had secret recipes. of their OtlIl which they wou l d d1vulll:o to no one . The process of setting the trs.p completed, the trap­ per threw a plont1.ful supply of water over the bank to eon­ cea.l any scent of foot pr.ints. The beaver s were adept i n de- 7 tecting any t~ore1gn odors and were frightened away by thent.

7 1" . F . Victor, Ope clt., 64; E. L. Sabin, Ope cit., 1:121-122 Cecil J. Altell', Jamos Bridger , 42-43

'lI'be ordlna.ry beaver about two feet long , had a. thick , heavy body, compressed head with short 1l11ptlcal ears, and s . somewhat oval but r ather broad tall some ten inches long and covered w1 th 80a1e.8 . Its entire body was t h ickly covered 33

with long reddish brown and short silvery hair. A skilled eng.1neer, the beaver .s pe.nt the night cutti ng down trees and bu11ding houses and dams. Dama were bull t by colonies or beavers working cooperatively a.nd using as their only t ools, their· teeth, claws and tails. When the dam was fin1Bhed each beaver family built l ittle square dwel11ngs wlthin the dam . Besides these dwellings t hey usually had side caverns in the bank of the stream, places of ref uge when their dwellings were a destroyed.

a F . A. Wls11zenus, Ope cit., 119 . Montana beavers, were not large but thei.r fur had a t hickness of texture and richness of color that made them valuable. The best aki m. were taken 1n the spring arter a cold Winter, for during the summer the beavers were lean and " t heir rur poor. ' Pelte of baby beaver and old female beavers were practically worthles •• The work of preparing the akina 1n a large camp was done by the camp keepers or friendly squa"a. Atterthey had re­ moved all the flesh by rubbi ng the skin on a smooth stump ot wood, they atretched the ski ns on w1110w hoops and put them in the sun to dry. The skins dressed by the squaws we,re , softer and better beeause t hey rubbed t hem .everal t i m.e. after drying and smokIng them in hut. of green 'boughs. When cured the average pelt weighed from one to two pound's and was worth trom $4 to $6, however, the squaw-dressed skin. sold 3.1- for as much as $8., They were , folded into squares, and tied with hide thongs in packs. Each pack contai ned around sixty skins and weighed about 'one hundred pounds . The best skins were placed i nside as a means of protection and the bales were marked to distinguish the owner. 9

9 John Work 's Journal, 48; W. A. Ferris, OPe cit., 125; F. A. Wislizenus , OPe cit., 122; Charles Larpenteur, Forty Years a Fur Trader on the Upper Mis ID uri, 1: 7 -13

When they could not transpo~t the furs to their destina­ tion immediately, the tr'sp pers hid them in caches wi th the In- tention of re~urnlng for them at a more convenient time. These caches were holes or dug-outs usually made on a high, dry. bank and when po_sible located under an over-hanging rock or in a natural cave. In digging them the trappers first sunk a round hole similar to a well , five or six feet deep, then dug a chamber underground which they lined w1th dry stIcka, grass and blankets. After depositing the furs, wrapped in buffalo skin, they covered the top of the hole with the natural sod and scraped away all surplus dirt ·so that no traces of the hidden treasure would remain. Before leaving, the owners usually marked some nearby tree or rock so they could more readily recognize, the locality of the cache. As a rule the trappers respected each other's caches but wolves or Indians 10 frequently destroyed or stole them.

10 Leonard's Narrative, 279; E • L'. Sabin, OPe cit., 1:127-128 35

The strongest competitor to the beaver in the a ttentlon o£ trappers o£ the Three Forks was the buf~alo. This animal , peculiar to the western plains, supplied food , clothing and shelter tor the inhab itants of this region. For the most part the Mountain Men used ~he buffalo chiefly for food since its skin was t oo heavy and its preparation too difficult to war- rant the trouble of transporti ng it. For the Indians , however, the buffalo was their staff of life. They made use of every part of it . The material f or their Wigwams, their clothing , beddi ng , ropes, bags f or meat, b ow - ~trings, moccasins and 11 leggins were all made f rom various parts of the bU£falo.

11 Katherine Coman, Economic Beginnings in the Far W~8t, 1:301

The work of preparing and tanni ng the buffalo skins was done by the squaws. These skins were frequently sold Qr traded to the whites who in turn shipped t hem to the manu£acturing cen­ ters to be made into overcoats ~nd robes for 'carriages and 12 sleighS. A first class bU£falo robe sold for about $4.50.

12John Work, OPe Cit., 49; F. A. Wislizenus, Ope Cit.,' 49-53; Indian Correspondence (1830-32), 32:337 .

Herds of bU£falo varyi ng_ in number from fifty to several thousands, roamed at will over the plains. James speaks of the thousands that roved the prairie in a solid black mass 13 that stretched to the horizon.

13 Thomas James, Three Years Among the Indians and Mexican., 29 ~,

Actually the buffalo was about t he s ize of an ox but i ts un­ gainl y shape and lOIl:g 'shaggy brown ha i r' gave i t the appearance ·of being much larger . Its large and heavy head was covered with black hair, curled so t hick about t he f orehead that . a bullet could not penetrate it . Beneath its two short, t hick , bla.ck horris , a pair of black eyes gleamed half hidden by tufts of hair . Hanging from a convexly curved face was t:i Ions ' , hide ous beard extending to its knees . I t s neck was t hick and strong and t he fore part of t he body to the back of the shoul ­ der blades was protected by 16ng thie,k tufts of hair . On its bach: was a large hump , to whi ch the muscles and tissues were joinad. The rear of the body was covered with short black 14 hal r which W8.S l i ke satin in t he s ummer .

14 F . A. Wl s1izenus,. op.cit., 46- 47

Terrifying in. appearance, the buf falo was nonetheless quite harmless ln r eal lty and easil y f right ened by t he approach of a human being. One of the most fascinating past imes of the Indians and mountaineers was the buffalo hunt . It took real skill to kill the buffalo s ince its one vulnerable spot was bebind the shoulder blades unprotected by a t hick coat of hair. The buffalo h~t was organized to a fine polnt.es­ pecially when car ried on by the Indians . Me ek gives a vivid picture of the experience he had hunting buffalo wi th the Flathead Indians in the fall of 1838 . tftThat war a sight to make a man ' s blood warm . A thousand men , all '37

trained bunters, on hOI'Setulck, carry­ ing their guns , $nd witb thol~ horae paintod in the height or Indiana' ashion. \'e advanced until ·wlthtn about half a :o11e or the hSI"d; t hen the ohlef ordered us to deploy to the r1Sht and left. until the wings of tb oolumn extended 8. long way _ and ad-vanoe again . ' Bl t hla tIme the butfalo war all lOving, and we had ootneto within bundred yards of them. Kow-e-.o-te then eave us the word; and away lie want, 1'811'- me11 . Heavene, .hata chars· VJha t a ruah1ng and ronring--c.en shoot·· lng. buffalo bellewing and trampling untIl tho eal'th shook under themt t I t war the "{ork :ot halt an hour to ala7 two thousand or :ma,be three thousand anImals. When the work ·.as o took a view of the fIeld. Rere" and thoro and everywbore, laid th · ala1n burralQ. 0006s1onal118 hoI' 1 th a broken les 'liar aoon ~ or 8 , w:!t.h a brohen arm,; or _ tared worso, end ha,d a broken bead. 'Now came out the women of the 111n80 to belp 'us butobor and paok tho meat . It war a b1g job; but we war not lena about it. 5'3' night thO camp war tull or meat , and e verybody merr:y. r1dz~n~' 13 caap, wh10b uar passina that w. Y. trcded with the V11laie ror fifteen .unt!red buttalo tongues ••• 15

15 . - . F . Victor, 02. o1t .. 248-69

'he trart1c phaae or tbese hunts t .hat "hIle the Ind1an:J hunted nd killed tho buffalo onl he tnountalnoer.,

,k!.llod :y thous::t.n t'l .1 e.G t ror the aport -t, leav-

bundroda ot buffalo corpses to rot on · the pftlr~vCJ . The Orlacl,. beara which the Mount• .1ft !len quontly en­

tierce as the buffalo Will saand cau.ad as much ter,ror among the fur trad.ers fl';l dId boat 11. '3~

Indians . Immense In size, sometimes weighing as much as eight hundred pounds, the Grizzly bears were white , grey, and brown in color . When full· grown their length was about ten feet and the1r height three to four feet. Although Un­ able to climb trees like the Black bear, Grizzlies had stu­ pendous strength and were able to drag a buffalo for a great distance, -and despite their size. could run almost as fast as a horse . Their food consisted of meat , fruits and roots . Under ordinary circumstances they r an away from mankind and defended themssl ve's only when pursued. However , when hungry or irritated they would attack whoever came their way, one blow of the paw being suff.lelent to knock down a man. Because of the thickness of t heir skin. and skull and the g reat quantity of fat around their hear ts it wa s dl.ftieult to kill bears ,. Many of the Mountain Men had na.rrow escapes f'rom maddened 16 Grizzlies .

16Thomas James, op . cit ., 75. 76; F . A. w"fislizenus, Op e ctt., 97; Osborne Russell, Journal of a Trapper , 152- 133

Among other anima ls' whose akin was valuable to Mountain Men were the elk, deer" otter, racoon, f'ox , mountain sheep and even the muskrat . Most of these were prepared and shipped to the markets , '\'1hile the elk, deer and m.ountain sheep ,skins , b-ecause of their softness and fineness , were usually kept by' 17 the mountaineers and made into clothes for themselves .

17 O. Russell, op . cit., 130- 135 3,

From thE:! camps the furs 'flere conveyed to the posts or

H rendezvous by horsas or Mules, each one 'carrylngtwo p. • t·wo hundred pounq.s . The horses used. for this pur- poso wore u$ually purchased from the Indlnns at the high 18 prlC& 01' ,, 50 or :60 .

18

i'he best horses wore the llSpanisb pont hieb. t I nd1an stole or bough.t in the Southwest . liorses obtained from tho

e ree, Flathead or Comanche tribes were ~uPGrlor breed.

The furs thus trans?crtod to the torts or rendezvous VIOl' . bartered or sold to t h o fur trader ho then shipped tbom

d th to St . Louis . I a1'11&r poriod the furewere carried down th 19 river in keelboa.ts or bull boats . Espocially adapted to

of Early Indl ,It. Vll190-95

navigation on th lasourl and. tha Yellowstone because of it 11eht ght the bull boa or b alo sktns sewn to-

g0~b.er and' etretehed over tr of' wl110w and eottol'll1ood . • It s uauallv t 1 by thtrtv feot d tv.1ent no deep; probably tho 11sdltest draft bo· ver c."" ., t ablo to carry a cargo of from five thoUSQ.lld to six thousand 20 pounds.

20 Phil E . Chappell, "Rlat-or,. of Missouri Rlver,1I KSHC., IX:271 , - , 10

koelboat s '1 to vonty... ,fl V1 long. t:'U't': o four fO en Teet 111de tla b- tant1al craft th 8 cabin and storn paco . It. '":&61 to storn.

A.t .. . 21 'J.'he ne. th$se bot\es va J1 ow, t. eU-l.OUS pl'ocosa.

1 :11

~qe. ill a d 'Ci) HI . T 1ttl the ndvont or tbe steambont transportation on t h as l'c'IolutloID,zed. Eo.oh yoa.'1.' th

I the rndian oOUa"ltX'y Oll.rryln.g ~'1.o supplios tor tho 10ar, t fur traders and trappers, miaalonarles, man or GCienOe 01" lelsuro who \1ont {lost to do researoh work or t o amusG thsf!l8&lvea

S!.noo it wns not a'b16to~o into the hoart or t ho fur oountrY. transportation byatoaobont h t3 l "1 n ::l - tations. 'wounhaut tho early per1,od (1804-1823) torts or posts

s they woro of ton oallod, ri~ured nr o;:llnently flO a

ea1uttl ot excha., 'n oonduot1n~ the general fur trade i n th-e IncUon country .. o faci 11tate th4t movement of tb& trap- pers and to obv1ate the estab11shment of poet. 11l1am Ashley of the A$h!ey-BePJilY Fur OOllpany inst ituted i n 1622 the rendez­ '2 voua •

.... IntPa.&ll3;

'be rendezvous, the most plotuf>G&quo and exc1ting event 41 in the life or Mountain Men , was unique in the history of t he rur trade in Ameri ca. It was held annually in a locality which afrorded some protection and food ror the men and animals arid where the annual suppl ies could be brought from the States and the furs transported back to St . Louis . The most favored s pots were Pierre's Hole , Green River Valley and Powder River Valley, located on the western side of the Rockies 1n the pre­ sent states of Montana and flyoming . 23

23 Harrison o. Dale (ed) The A,shley.. Smlth Explorations, 63; E . L. Sabin, Op e cit., 1:137; F . F . Victor , Op e cit., 48 -

Pierre's Hole ofrered not only the qual ificati~ns for camping but the additional attraction of natural beauty. This Valley about thirty miles long and fifteen mi l e s wide was bounded on the west and south by low and broken picturesque ridges . To the east three .magnificent mountains called the Three Tetons , towered to a height of fourteen t housand feet and stood as land marks ov~r a vast extent of countr y . Through the middle of the Valley flowed a crystal stream fed by moun- taln springs . Bordering this stream were broad and extensive 24 meadows thickly covered I th willow and cottonwood trees .

24 Vashlngton Irving, Captain Bonneville, 52; F . F . Victor. op . cit., 58 .

The rendezvous was usually in :full swing by the first week of July. All those connected in any way with the fur 1-Z trade gathered here to be on hand for the arrival of t he ar­ rival of the pa.ek trains coming from St. Loui s with supplies. This motley group eonsi,sted of American and F'rench Canadian trappers , traders and hunters; half- breed and full blood In­ dians representing 'nearly every tribe in the Rocky Mountiiins and a cert ain quota ,of the eli,te in the persons of artists. I botanists. travelers who sought t he companionshIp and hospi­ tality of the mountaineer's in their wanderings over the 25 prairies and mountains.

250 • Russell,. Ope clt •• 65; Irving, op. cit., 53; E. L. Sabin, Ope cit., 1:1.38

Such a heterogenous assemb lage numbering anywhere from one hundred to a thousand, lived in tents and lodges In the several camps usually stationed along the valley streams. Wi allzenus. a physician and traveler g ives his impres­ sion of the Green River rendezvous: "We reached the eamping place. What first struck our eye was several long rows of Indian tents (lodges). extending along the Green River tor . at least a mi le. Indians and white's 'were mingled here in varied groups •••• In manners and customs. the trappers ha ve b or.rowed much from the , Indians. Many of t hem. t ,oo, have taken Indian women a,s wives. Their dress is generally of leather. The hair of the bead is usually allowed to grow long ••••With their hairy bank notes, the beaver skins. they can live for a rew days lIke lords ••••The Indians had f or the trade ehiefly tanned skins. moeeasin,s. thongs of buffalo leathe'r or br~lded buffalo hair, and fresh or dried buffalo meat. 13

They havo no btHi'ler skins . The articles tha.tattracted them most 1n e""cnange were powder and lead, knives, tobacco, c inna­ bar, ga11y colored kerchiefs , pocket mi r­ rors and all sorts of ornaments . "26

26 • A. isllzenus, OP e cIt . , 86

Although fur trading was the 1n business of t be rendez- vous it also served other pur poses . t this tl the heads of the f ur comDaniea met the trappers 1n their employ, paId them and gave t hem outflts for the coming year . Orlglnally separate companies held inde pendent r endezvous bUttU3 early as 1B3O one rendezvous served for all . The various .outfits camped within a radius of a few mil es of each other; competition among them was ke,en. "The company that can firat open 1ts tempting supplies of corfee, tobacco, armnunltlon, .scarlet Cloth, b.lankets , bright shawls , and glIttering trinketa, has the greatest chance to get all the pel trles and furs of the Indians and free trappers , and to engage the1r ser­ vices for the next sea.80n. It 18~ble , lao, to fit out and despatch it.a own trappers the soonest, ,so as to get the ,start of ita competitors , and to have the first dash ~nt o the huntln~ and trapp1ng grounds . u27

27c__ _ • ;trving, OP e cit., 21

'he arrival of the pack train was anxioua1y and eagerly anticipated by those ,"/ho h?,d been 1n t ho mountains for any length or time . For one thing thoy hoped to re.furb18b the1r Jaded attire, for another they hoped for letters from .friend. ft and rolatives; then thare were not a few who bad boen total abst4 1.0era by reason of t be to of liquor ,,110 lQnged .tor tb() whiskey sant out b7 the compa.ny_ the oompany' $ polley n thi.s matto.r \Yea open t o qUGat1oD . Sol11ne liquot" we.s a sure ma

"Jo,,!! now beamed 1n '$V$~y 'countG.IlI!U1ot) • . SOlr4 rooelvod letter.. fi-om their tr1en(ia :o'd: relat1 vas; some re(H'J~. v$dtbe publics paper-s and nellS of t he day; others can­ $0166 thGCJ!!01volit with the i dea or .Get­ ting a bl.¢nket l 6 Gotton shirt Cl" ftc tew pInts or coffoe and sugar to eweeten it jus't bll lut7 or 6 tr5aU. grtlt18. that .is to saY:i by pay in.S, 2000 per c$nt on .iSe first ooat 07 way of G.ocolt.odat1on.,tt .

280 • ftu,sell, 9p. c1t., 6

All bua1neaa was done by th.o be:rt&r systeb1 with the be'avQr' polt as standard of exchange rop tM wnlte and ths, · 29 horae fot' the Indlana.·

29 ·JOM Work , op. 21,S. •• 50

. Ll ve11 scones tollowed the ,open1ns of tuo goods at tbelodge' ot the Dooabwaye where in the absenoe o.f l.og sto;ree. piles ot bales and DOltOS s.~ved as oounters . Most of the trapper. s pent the tull. ,unt ot t-belr ye~ t S '•• te8 at tbe .rate or several hunClred dollar$ per del.' Ir btUIVe1' pelts weJ'1"t: 1-5'" plentiful at son a thousund dollars a duy was not too much for so or tbe morc reckless to spood on the,!r aqua , horStts" a.lcohol and ther.loolves .30

F .. F . '\Uctor , 02. cit., 89; Leonard. oR. oit., 'tI- IO

The rendezvous had attimoe all the rmol' or a bne- o all ah orgy. Surfeitod with dr1n~ entertainod thom- solveD for deys -g1 t tl cards, gamb l ing, dr1nl::1ng, borec racln and foastit1G . After they d squ he pl'toceeds of their ear's toil they settlod dOO1n to tho morc prosaIc and lea cot1tl~- timu of story telling th rlcn06.:s . :51

: . " . -'- - ~ -, -. --~ 1 o. Ruusell, Op e oit •., 65; E . L. Sabin, op.clt; . , 141

aust10n or funas olose o.f the t'endezvouQ which loft mnn trapper in dobt to the fur company _ 4-6

Chapter III 'YPICAL l""OrJ:l 'mN

Trapper 11fo 1n the !.lontana Rockies, fraught as 1 twas with adventure, excitement and constant perll, called for men who possessed a generolls amount of courage, ingenuity and en­ durance. or such calibre were the :Jol.lntain Men who renounoed all the comforts of civilization to seek tho more eventful life of the mountains. No t all were drawn there by the love of adventure; many , ~h~so past ~ould not bear close inspection, \ came West to escape the penalty of an outraged law. Ot hers re attracted to the fur region in search of wea lth, only to learn t hat a f ortuno wa s of tan mor e hazardous to acct:1mulate here than elsewhere. Prompted by whatever motive , only those of sterner stuff persevered. So enamored dId they become ot this wild life that, r th ost part, they remained until the elements, Indian arrows or old II ended their careers. Brave, cool andsagaciolls, they were 1 to any emergenoy, be 1t Blackfeet, grizzlies or fam1ne . A jaclt of all trades , ountaineers could turn thoir hands to ny task be it tne culinary art, sewing, breaking a horso; r l'lanufacturlng bullets.

The f40untaln n war 5 unrelenting in thoir hatr ed ot the1r enemies as they were loyal to their friends. specttng the r1ghts of others, t hey were, nevertheless ,. extr ly Jeal- ous of their n Independcncg. striot code of honor marked the deallng among trappers. It was a matter ot r are occurrence or one trapper to tlllftl1 the cache of another. As a ole the 47

tterly improvIdent, the1r earnings in gambling, dr1nking and purchasln nt ornaments for the!Dsclv nd their Indian wives . Proud of nd coar , they boasted · or their escapades., each alaimine: to have had the wIldest adventure, the narrowest escape and to

ve killed the greatest number of Indla~s and bears. They ro the innovators of American Utall stories" boastin£ of their popularity with the Indian belles, their capacity for laohol and their reputation for borrowing the most money . Lest anyone should doubt their physical prowess, they were 1111na to prove it in a race, fight or cQntest even though the odds were definitelY B!talnst them. l

-14; Frane • Vlctor, rho River 'of the

.81r 1 ranee reflected the strenuous lIves tlley led, lit lauely oid comforts. eir gri countenances, brown and hardened from constant exposure, war

rked with a certain stolcls~ indicative of their utter dl~­ ret!ard for the constant perils about 'them. Nothing pleased them so much as to be embers ot the red race; matter of tact, th lthout Ind1an characteristic ith their keen, penetrating eyes, trained to take 1n a s1tu... tion at a e:lance, lont{ Unkempt hair and tanned sk1n. 2 1-8

Characteristioally tall, gaunt and muscular, they walked with, swift, swingIng 6tr1dos, always Qn tbo alert for any lurking dang.er. ,Apparently phlegmatic, they were aettlally h1ghly nerv'­ OUS in temperament ever seeklngdanger and exe1toQ,ent to appoase' their love or adventure. Granted tbat the 1.t!ountain )!an, as a whol.G, were ill iterate n4 had little f or mal education. they nevertheless pOGsE)$sed a fund ot general knowled.ge uneqWllled by many 01' tbo1r so-oalled educated eontoJ,llporarles. outdoor ex1 eveloped. th(3ir tllral abilitios to a far greater extent than a .lit" oL ease and comfort would hav E) donG . At the SaIne time the!· rs ot perception and knowledge of physical (lnd hUtl6l.0 natllrcwere developed to the point ot being inttl1 t1:ve. Unaoq,tJaintedwl th the sonolast.te mediuHls for developing their intell ects, they gained much 1n the wIlY ora general edaoation by a mutual ex- oha:og$ of tbelr ow aooumulate4Jmowled~e . lurlorr the long winter evenings the oampers colleoted in a loc!1ge wbere they spent the tisae debating, arguing and tallln£ tales untll mid­ night. RU$soUestlnllltes the value of one of thes() mea'tlnl.ts thus: " •• , 1 tor one wl11 cheertully confess, that havederlvod no little-b~nefit trotl th 'rcquont argumonts and debates h1)14 in hat ';IG termed ' Tho llocky t!ounta1n C';lllcgc, t nd I doubt not bLlt some of m;v eomrudea ho consi<1orod tl1eosolvesclassleul sohol ars have had some i1ttle added to their wi sdom in the a~sembl1es, hOi/ever rudo they mlibt appear. II 4"1

However, not all authorities are a~reed that th untain n should be classified as illiterate. Hamilton, SOQsoned olmtaineer hi:'!1self, states that the Mountain Men were t t1 e peers ot th sterners 1n general knowledge. e speaks of their varied reading material which included a copy of Shake­ eare and an ancient and

• • HamIlton,

or \1aS the Bible without its readers as one can glean fro. incidents already cited. ' , Intra, 3&4, 19; F. F. Victor, -CO ! oit., 84

k, another dyed-1n-the-wool mountaineor , sUbstantiates Hamilton' s statement. el!ardlDe! the type of entertainment 1n hlch they indulged, he salS that they spent their evenings ntertalninlZ each other the rehearsal of such stor1es as

"'V".,,:;:'."'} Vt H"¥~ . t nd Bunyan's Pl" fl'-' ... '" '" hieh in their youth. 1 namlntt 111 daughter lfHel en Yarn after the her niAes 1n Miss Porter' Scottish Ch1efs, popular ong the mountaineers; 1s further proof that the Uountaln n were not wholly lll1terate. 6

6_ . F. ·Vlctor, vI!: ... i t ., 196, 238

Ineers also had a real sense of humor which 50 always present no matter how serious a situation mi ght become. Far from complaining of their hardships' t hey learned to accept their lot and l augh at it. A show of pluck. and courage delighted them; such conduct on the part of an ehemy usually merited for hi m his life regardless of his misdeed. The language of t he Mountain Men was a jargon, coined from a mixtur~ of English, Spanish, French and India.n words. It Via s unintelli gible to a stranger.7

7 G. F. Ruxton, OPe cit., 163; Edwin L. Sabi n, Kit Carson Days 1809- 1868, 80- 81

When refer ring to themselves or fellow trappers they used such terms as: "old coon1l , Uthischildt.,.lthis nigger" and "ol d hoss" . Death was expre3sed as being "rubbec:loutn , t1hai r lifted" or "gone under" . The clothes of the Mountain Men corresponded generally ith the simple life they led. Their home-made attire usually consisted of a cap or hat, hunting shirt, breeches, leggins and moccasins all made of buckskin or buffalo hide well . greased and pOlished.8

8 Descriptions of t he dress of the mountai neers are found in: Charles Larpenteur, Forty Years a Fur Trader on the Upper lssouri, 1:7; R. B. Sage , o~. Cit., 18; F. F. Victor, op. Cit., 136; o. Ru ssell , Ope ctt.., 8 ; Niles Register, 47:92; Frederick A. Wlslizenus, A Journey to the Rocky Mountains, 87

Their moccasins were obtained from t he Indians or made by the trapper hi mself or his squaw. The leather pants gaily fringed 51

ltle with thongs, made. .ot scarlet flannel or calp trophi,es, wore partly ooverod by the long, full huntln shirt tlhlchwas folded across tb at the

slst makln oonvenlont pooket to stowaway emall art101e~ .

The more o.tfluent trnppel"s posscssccia tlann~ · l or cotton sh.lrt but those were availablo only at prohIbItIvG prices. iJnoar" neath tho hunttng shirt and next. to tbe sklnrras anot.hor slip-on s!l1.rt ot doe-s!dn or wool whioh was· t ied like an open­ neck s'(foator at the throat... Their caps otten fantastically deooPQ ted tlltb ta.lls and horns e usuall1 replaoed durIng the summer by n lIght handkerchief worn turban style to ward off hent and inseots. OnCe donned a sult of clothes was seldom washed or turned until it, waS laid aslde. 9 .

9trvlng gives a very elaborate . descript10n of the dress ot tn, ountalneers in Ciu)taJ"nB£M!yl11e, 62. This descript1on, however , applIes more to he Frenchman and the halt- breed than t ·Q the Amari-can tl"sppera. E. L. Sabln, ,9P' c1 t., 2 :913

ddltlonal .used tor winter attire. This consisted or a fur Clap with oar flaps, a blanket sc ~rt wrapped about th neck; 10 robe, suffioiently long to Oover t.he body and hIps, and foldod:. Indian-wise so that 1 t eouid be quiokly thrown ide In moments or urcent act.lo11. Buffalo skIn mitt ens and fur-l1ned bat,falo hide shoes roaching well up the lag, completed the wintor costuoe.10

10 ' . E. t . Sabin, op . ol ~., 1 :85' 52

Fastenod to the leather belt Gnlch enoircled" his wa1st ere his skInn1ng or scalp :knifo, pistols and hatohet together . . ith a small skin. case oontaining a little whetstone to keep his knife shllrp. From. his neck tillS suspended Q p1pe holder t mad.e by hla squaw 1!'1 the shu,PGof n heart . and 'deoorated witb boads and porcuplne quills. Across h1s lett shoulder and ucder his rIght nro was a hide strn.p whioh oarried 11 horn powder­ flask and the hido pouoh containing bullets, tllntand steel · nd other accessories. uoked awa.v In his sbirt was his pre- .o!OtUJ tobaooQ In pl"g or saok. and a razor perhaps . 11

11 R. B. Sage. olh 91£. t lS, E. L. Sabin. OD. _ ~Lt •• 85-86

Ihe traoper f consisted at a hors !rlzed po ne o.r two saddlo blankets, r.1din and br1dl"" sa,ek wI th six beaver traps, a gun-stio.' d~ of $om ood and a good r1tlo, carryln tro, h1rty to thirty-r1ve 11& to pound,a blanket ana an xtr of' ll1oQcaslns. 12

12 ~ar ren A. Ferrlu, 209 .

One ot th parts ot every trapper's outfit a nlt-p1nt tineap wh.ioh served not only aa e. drinking cup but s a standard measuring dev1o_. r , cortee, tea, salt,. flQur and uhi:Jke1.1l llHerbert s. Old Trappers nnd Traders," Wd6U. Q.Li! !.tVJ.: *'.H1$ " Ht""+"Q.o. +/ . 53

or tho most part the trappers lived 1n the open, sleeping tinder the stars wrappod in a blanaet of buffalo skin with a rock or saddle serving as pll1olY. he winter months were spent 1n a camp which consisted of several lodges made ot but£a.lo hldesstitched together and erected cone shape upon poles. These ind and weath(;r proof lodges were easily set up and taken down by th.e squaws. The size of the lodge depended upon the number of h1des used, lodge for two being made of five or sIx skins. Later these skins could be used for mocca.sins; being well smoked . they dId not shrink so readily as ,did the raw sidns. 14

1 • Russell, OPe clt., 5'5; F. F. Vi etor, p s clt. , ; E. L. Sabin, Opt 'Cit., 1:130-131

ach lodBe usually housed six persons--tour trappers and two camp keepers. 'rhe latter did all the men1al work about the camp

uch as ~ uardl nR and feeding the hor ses, cleaning the guns, c?okln£ the meals and caring for the fires while it was the rappers ' duty to hunt and supply tho food. CampIng necessitIes such as ..meat , fuel and forage were ob­ tained from the w1nter refuge or- the buffalo herds, usually near some cottonwood ove. Here the bark and sma l l er twigs trom the trees supplied fodder tor the horses and mules, and the bllffalo prov1ded meat for the men . In the mountains , meat as the statt of 11te. ' Fried, brollAd, roasted or raw, every conoeivable kJ.:2d of mea t, be it quadruped, towl or reptile, s readily devoured by t he Mountain Men who were not cho1ey hen starvation was In the orring. If famine wa s imminent and, 5+ no rood wa s in sight they resorted to rawhide cords and moccasins to sustain them. When meat wa s plentiful they were very waste­ ful, eating only t he choice morsels and throwing the rest away . The most common kinds of meat were buffalo, deer, and other wild game; if these were not to be had, dog and horse mea t wa s eaten with relish. Horse meat, according to some authorities, made excellent steaks but the trappers at 'ethis only in the case of necessity since horses were considered too valuable to be used for such a purpose. 15

l'Charles Larpe~teur, Op e eit., 1:207, 296; Niles Register, 47:92

Beaver tails were a special delicacy with the Mountain Men. These, about a f oot long, flat, thick and scaly, were boiled in , a kettle or put on a stick before the fire. Wh en thoroughly

\ cooked they had t he consistency and appearance of thick gelatin. Sometimes the liver and feet of t he beaver were also eaten. 16

16 F. A. Wiallzenus, OP e cit., 121

The most plentIful and the choicest kind of .meat wa s that of the buffalo. According to Wisl'izenus the moun taineers could eat eight or ten pounds of buffalo meat for one meal. Practi­ cally every portion of t his animal >7aseaten including the tongue, liver, kidneYt ribs, blood , fat, heart, tender 101ns, intestines and legs. Vfuen no water was available buffalo blood eould quench the thirst.. Buffalo tongues were famous 59 tor their tastiness .d the r ,lbs were evan bGttE);r. The thIck tat when warmed to a liquld could be taken as a drink; cooled and con&ea,led it clJuld be eaten as trapper's bread, considered very sweet and nourishing. Sprinkled or sopped In SIall as a sauoe, the l1.ver was eaten when raw and still quivering. Fried in 'the marrow or boiled until t he skin peeled orf, the tongue was tender and juicy. The marrow 1. teel! VHlS e1 ther roasted in the bones or taken out and boiled in water and blood to form a thick lIquid whioh when sprinkled with salt and pepper, or gunpowder was eaten as soup. Finally the intestines, sometimes cleaned sometimes not, were eaten .r a.w or ~"ound spirally upon sticks and held over the fire to broil then sucked In l1ke spaghett1. 17

-clt.,

'hen mea t coul d not be obtained the mOWltaineer s ate roots , berrles, leaves,nuts, squasbes and earn procured from tb~ In.... d1ans. lIe 1n wInter quarters the mountaineers amused themselves play1ng games , oards. t.a.king part In foot races, estllng and other contests and telling tale~ .1 8

18 . ~ . ~8 O. Russell, OP t CIt. , ..;5-;.1; • • Ferris, o'Q . cIt., 180- 181

Sickness was a stranger to these men whose vlfl!orous out­ door 11fe in th.e mountains lett. them hale and hearty. \'Ynan 56

they received any wounds they applied home-made remedies that were most effect.!ve. After bathing the wound in salt water t hey applied a salve of beaver ' s oil and castorium which eased t he pain and drew out the swelling. These wounds usually healed rapidly since their blood, like that of an Indian's, was pure and strong and their bodies inured to all kinds of hard­ ship. Other mountain medicines were the bile of the buffalo, used as a sovereign toniC, the wool of the beaver, used as dressing for wounds and the flesh of the buffalo as a remedy for phthisic. 19

19 O. Russell, OP e cit. , 62 , 106 ; F. F. Victor, OPe cit., 104

Famine and exposure were the most frequent :forms of hard­ ship they had to be endured. It wa s not uncommon for the ountain Men to travel for several days without food or water; some of Lisa's party r eturning from the Three Forks in t he winter of 1810 were five days with only snow for food and drink. hen at last they did kil l a buffalo they ate large quantities of it raw to appease thei r ravaging hunger. However , they, as well as many other mountaineers , learned f r om experi­ nee that this was not a wi se t hing t o do .. Such gormandizing after a prolonged fast had serious effects on the indulgers nd left them ill for several days. 20

20 Thomas Jame s" Three Years Among the Indi ans and Mexicans, 44

James tells of the intense discomfort the men sutfered 5·7

from snow-blindness on thl~ same expedition. he snow was piled so deep at times t only t eaas and backs ot the hOl'"ses te visible above it. e snowdrifts rose to fifty or sixty feet in height. re th.e brilliant glare from such an xpanse of sn cased the travelers to beeo so blind that they could ke no progres ha..tever; and for two days v/ere unable to see enou~h to hunt. In desperation they ha o u.se their horses and a dog for food . asides being inconvenient snow- bl1ndness s mo st palnful, causing eyeballs to feel as if 'they were bursting from their heads and making blistering tears stream down the oheeks. ot Infrequently when the trappers made theIr bed under- the stars they enad to find themselves covered. with snow r drenched with rain. Their condition was made all the more tmcomfortable by not baing able light a fire to drive off the chill and mpness . ussell glvQ gOOd p1cture of an experiom'!e he had sleeping under such concH tiona.;

u ... . f{e lay tolerable comfortable while the kin retained 1ts animal warmth and re­ mained above the surface, but the· mud beln soft, the we1ght of our bodies sunk it by rees below the water level which ran under us on the sk1n. We concluded it was best to l1e still and keep the water that s about us TlUrm, for if we stlrrod we let in the cold water and if we moved our bed likely to find a \10rSe , instead place, as i.t rained hard all

21 O. Russell, op , clt .. , 71

nother for r suffering which the untain Uen often

, 5"1 had to endure was that of sore feet. Constant travel over rocks, prickly pear, snow and ice made their feet so tender that every step Vias a torture. James says that his feet be­ came so sore that he felt the blood gurgling and bubbling In his moccasins at every step he took. Ferris, too, 'complains of this misfortune: «'My moccasins became worn out and left my naked feet to be cut and lacerated by the ice and stones, and at the same tice, I was drenched by a shower, which chilled me through. I endeavored to kindle a fire, and make use of the powder in my gun for the purpose, but was unsuccessful. There being no alternative, I was compelled to crawl along or freeze. My feet, now became ex­ treme·ly painful, and I found they were frozen. Being no longer able to support. myself upon them, I sought a stick with which I hobbled along some distance, but at length -found myself in a field of prickly Pt~~rs, that pierced me to the very soul ••• •

22 W. A. Ferris, OPe Cit., 136

arrlage with Indian women was frequently indulged in by the Mountain Men even without the formalities of divorce or death. There were no white women in this country and had there been they would not have made satisfactory wives,for with t he trappers a wife was a necessity--not a luxury. few of th~ trappers married into Indian t ribe s for policy but the majority did so to relieve themselves of the drudgery of their domestic duties. The Indian maidens themselves considered it an nonor to marry a trapper. 'he position of a trapper ' s wife was far more desirable than that of an ordinary marriage to one 5'1 of her own race. Loaded down with bright calicoes and gaudy trinkets, she rode the finest horse and was the envy of all her tribeswomen. She was an aristocrat in her own circle of society; although she cooked, sewed and kept house for the white man, she Via s relieved of some of the hardest work: and drudgery whieh usually fell to the lot of the squaw. 23

23 Charles Kelly , Old Greenwood, The Storr of Caleb Greenwood Trapper , Pathfinder and Early Pioneer of the West, 24; Victor ' s River of the We st, gives a good description of the position of a trapper ' s wife. 50

In their efforts to win the hand of some 'desirable Indi an maid , the trappers vied with each other in using eve~y means to outdo their rivals. To make their suit more i nco~ testable they promised the best horse, the most beautiful trinkets, and the finest cloth for her r6be. he one who could produce the mos t glamorous outfit usuall y won . hat Indian Vlomen were satisfied with only the best is attested by Meek who gives t he following description of his Indian wife : • •• u ' She wore a skirt of beaut1.ful blue broadcloth, and a bodice and leggins ot scarlet cloth, of .the very finest make . Her hair was braided and f ell over her shoulders, a scarlet silk handkerchief, tied on hood" fashion, eovered her head; and the finest embr.oidered moccasins her feet. She rode l ike all the Indian women, astride, and carried on one side of the saddle the tomahawk for nar, and on the other the pipe of peace. The name of her horse wa s tAll Fours.' (Meek paid $300 for it) . Hi s accourements were as fine as his rider's. The saddle , crupper, and bust girt hs cost one hundred and fifty dollars; the bridle fifty dollars; and t he 1I!llsk-a-moots fifty dollars more. 6()

All these artIcles were Qrna~ented 31th tine cut gl a ss beads, 'porcupl ne quil l s, nd hawk ' s bells, that tinkled at every step. lier bl ankets were of s carl~~ and blue, and of the fine st Qnall ty. "

24 F. F. VI ctor, op. clt. , 176

Although mos t of the tr apperst marriaRcs were only t em~ porary arrangements there "J'Icre some inst ances of real,and

l:lstln~ affection between the trappers and' their Indian

OUBeS . Brldt:er, !leek, and r~i l ton Sublette were am~.ng; thos

ho proved to be deVO'ted h..lsbands and !"nt l1ers. Hair breadth escapes wE;rc so frequent in the lives of the

ountain !.ron that they came to r o~ard death in a very s toical !!lanner; littl e or no sentiment was evidont when one of their c ompanions entered eternity. The appar ent indifference with which they viewed death l:"Iay be gleaned f r om. th oll owin conver sation bet ween two trappers, Old nd Bonte: ' Whar's Blll Wi l l i $ ? ' " 'Gono under, they sa ; the Digger took his hair. ' How 's powder gol n ' 7 ' Two dollars a plnt. ' Baeca2 fA pI pl ug .. tGot flY ab~'Ut you ' Hav so. ' Glve us chaw ; and no let ts camp .f ff 25

2Ja. F. Ruxton, op . c1t., 7

he most common for ms of per i l wero the Indian ar row or t omahn~k, the f ol ling blo r tho grlzzl 11 r , tho t11 s s tep from a dizzy or slippery height, the rush of boil ! r foaming 6/

10 , roczlnt! col One of tho i,founto.l en ' defence .oe·cnaJl1C2, '0 avo counting uinful incIdents eir stou In oncounter1ng the next .. otter. TO ves 1 they tried no, remaobcr

ho o1serabl ona-time c ~

1 1 0 so:mt <'! 1raple ;.)l"ocess unacoompaniod sllow of emotlon. 1'he s \yrap)sd in buffalo· ro lald 1n . "allo' 1 til very 11 t ,tle ¢oromony. , l1"\Qrr 1. s give. of burlu ,or an old en killeu by

h Indlt.l. • bod pieoe or new scu!*lct b lanke. t and o6veral before Dlacio2 it in dug with an axe an pan, the only availabl plcQ0nts. Then as plaoed on n t In t 11c

COm- to th leot r>lVQ t pa- 1.5 Qoabts it these resolutions war

26 • Ferrls,2P. o1t., 114- 11

nirestly this chiiptor he.s at t the earmarks of a Utall st,)I'y tt • Actually, the Judgment

hQ wet'€- not ft1ven \.0 (lXcie~~at.lon seem to. prove that the rore- oin9: deta1ls {.ire sobe:t' history. Suoh dependable authorlties as ,e

on, Pe::-ri.s, :tllss(:11, Wls11zenus, Leonard :.tnd Larpentaur

ot ,oseibly .!lll bo ,It ono .Gor d1d they l1QVOeny rec.son to exap.gerate thoir accounts. W~ij,i. l c m:)$ t of these were not ep-

In the aotual trut)''''':l ng busi noss ·1 tselt the:,~ did opend Q t dO(11 of tln.1G in the mountu.ins flhere t hey :.vero in closo sS.oolation tilth tho notoriOUS prevarlca tor~ recount~ dot&11s slmi.l ar to. :ret by cOLlparison "ith his lurl

Chapter .I

TPICAL ~OUNTAIN ..

oantaln Men Vlere individuals immersed In the trapping trado \,vhose days were spent amid the majesty, . grandeur and dan-

r or mountains; tact that ~nve t he1r personalitIes a s1ngular aspect. These fur mon , bold, coura.geous anddarlng sometimes to the point of foolbardiness , pursuod thoir hurjt 1n aunt nand regardl e many dangors w'hich 111lRht be lurking thore. llot lovo of- f;aln for ! ts own ' sake but rather shear passion for adventure . lust for the Irresponsible tt"ee\1oCl afforded by a mountain domain dre',7 these n into -,r ap ptng busino,ss., In ltEtneral th$r,,' 1"e. two dIvisions of trappors--the hIred r coop trappor and the free trapper. 1

be hired trapper was In tho strlc,t sense or the word .. "

an. He eontrQcted 171th a fur oompany to trap for Q specified time, usually three years . DurlnF> this time he was nald an as furn1shed wi th an outfit and supplies. While the oontract existed he was absolutely under company control,

at an o!1viuble posit1on since the COtlDUnY 'Ouroosoly keDt his

OT'J' so that ho could not acquire any at:l~uot of 1ndcpend­ nco. DuriM the per i od the contract company trappers wore bf not free to marry.2

2 F. F. Victor, op. cit., 142; Frederick A. Wislizenus, !! Jour- ney to the Rocky Mountains in the Year 1839, 86; Report Of Joshua Pilcher1 19 November 1831, United States Senate ocu- m!!!! No. 90, 4~

Far more desirable was the lot of the free trapper who was at liberty to come and go as 'he pleased. These were of two classes--those obligated in some degree to a company and those ' who were entirely on their own. The first group received their outfits from the company. They trapped for it and agreed to sell it their furs at a price stipulated before the hunt began. Most glamorous of all was the life of the genuine fr.ee trapper. Bound to no company, he roamed the mountains at wi ll to search for beaver and sold them to the highest bidder. He ,owned his own horse, outfit, arms and a1llCllunition and was free to marry. Every ordinary trapper aspired to become one of this group-­ the aristocratic class of Mountain Men~

3Leonard's Narrative, 9-11

A roster of the fur traders in Montana would include dozens of persons ' most of them obscure, a few well known. From the many a few names will be selected as indicative of the varied types found among Mountain Men. .The most "aristocratic" of ' the Mountain aristocrats was Old Bill Wi lliams, the solitary trapper, who ranged the entire fur region of the Rockies. Venerated fo,r his knowledge of the fur country and the Indians, {,o he was given by his fellow trappers t he title of nOl d" i n token of endearment and respect. Tall gaunt Bill wa s all muscle and sinew . A sharp , thin face wi t h a l ong nose that hobnobbed wi t h his chin peered from under the slouched brim of a f l exible, felt hat, bl ack and shining with grease. A buck­ skin hunting shirt hung in folds over his bony body. Hi s long, spare sinewy legs were clothed in pantaloons that had t he appearance of polished leather. ith his head always bent f or- ard he gave one t he impression of being hump - backed. When he spoke in his whining, cracked voice it wa s difficult to discern whether he wa s l aughing or crylng. 4

4 George Frederic uxton, In the 01 est, 184-185

There were two factors which made him among th cst noted of trappers. First, he was able to endure the greatest of hard­ ships ; secondly, he had an inveterate ambiti on to catch more beaver than any of his companions and invariably realized t hat desi re by appearing at the rendezvous w1. t h t he great est number of beaver packs. This accomp lIshment was due not only to his skill in trapping but also to his i ngenuity in evading unfriend­ ly Indians. His long association with various tribes gave him an intimate knowl edge of their habi t s. For many years he had lived am.ong the red men, changing from tribe to tribe, until he had come to look and. talk like an Indian. Among the curiolls superstitions he had i mbib ~d from them was his belief i n the transmi gration of souls. So deeply wa s he infect.ed with this {,6

idea that he told his companions he would be changed in the next world into buck elk, and he gave a detailed description of certain peculiarities which would distinguish him from the ordi­ nary elk so they would not shoot such an animal should they ever see hlm. 5

5Colonel Henry Inman , The Old Santa Fe Trail, 356-358; Chauncey Pratt W1lliams, Lone El k, 20 .

Williams, who had received more education than the average youth of his day, had an excellent general knowledge and could read and write leglbly.6

6 Al pheus H. Favour, Old Bill Williams, 25

He carried with him a copy of Shakespeare and the Bible with which he wa s very familiar. His ability to translate the Bible Into several Indian dialects made him an invaluable aid to the missionaries. His conduct in general, however , wa s in strange contrast to his Biblical knowledge, and his one-time experience as a Methodist preacher seemed to have but little influence on his later life .• . Al t hough he was noted for his honesty and f or his fondness for children, he \1& S known to have ruthlessly killed. Indians and to have·. gambled away much of his earnings. 7

7C• P. Williams, op , cit., 222- 223

Old Bill was strictly a free trapper, but he occasionally

." ,7

cast his lot ,11th a. party of hunters. Knowing his reputation

~nd hi s ambition, the parties he joined automatically gave hi m leadership- -any other course would have been foolhardy. His love for himself and for his Nez Perce pony was suffici ent guar antee that all necessary precaut ions woul d be taken to safeguard the party. Then, too, he had a special knack for finding the best route, one that avoided all ' gulli es and can­ yons which woul d have impeded his progress. He likewise dis­ played s kill in selec ting a camp site always managing to find one where water , wood and gras s abounded. 8

8U• F. Ruxton, Ope cit. , 188-189

illiams spent most of his life trapping 1n the Southwes t but he .did trap for some yea.rs in the Three Forks region. V:hi le in this area he took special care not to encounter the Blackfeet. If he happened to be in camp with other trappers at the t ime of an approaching Indian attack, he would pack: his pony and flee to the wilderness, all the vlhlle muttering: ·" Dotee hyar noVl, you darned crittur? •• ' can ' t 'ee keep quiet your old fleece now? Isn ' t this old coon putting out to save tee from the darned Injuns now, do l ee hyar? •• Do ' ee hyar now? This nigger sees Signs ahead--he does ! he'll be afoot afore l ong , if he don' t keep his eye skinned--he wil l . Injuns is all about, they are. Blackf eet at that. Can ' t come around thischild--they can ' t , wagh !, u9

9Ibid ., 188 68

Paradoxically the ever-vig1 lant lUll Williams met his doath at the bands of the Indir.ms after spending a l ife tl in their st,. While hunting in ColQrado in 1849, he was killed by so ···embers 0 In stl"lklna oontrast to Williams s John Colter, a ountaln man or the explol'"ing type wbo was t he first to enter" tho Three Forks reftl0,n 1n qtlest of t urs. He, who resembled the Daniel Boono patt·ern for frontiersmant was II native of

Vlr bj30r~ fairly \1011 educated. his; relatives bc1n£ PI" '" bis eonterupornrlo$ Coltal" waS ell ~s tall, pl")l1crtul or tra=tc, alert, endur inG , a ... no ail and l oyal. 10

______.... ____ ~ ...ii • • • II ...... ,. • ~ l ~ .. --~~~~~--~~--J Y • .. ~.... ~.... ~.. ~,~,.. --~

His in! t iel entrance tattle f ur r egion !{JuS mnde \71 th Lowis nd Clark ,;b1le he wns 1n hls t 1l1rt1es. Hired by Lewis t or f lv lollar's a month, he joined the expodition as a .privat e OC tober 1:;1 ,

18°3. Hta return trip uith Captain Cl ark throu~h the Thro

~;! or ks area ga've b1m an excellent !tnowledee of the region ttlhich

lunblo io bitn t atar. l'he Gxpodl1:ion rUl$ well on 1 ts

the 111 ssour 1 whDn Colt~r asked to bo rnl .otlscd from the

ph D1a~tson .a...i.d ForI'est ITancock. tVl:) tropperi.lli ,

y t() the l1p;,er !.!l ssouri . Dec~u::;e of his

'callont r ecord he was r1 ~' on en !lonorabla d1 se b.3l'~G and sucb 6'1

upp11es as could be sparod. ith: his two oompanions ho span" the l11nter of 1806-1807 hunting and tr n tho YelloVlstone

11 • n in ti turned hi s steps home­ ,'I'lrd only to be met by LIS ailed upon him to. return with hl$ expedition to the three Forks re&lon. 11

1:l'ar1"l lterB.

urlng hls stay at Lisa'ts .tort on the Big Horn, hG was sent on a gOOd- wi l l oxpedltl (,) t rOil Indians . til.t po.ck of tnirty pounQe, h \lJ , h , 1s . lone to the ~ro ower t the t1 t valloy; obably on Wind river, 1s e or over tive hundred 01110.., . fto%' vis1ting tho CrolllS and othor trIbes" no sot out or the 'iorn. rOQte he discovered Yall:.owstone Park, an

chlev6ment; 0 o plae th t - t explorer '''st. 12

q " I lli ' 11 lter,tt

'his trip W'd oiy.ulf1cant for the ge~~raoh~ c nl kno~ledg

~ i ch he !".!llde upon hi s return flas lsh1nglY oorroc 1n~ the rte.terlals: o.ut of wh1ch It t7as fashion • !t 1r impress10n of the nature of the U-llowsto ad Blf: ilorn c t least the p.enerel route 7t1 that Colter followed in 1807. 13

l3Charles Lindsay, ItThe Big Horn Basin, It The University Studies of the University of Nebraska, 28-29:27

William Clark was able to use much of Colter's data in making his map of the Lewis and Clark expedition. As a trusted and reliable representative of the Lisa ex­ peditions, Colter made several trips from Fort Manuel on the Big Horn to the Three Forks, a distance of some three hundred miles. · Undaunted by the snow, ice and bitter cold of Montana ' s winters, he made his way alone acro.ss the mountains, defying all obstacles that might have disheartened a less cOl.lrageous man . Danger and peril, which he seemed to, thrive on, \fere never wanting durin~ these trips; his every appearance in the Three Forks region was marked by an escape from death at the hands of the Blackfeet. 14

14 Dr . E. B. Trail, OPe cit. , 6-13; T. James, op, cit., 65

he most perilous of these experiences occurred in 1807 when he and his companion, Potts, were trapping on the Jefferson river. hile examining their traps early one morning, they were surprised by the appearance of some five or six hundred Indians on either side of the stream, who ordered them to come ashore. When Colter and Potts reached the shore an Indian seized the latter's rifle but Colter quickly recovered it and gave it back to Potts who shoved off shore in an effort to 71 escape. While making his getaway, he was shot with an arrow. Colter warned hi m that it was folly to attempt to escape and urged him to come ashore.. Pott~, who probably preferred an in~tantaneous death to the tortuous one he knew would follow his capture, shot and killed an Indian. In retaliation a flood of arrows filled his body. Then seizing Colter, the savages stripped him and began to determine the manner in which he sh:;uld die. he decision wa s that he should be allowed to run for his life and this against the dreadful odds of being pur­ sued by some five or six hundred armed Indians. After the chief had commanded the Indians to remain stationary, he led Colter out on the prairie three or four hundred yards and re­ leased him, admonishing him t 'o save himself if he could. \'i t h the pie~cing war hoop of his pursuers sounding in his ears, Colter began his race for life across the six-mile stretch to the JeffersJn Fork; the ground over which he ran was covered with prickly pear that pierced his unshod feet. When nearly half way across t he plain, he ventured to look around and saw that while he had gained considerable ground from the mai n body of Indians, one of the savages carry­ ing a spear w ~s not more than one hundred yards behind him. He spurred himself _on to such a speed that the blood gushed from his nostrils and poured down the front of his body until he was 11 terally coveredo ?/i thin a mile of the river the savage ith poised spear was just t wenty yards behind him. In an effort to s tay the blow, he, stopped suddenly, turned and spread out his arms. His une.xpected action and ,ghastly appearance so f: startled his pursuer that the latter fell while attempting to throw his spear, which stuck in t he ground. Before continuing his flight Colter hastily snatched up the sharp end of the speer which had stuck in the ground and pinned the Indian to the earth. Fainting and exhausted, he finally reached the river, plunged in and hid himself. under a raft of driftwood. Almost immediately his enemies were on the scene screeching and yelling '/hile endeavoring to find him. Colter' remained in his secluded s pot all day fearful the while that the Indians should decide to burn the raft. At nightfall their departure gave hi m an opportunity to s\1io down the river to a point of safety. After seven days of travel across ground covered with prickly pear, during which hIs naked body was exposed to the burnin~ sun and to th anger of wild animals, and suffering from hunger he reached isa' s Fort on the Big Horn. l5

15 There are numerous accounts of this escapade but those of James and Bradbury are considered the most authentic. Of these t\"v'O versions Bradbury ' s is more accurate. He met Colter on his return from the Three· Forks and got the details of the story. James heard the story t wo years later when he accom­ panied Colter to the Three Forks. He did · not write his . account until 1846. The above is taken from Bradbury ' s Trav­ els in the Interior of America 1809-1811, 45-47, in Reuben Gold Thi'iai tes, (ed) harly western Travels 1748-1846. 5 :45-47

The experience did not lessen Colter' s courage. He is known to have made at least two more trips into the same region encountering s.imilar perils. So close to death wa s he on these occasions t hat he twice p ro~ised God he would never return to the Three Forks if h ere per mitted to escape alive.; The 7S second time he kept his promise! Having had his share ot Blacktoot treachery, he lett the three 'orks in 1810 with the determination never to return. lot all the Mountain Men were as praiseworthy and deserv­ ing ot esteem as John Colter. Quite a ditferent type was Edward Rose who has lett behind him the unenviable reputation ot being one ot the desperadoes of the frontier. Rose, the son ot a white trader and a halt-breed Cherokee and negro woman, is described as "a dogged, sullen, silent rellow, with a sinister aspect, and more or the savage than the civilized man in his appearance."l'

16Washington Irving, A§tqria, 16,

Among hil sobriquets were "Cut Nose" and "Five SCalps". An Injury to hil nose received during a brawl won him the first title. From the speotacular killing or five enemy Indians while residing with the Crows he acquired the second title.17

17Capt• R. Bot.es, "The Five Scalps" M2B§., 5.12-18

As a river pirate and highway robber he had at one time plandered the boats on the Mississippi and robbed the overland travelers as they returned from New Orleans with the proceeds or their downward v01age. Hls first trip to the West was made wlth the Lisa expedi­ tion or 1807. From Lisa's Fort on the Blg Horn he was sent OD 7t a ,GOd wIll expedItIon to the Cro.s. tater, atter a violent qgarrel in which he threatened to kill Lisa, he .ent to li.e .ith the Cro•• and remained wIth thl. nation three years. He ,a1aed their adm.1ratlon and respect by rea.on ot hi. great physioa1 pro..... Hi. pertect selt-control and hi. haucht" se.ere look brou,ht a certain de terence tro. the Indian. that soon enabled hi. to becoae a cbIet In the trib.. Becau.e ot hi. abIlIty as an interpreter, the Sioux, Mandan, Arlcara, Omaha and other trlb.. .ere eager tor him to become one ot tbem. ae so readI17 learned the -aD1 ditterent Indian dialects that he was able to conver.e tair11 .ell in allot thea.18

18 Capt. R. Bola8s, 2R. gAl., 10-12

Ro.e wa. equally adept In the art ot atealin" a worthwhile accompli.luIent in the eyes ot bia tellow oOllpanlon.. His oln purpose in stealIng wa. to secure pre•• nt. tor the IndIans In order to du17 l.pre.. tbe.. When entrusted b1 tur coapanie. with a laree con.lan-ent of supplle. which were to be eXChanged tor tv. fro. the IndIan., It was not unaul tor hi. to bancl over the ent1re consIgnment wIthout a.kIne tor furs In exenan,e. rhus dId h•. bul1d up hi. reputa.tion don, the IndIana. One tl.. he did thi. to the tQne ot $11,000.19

19 Da·,20

De.plte hi. reputatIon tor di.honesty, Bo.e performed so.e valuable .ervlc.s tor the trapper. and tor the Government durine '15"

Indian troubl•• , in addition to hi. role as interpreter and guide tor .everal or the rur companies.20

20Be was e.ploled by the aissouri Fur Company, Rocky Mountain Pur Co.P&R1 and the American Fur Company. James Cly.an, !IIi;Cftj lrgntlers,ao 1792-1881, 39, lis'0I£1 Fur Qt. "dge£, -I 7, 9

One or the b,-products or trapping was the training it turnished to potential scouts or guide.. Into this category tall. Ji, Bridger. Born in Richmond, Virginia, Bridger at the age ot eight moved with ht. parents to the vicinity or St. Louis. Sundry occupations such as a tavern lackey, tara hand, river roustabout and a blacks.ith apprentice did much to condition hi. develop.ent into a mountain flan. His illiteracy ot speech and inability to read indicated a lack ot "formal education.21

21 J. Cecil Alter, !!,e. Irldg,r, tr,:;e:e I!0pti;£,mao, ScoQ~ and Nd" 2-4; lonel H. IllIl8Jl, ; 01 ., 3 •

Bridger'. religion ia a .atter or conjecture. His triendship with Pather DeSmet who was instrumental in sending Bridger'. children to the convent school ot the Religious or the Sacred Heart, together with his own desire to earn enough trom trap­ ping to send his sister to a parochial school would .eem to indicate that, at least, he had some interest in Catholicity.22 76

CODtact .1 th the mOWlta1neers roaa1nl abottt st. Louls cav. Br14,.r hi. ·yen· tor the W.at. As a trapper, h. apent .oat ot bia tl.. In the Three Forks r'llon, 101nl th.re first

.a a ...ber ot Ashl.y" .~pedltlon, later as on. ot the part­ n.rs ot the RoclQ' Mountaln Compa1'l1 and tlnal11 .a an emplol.' ot tb. '-erloan PUr CoaP&QJ. In tn. role or • acout and guld. h. contlnued to trav.r.. tb18 r.,lon QI'ltl1 h. had sp.nt an Int.raitt.at perlod ot almost tltty ,.ar. In the Tbr •• Forka oOWltr,.23

2J1CIbn Work'. r.b )6-411 teoaar4. op. oU., 28-)0, ,. P. Mg."'lctorln"P'. • ., o-13S, w. I.. F.rr1s, Lit. 1; ~. ft29R

AIIoDI the aonWl.nta to h18 nue In thi. area are Brldl.r Creek, 8r1d,.r Kountaln., Brldl.r , ••• and Brld"r Peak. Po •••••lnc •• he d14, Imowl.dee ot Montana ,reater than that ot an, ot hl. oont_porarle., he baa merlted the tltl_"Danl.1 Boon. ot Kontana. tt24

240110 D. Whe.ler, J1~ft:' ~1' aM qltr~, 21329; N. C. Abbott, 19aYM 1ri $l\t 1ti ,

&una the trapp.r. th1. rawboned IncSlv14u.al wa. att.otlonat'17 oall.4 ·Old Gab.". A pair ot k.en .,..tlJ ",. and an abundanc. ot brom hair ••t ott a mild, hon ••t oountenanc. wbioh awat.net! the traat not onl1 ot bi. cOilpanlona but also or the In41ana. From thea he learned many valqable trapplnc 1••• on8. 81s popu­ larlt7 aaooc the Indiana account. probab17 tor hi. marrlace. to 77 native wo.en. Following the death or his tirst wite, the daughter ot a Flathead chiet, he married'a member ot the Ute tribe. Atter her death he married a Snake woman. 25

2Sarenville V. Dodge, "Biographical Sketch ot James Bridger,· WYoming QParter1f BulletiQ, January 1;, 1924, 1:7-8

How.ver lacking Bridger may have been in academic training, he possessed unusual powers or observation coupled with a thirst tor an intimate knowledge ot nature that gave him abili­ ties other than those or an expert hunter. His natural tondness tor mountain scenery and a vivid memory led him to familiarize h1 ••elt w1th every mounta1n peak, deep gorge or outstanding. landmark. It was an event ot ordinary occurrence tor him to describe w1th carerul accuracy the places he had visited many years betore.26

26na., 8-9

Br1dger's topographical ability was concretell demonstrated in the maps he made on butfalo skin. With a piece ot charcoal he would draw thereon any portion or the Rockies in the Northwest, indicating streams, mountains and vallels.21

21••• I. Brackett, "Bonneville and Bridger,· MQnt.Biq., 3:182-183

Br1dger's memory and Yl.ual~mindedness coupled with the ability 78 to travel in an almost direct 11ne trom one point to another for great distances made him one ot the .ost noted guides ot the We.t. An exception to Bridger'. customary peacerul relations with the Indians wa. the "Crow InCident". It took place in 1831 while Bridger, Fitzpatrick and Sublette with two hundred com­ pany trapper., a horde ot free trapper., a rew Indiana and halt-bre.ds .er. conductin, an exp.dition into the "irresi.t­ ible- Blaokfoot oountry. BrIdger ..... to hay. play.d a lead­ in, role In the attair. When h. dlscoyered that the Crow., under the·coyer ot a c10ad ot dust, had .tolen tro. the. tt~ee hundred hor •••• h. d.ter.lned to reoover the. at &n1 .price, and called tor Yolunteer. to help him. Atter tralllng the culprIt. tor two or three day. they tina11y came upon the sixty yoane Indian. .e.ted one eyening at du.k around their camp tIre•• The stolen ani.. l ••er •• a. they thoulht, sately oorralled a .hort distanoe .way. As soon •• Brldger had statloned hIs men .1thin tlrlne range or the complaoent Crow., two or his com­ panions, Antoine Godln and Robert le.ell, crept up to the corral, opened the renee and stampeded the .tock. Atter t1rine on and kl1l1n, .even Indian., Bridger with ht. companions fled toward the horse., seoured mounta and droye the stock back to cup.28

28 J. C. Alter, op. 91,., 116-111

With tbe dec11ne ot the tur trade In 184), Br1dger lave up trapp1n, and built a post, Fort Bridler, on the Black Fork of 7?

Green aiver, to supply immigrants with provisions. Later he drifted into the Government service as a mountain guide. He led the followIng exped1tions to the West: the Utah .Exped1tion under Stansbury in 1849; the Berthoud Engineering party in 1861; the Powder RIver Expeditions ot 1865 and 1866 and accom­ panied the RaTnolds Yellowstone E:xpe41 tioD in 1859-60. With the passing ot the frontier, Brid,er was a veritable "man wIthout a country". His last years were spent In retirement on a tara near Westport, M1.souri, now a part ot Kansas CIty, where be died Jul, 17, 1881. A New England boy 1n h1s teens, ,Jededlah Smith, picked up sundry knowledge on tur trading trom the Canadian traders and trappers. He met them while employed on the trei,hting boats ot the Great Lakes. This knowledge later served him in good Itead, aecurin, hil acceptance on two occaslona, 1821 and 182), as a member ot the Asbloy expedition. On the second ot the•• trips he mad. tor hi.selt a name In the fur trade annals. Ashley and hil men weI'. pushlnl their way up the Kiasourt in 182) when the expedition encountered a band ot wrathy Acricara. Belne torced to retreat, Asble, called tor a volunteer to CO to the Yellow.tone to get aid trom hi. partner, Henrl. To the surprise ot everlone, the louthful Jedediab Salth stepped tor­ ward to otter hts .ery1cea. SmIth together .1th a French C&nadian hunter, braved the perils alonl the thousand mile. ot untasiliar country bet••• n the Aarieara villa.e. and the south ot the Yellow.tone. Upon ht~ retarn with a14 trom Henry, Smith was given command ot one ot the companies that advanced againat the Acricara. During the akirm1sb one or his coapaniona wal 80

kill.d and it was Smith who knelt to pray over him. 29

29 H. C.Dal., OPe cl~., 175-179

Smith was the proverbial six-toot mountaineer with the typical penetrating steady eyes, their blueness accentuated by a scarred eyebrow that had been partly torn away by a grizzly bear. The valor ot the man and his presence ot mind is revealed in the rollowing details of the inCident which was accountable for this bl•• ish. At the close ot the encounter with the Aricarat Smith and ten companions started west. They were walking Single file along a mountain ledge when a bear jumped on Smith biting his head and sent him sprawling to the ground. Badly cut about the head and face, Smith had sufficient presence ot mind to ask one of his companions, lames Clyman, to send two of the men tor water, and to get a ne.dle and thread to sew up his bleeding head. Clyman gives the details, "I got a pair of scissors and cut off hi. hair and then began my tirst Job at dress­ ing wound.. Upon examination I (found) the bear had taken nearl, all his head in his capacious mouth clos. to his lett .ye Oll one side and close to his right ear on the othar and laId the skull bare.to near th. crown ot the head leaving a whIte streak where his teeth passed. One of his ~ara wa. torn fro. his head out to the outer rim. Atter stItching on the wounds in the best way I was capable and accord­ ing to the captain'a.directions, the ear beine the last, I told him I could do nothing tor his ear. 'Ob you auat try to stItch it up some way or other,' said he. Then I put in ., needle stltchln, it through and througn and over and over laying the lacerated parts together aa 91

nice as I could with .Y hands.·30

0 3 Ja••• Clyman, op, 9i~" 86

!hat a lIan could serYice such an inc.1dant attords some idea '01 the rugged nature ot the Mountain Men, Smith did service and continued proainently in tbe tur trade tor several yaars. In 1826, Smith together with Jackson and Sublatte bou,ht out Asbley and organized the Bocky Mountain Fur Company. Between 1826 and 1829 his Journeys to the Northwest made him famous as an explorer,3l

31Ig(r1, 2:14-1;

Be. was the tlrst American atter Lewis and Clark to record hIs crossing ot the Continental Divide. It was likewise he that proposed the practicability ot a route trom the Oregon country to Calitornia; in 1826 he actually penetrated the Great Basin from Salt Lake to San Gaorl.1 Klss10n, Calltornla.32

32 H. C, Dale, Ope Cite, 96-97

When the RockJ Kountain Fur Company sold out in 1830 Smith entered the Santa Fe trade and tha tollowing year met his un­ ti.ely death at the hands ot tha Comanches in the '9'&11ey ot the Claarron. His death marked the passing ot a mountain man dls- , tiniaished tor bi. pIety and generally Chri.tian manner ot llta. While traversing the fur country he carrIed wIth him his Bible 12 and knelt nightly to say his prayers.33

33Stanlel Vestal, ¥29Dta1n Ken, 34

!be lives ot the Mountain Men and their activities as sk.tched in this chapter are illustrative ot the lives ot the Mountain Men In general. !hey exe.pllty a cross section ot the special avocations ot a tur trapper who might be not only a hunter but also an adventurer, explorer, an Indian envoy or a trail blazer. In all of these fIelds they made history leaving so•• individual contribution to the development ot the Northwest. When advancing civilization and the decline ot the fur trade "rubbed outW the Mountain ••n he beca•• ' the scout or guide who lead explorers, military and governmental expedi­ tions or wa,on trains ot emigrant homes.ekers to the .est.34 83

Chapt.r v THE DtCLIIE or !RAPPIIO

"11 J'obD J'aoob utor ••• 111 London daVlnathe aWlDeI' ot 18aa he noted the be,lnn1na or th. doWDtall ot the b ..ftJII_ III • 1e",p ...ltt.D at tbat tt.e he ••1dl wI "17 aoll tear the be.... w111 Ilot a.ll "'1!J aoOD unl•• a vel',. tiM. It appear. tbat the,. akAt bata ot .11k lnatea4 ot beaver.-l

1 ChItt.nden, Tbe AM1'19!Q Fur 7.E!4! ~ tbli5V 'eat, l:as! The _In market top 'G.av.l" ••• E1ii t.. r wEo _de large aott telt bata. The" atov. plpeft bat taah10n put an eD4to thia _l"k.t.

WIthIn a decade Astor' a fearl bad become a realIty_ Ever7- wh.re the demand tor b.aver d.c~a8ed until 1n 1842 onlJ one thousand out or t ••nt,.-tbr •• thou.and, tour hundrec1 and 81xt7-tbre. Amerioan lmported tura ••re bougbt 1n London.2

2 111 •• R'61at,!, Oot. 16, 18ta, 6~lge J I ...c Llpf1DCott, w, d.ntur,. an a Balt ot Fur Trade at St. Lou1., '!a.h1OORD QglftEa1tl Studi.!, III, Part a:2~

Bow.".... , the .11111 ' ..oua 4ec11ne in the Thre. Porka E.glon .a. tbe result of oaus •• other thaD tbat ettecting tbe ,enora1 deolla.. Rlval...,. among the varloua compel•• oper.tlna in tbat area 1.4 to the 1"uthl... extermination or the beaver and the dolllOl'&11&at1on ot tne Indiana 1fbloh In turn baatetle4 the downfall 01.' t n. tur trade _a

~lDt£!. 2.16-18 It-

Ac14e4 to tht. was the tact that the trappers pay did not coa­ peDeato ter thell' a.r<1uou. labOPe. In .pIt. ot theIr lons,.ear. apen' 111 tbe mounta1na and the .ealth tn ture t1»'1 baJtve.te4 tbeJ recelved l1tt1e in the .a1 ot finanoial remuneration. !be eDOrmoua protits .ent to the "oompanies- who deliberatel,. kept the flounta!n Men in tinancial atN1t8 bJ ebarg11'1S e ..- orblt8Dt prioea tor eupplies and pa,.1na low wase.. G_.ral Aahley tor 1net8llOe arter six year. in the aountatna. retired

.1th a quarter ot a ~lllon dollar. made brpurohaslng fur. w1th .ugar at a doll.!' • pound. gunpowder at 11.ao t I'UIl dIluted .1~ a larS8, quantIty or ••ter at tl~.10 per gallon and other ,coda.

'JobS 1Iorls'. lo~, &a

OrdlD&l'117 tbe Pfl7 or a OoalP&n7 eng... average4 be"en $130 and .100 per ,.__ •6

.~~~~iili5.

PM_ trappe. were pald aocord,lngto the quantlt,. ,and quall',.

of tars tbe,. produoed •. Ther received DO _rettum three or tour b.undn4 40llars a 78- and thelr outfit. Thia low pal JD1gbt not have worked auoh a .bar4ab1p had.

the prio•• 'tor .uppli.. been IIOP8 r ...onable. Goo4a tba, 85'

00.' $1 111 St. Loul. ooat $10 on Gre.n a1 ver br1na1ns the , ..del and booahway. a n1ne hundred peNent gro.. pro!"!t aDd .1&hwldJ"ed pe,oent net protlt. A seMral Ide. ot t be e ..tNYa&ct prlc.. can be gleaned trOll the ooat ot tile tol--­ lowlna artlcl•• : oottee and WSU I. a pInt. dIluted a100b0l

.. 01' $6 a pint J tobacoo t& a poUDd, oottOD .hirt., 16 a pIece J powdeJ' ta a pInt J salt $1 a pInt and pepper 18 a pInt J 'blannts .ao. 6

& Pnd.erlok''71 OabOJl'lle A ••RuaIS1i ••ll, •• D~~U:s!'~ifil~~~~t~r.~~r.~~ J. Larpenteur. Fort Y a ~.~J , Xlt C •

OUlUl, a l.u.111tlon, bear trap., arohler. and puq tlnel'7 tor the squa.. al.o .old at an enol'llOU' protlt. OM carbiDe, ... teo, • pie.e ot blue oloth 'l.a, .. of wrra11lonta, mU. '7 '1.10 and PNDOh .hoes M • ., me_our1 hE COPpI!!l Ltdgr, 48, "10

All ...e. had to be taken out 1n trade or ore41t CD the coap&DJ" books. One loseph te_, In the emplOJe. or the Jlls.OUP! Pur CompAn1, wben 61.. n bis am\lal .alU'J ot '88'1, tound tbathe ~ed. the oomp_,. 1•• 6.80 to. the auppll.s be bad 8 reoelve4.

BIb14, at gb

III ,e.neral the Mountaln lien cur.ed tbe oompanle. for s1milar deals 1n whlch tbey alwa,.8 c.. out the loser. More algnlflcant than the foregolng reasona In the decllne ottha fur trade wal the lack of any organised sovermaental pollcl In dealing wlth. the Indians on who •• good will and co­ operatlon depended the .mooth and fruitful operation of the tur trade. Aa e&rl1 aa 1796 the government attempted to reg­ ulat-. the trade "nd protect the Indlana by e.tabllshing the tactory ay.te. whIch stlpulated t~t all tradln, mu.t be done at dellgnatec1, plac... ~he purpol. or t hl. act wal fru.trated. bl the soyermaent granting l1cenae. to prlYate part!e., grants that e.,.ntuall1 were dl.tr1buted on tile 1;)a.l. ot poll tIcal patronage. Palling to .ene 1ta purpo•• the tactori .1.te. 9 waa _boliabed In 1822.

9 I ...c L1ppinoott, sre.clt" 2~5J Harr1aon C. Dale (ed) ll!!. Aahlex-Smith Explorationa, M

Another ertort to errect better relationa wlth the Indiana ••• made 1n 1832 wben the ortlce of Cosad.aloner ot Indian Aftairs w•• created to Inve.tlg.te cond1tions .mong tr1be. we.t ot the Missi •• ippl. Thelr report w.a u ••d by the Boua.

COSlittee ot Indian Aftaira In dr.tting • leg~:al.tl" prograa tor handl1na Indian proble... It called tor the e.tabllah­ ment of an Indian Department, an Indian Intercour.e b111 and a provi.ion tor the organisation ot a Weatern Indian TerrltoP7. ~ . The tuat two billa pas.ed 'but the tb1rd, the onll one of tbe B7 tbre. that outlined a construotlve Indlan civllizatlon pro- 10 gram, was deteated.

10 Slster krJ Paul Pl tzgeralc1, Beacon 011 the Plaln., 52-53

The dltflcultl.. in formulatIng an organized governmental pollcy wer. twofold& tlrst,the apathy or ignorance of govern­ mental otflcials who were 1n a poaltion to gulde Indlan al­ talra; ••condly, the nature ot the Indiana the~elv •••

Of ~he nuaerou8 trlbes whlch tnhablted the Indlan Terrl­ t01"7 those 'most .lgnificantly connected with the tur trade In the Three Parks reglon .ere the 8lackte.t, Crow., Platheads 11 and Snake ••

11 Joshua Pl1cherreport, op. cit., 27

All th... trlbe. had been pu.hed Into what was ,for the.,

010•• confinement, bJ the Indlan removal polloy of the Unlted State. Gov.rnment. Tni. fact together wlth the character- 1.tlc. common to each trlbe made tor a laok of harmony amona tbam. 'lbe mo.t proalnent ot the •• trlbe•• ere the Blackfeet, the norn toea ot .hlte. and Indlana allk.. Th1. group In­ oluded tour dletlnot band.e, the Blaokt•• t proper, P1egan.,

Bloode and OrNventl"•• ot the Prairle., ~7 olal.. 4 the terrltorJ In and about the headwaters ot the _leeourl, the 88

12 rlobee' b..... countr1 1n, the Neat.

1811110" Cou.• ••

.,. ;£,w.,.,..",., pI !de! ... ",...... I.:£,u., 2 10 'l!v fII,,-VWC.l. ••,+W,.

The Cr._ ¥d chr1atened tbaa " Blackleet " beoauao tl»7 wore Il000... 1118 and leggl na blacske.. 4 1>7 travel tbrouah pra1Jtl•• tlre•• 1a

la Dr. P. v. Ha7den, 2R' clt.• , 203-68

Splendid oapl•• ot their rue. the Blackt•• t ..re ..11 tor.d pb.,.aloalll, fond. or athletio apor'., good hor••• 11 and bunter.. ~he1r Inordinate tondness tor l1quor an4 '0- 'b_ otten le4 tbell to aobaDp guM, boP... and e'fttl tt.lr . 14 . .1..... &D4 daugbtera tor t.be.. art 101•••

1\,.... p. Victor, 'l'he 11..... or tbe !tiS, 9

Cla1111na to be a .uperlor rac., bra'ftr aD4 more 'f'lrtuoua tbaD

t1»1r nela;bDora, the Blackt.et oonaldeftCl tbe.. al .. _ the .~ ot oreatlOD aD4 was.4 wa. wIth all who would not aub"'t to thea. 6l11ODa other 1JlC11.. tbel held theMelyea aloot. ..lcloa

Int• .-rI"J1ng .1 tb. &Il'J o~r trlbe. !'heJ ..re perbapa tbe onlJ In.c11aDa 111 tbi. ar.a who ..fued to be .ub..... '.d 'b7 tbe Bf wb.1te ..an even tbough tbel' ..re trequentl:r deteated by thea.

AII(')tUt tbe ~tatne.r. the naM "Blackr•• ," waa a)'llOD7lDOua w1tb 'error.

'lbe tribe that •••_d to Int.~J moet tJtequentl1 with

'-be wtdt.. "1'. the CJ!tOIf. who.. name t~ the.elvea ••• -a..... " ~ "b1r4 people." The,. lived 1l'l the Y.llowatone 10 Val181.

16 Supra, 3-4,,-"

...-.,.•• ot thla tribe .eN partlcularl, adept tli tbe art or Ulle.. r7 wblcb tbel 00D81&t:red • dealrable aoooatpllabaent. « When 1n larp DUllbere the,. ..re bra.. e aDd treacherous on the other haDd the,. .ere equally auba1 ••1ve 8Dd oowardll when 1. their llUIIber waa ••11.

16 . O.l.»orDe Rue.ell. JOPJ'!!!l qt a fr!R2!r, 16, 89

In the •••17 dal. ot tbe tv trade the Crowe bad. an averelOft to 41at11184 .plrlt. ot aar kind but tbroUib oontaot .lth the whit.. tbe, 4eftloped a tut. r01! tbea. Contr"'1D& peat1, with all otber trlb•••• re tbe Flat­ beada, the on17 Chrl.tlan tribe in thla ...... Thea. 1nd! ana ..oelved t.be1r tiPat DOtlOl'l8 or CbPlatl8D1',. ho. the Catholic Iroquola bl'ousbt troll Canada b7 tbe lonhwe.t C01lp&n7 to teaoh 1'7 the IiotlDtalD. ID.d1an how to tNp.

17\tawen A. Perrla, If" ;: II: R"H I!!IW , 89, A. ftoa., 7M lR !9B'tra ot 11be ra.. .at '. Ii t{tJ

1'be,. "N a devout orderly group who nevel" ate, drank or slept .1tbout alvlng thanka to Ood. Brave, generoua and

~pl table, the,. weN strlctly honeat and baa a peraonal pJ'lde .h1ah cU.tlnaulahed them amana aus-rouncUna tr1b••• It .a. their boaat that tbel ba4 never robbed or IDjured a Wh1te .n ad bad alwl178 tnated tha. a. brother., wh1le in

their o~. SOJllOel7, tornioatlon and adultary "1'. ae­ ven17 pun1.bed and tbeir chieta ..re oH,.e4 wlth a reverenee 11 bet1ttlna tbelr rank.

18 O. Ruesall, 10' 0, •. , 38 . The Sua.. a at•• rabla, thtevish t.ribe, belonaad to the tudl, ot tbe SIlosboDl. Wretohe41,. poor. tbe,. .ara redu.oed to the oon41t10n ot 41"111& in the 6I'oUDd lU,. reptl1a. to 19 seek nourlabaent ~ root••

19 ft118 u~lanat1OD 1a g1ftQ b,. Father DeS_t tor their t1tl.­ ·Snakea. Aco~na to Ale1&Dde. Ro •• tAla aa.e was 81ven to the. beoau.a tbe,. oou14 ao iJ1lokl,. oonoeal the.alvea .ben ODOa d1aooverec1 b,. gll41na a ..,. 1n tbe paas, aqabruab. an4 rOOD .lth all tile aubtle',. or a ..~. JobD C. Lutt1&. ""--.....c11na kl)8CUtlcm OD .tbe 1.7PJ)tr .1

Par ttda reason thel .a... also trequentlJ known a. Root

D1uers. !her.bad DO house., t ...ps or &'UD8 an4 .bad to depeD4 tor eate',. upon h1'41raa. a.s1de. roots, the,. sUbal.ta4 UpoD benl... 11U18ota. reptlla. and tlsh. When 4e.crfblnc tbllr 91

OODCl1'lon to the Seoret&r7 ot wu. WillI.... Gordon ••1el 1D b1. reporla -Tbel are the moat .laerabl. hu.an b4tlnas I '''1' •••• 1anosaant tb8 1.. , c1epae, auperatltloua 1n'0 the utre_, de.,! tut.ot evel')' t h1na 20 z:aeoe"&I'J to ev.n Ind1&D ooIltOl't ••••-

IO'J..ofh}la Pilcher ;rep,Qrt" 0;. olt., 18

Al~ugb tbe7 w.re not Openl,. bo.tll., the- Snakes in thelr In.... '.rat. role •• bessar' Uld tb1eve., we.. • nulsanoe to tbe tr.<»PI. The t1rat appearance ot' u.rloan trad.er. aDd trapper. .... not ,.."nted b,. tbe IndllU'l8 UIOna whOII tbeN ._ no pbl1oaoph7ot owDerahlp ot natUP&l. Naouo•• In tbe whlt. an', ,.ue ot that tera. Tlle:y.bad the ue of beav.r N­ aouro•• aDd w.r. not loath to have whit. men -.1OJ the ._ prl vl1eg..speolall:r wben they 0_ to tbe In41an huntlD8 pO'UDd lac:2ene4 with preHnts. 'lbe t11 In tbe olDtant ... tbat the Ind.1an .ftr dre-.-4 he was P"1l2a up the richt to tbe•• bunt1aa re.ources when be aooep'e4 the whIt. san'. 81n.. TheretoN .ben th.,. haa leaJ'lDed to trap the,. uatu- . 81 rally resented the aaonopoly ot tbe mlt. hunt.r••

2l . ten... lDc11an ASMLt!fe=aa. Ulall Aroht".. or .. Sat. kIstiorlo !Oi. J

At tlr.t, too. ~he Il1PQslng appearance ot arma &.Ild 'qulpaent, al ••11 a. tbe novelt,. anti oon.... nt.nc. or the _robaD41 •• , qZ bad Impreased the Indlana wltb a hlgh Id.a of the wh1te manta power and laaportance. However, the avldlt,. wlth wbich tbey aoUSht the beaver akina, the tricka and wrangllng made ua. or and t be degradation aubmitted to in obtainlng the skina aoon led tbe Indiana to change their opinion or the importance and power or the whi tea.22

22 Amerlcan State P-eer•• IndIan Art.ire, 2120~

In general the conduct or the traders tended to diatract and corrupt t.be Indiana. In8tead or belng open and talr 1n the 11' deallnga with the red men, the tradera atooped to underhanded ..thoda, frequently Inatlgatlng• the Indlana. ./ agalnat 11 other traders and the Unlted Statea government. lor dld tradera bealtate to kl11 an Indlan to avenge ao_ prl vate injury, 'be 1t thert. a wound or the experlence ot_captlvlt7. In the mountalna ~ere waa no law to ate. the annaing ot personal wronga. UndoUbtedly the greateat in­ Juetloe oommitted againat the Indlana wae the introduotion ot 11quor among the.. Llquor waa brought to the Indian countl7 'bJ reaaon or tn. strong competltlon among the traders who argued the t onl;, the trader wi tb l1quor would get the. Ind1an 23 trade. u ~ •• 202

In an attempt to prevent the dla.atrous results of such • qS practl0' the go.ernment atrlot17 torbade th. eal. ot 11quor aDd placad inspectora at ••ery atatlon along the Mi ••ouri to .Dtorce this law. The •• reatrictions ••re not .tt.oti.. e be­ cau•• there .ere no specitlc provialon. regardIng the _thod 24 ot entorce.. nt.

2' AMI-ioan State PaJ)!r., olh .clt., 658

There .ere alao various wa,.s of evad1ng the law.. Wlth speolal permi ••lon given bl the Superintendent ot ID41an Aftalr. wba­ ke,. oould be transport.d to the Indian oountJl'1 tor the ua. ot the boatmen. The 11quor grant.d tor t he 'boat... wa. ott.n 25 diluted andglven to the Indian.

...... - .. -,...... - V"'_ Fa _v,, __,.,. ,"'1' xg·J)ODd'r 111 £ de £ t d Atl I • ;6 1v.. 0

In apite ot replationa quantltl.a ot llquor ••re amu.agle4 up the Mia.ouri. Smuggler. operated .lth impunitJ because there wa. too rmob t.ohnioallt,. oormeoted .1th a oa•• to bring about their oonviction. Should the gul1t1 one b. broUSht to St •. Loui. tor trlal the ComPanJ .aw. to 1 t that there wer. no .itn..... tro. the Indian oount.,. 1n at. Loui. at t be tl_. . 26 The outcaa. .a. 1nevltably an acquittal.

86 Iaab.1 S. Dolch, ·So_ A,pect. or Barl,. Indian Pur Trad.,· Mt ••ourl Hi.torlcal B•• l •• , XXX'II 194 9+

Se'ftJ"&l reque.t. w.re _de by .ome ot the JIlON oontlclent10ua IDd181l agent. tor a .tr1cter enrorce.nt ot the liquor law but

to DO ....11. 10 pUPe .lcohol e.er tound 1 t. wa1 to the InMan. All ot the l1quor uaed for tradlng purpo•••••• thlrd or tourth rate .hI.key well dIluted wIth water. Vll. a. it wa., thl. oonooctlon had an In•• tlble attraotlon tor the Ind.lan. who .ere wIllIng to exohange all theIr po••••• lon. tor It. Three balt-plnt oup. of liquor were the purcha.ing prIce ot a but­ talo robe. Atter g.ttlng the IndIan. Intoxloated the trader. would tIll the bottom ot the halt-p1nt ..a.urlng cup wIth 21 tallow or put their thumb 1nto the cup wben tilling It.

21 George F. 813%ton, In the Old We.t, 129; Rutu. B. Sage, S,en!s In the Boog lOunta na, 86 .

.John Dougbert,., an Indian agent tor the upper Ifl.lOurl rIver, In a letter to Wllliam Clark, Superintendent ot Indlan Attalr. at St. LouIs, tell. how twenty-two hundred pack. ot buttalo robes were puroha ••d In l8al tor whlskey at $24 to tZ2 • gal­

lon ~ Larpenteur r.corda how he obtained one hundred and eIghty buttalo robe. tor tlve salloD of aloohol.

Another tav~rlte _thod ot cheating the IncUana was to exchange acme tlim8y materIal or trlnket, attractlve to the In.d1an 81e, tor a valuable robe or pelt. :Blankets, red, blue and acarlet oloth, callooe. and domestl0 oottons .ere tbe princIpal .terlals brought'to the fur countJ7 by the .trader•• q5

!be trink.t. eon.isted ot beads, ha.k-bell., red paint, look­ ina-IIa•••• , copper, bras. and t1n kettle. and cup.', needle. and thread. Other art1cle. exchanged ••r.: shot gun., kniT•• , tpap., bridles and .purs. All of the articl••• ere. ~chang.d

.ith the Indian. tor buttalo robes and beaver akin. at a prot~ it ot tram two hundred to thousand percent. In the long run, the whlte trader was'the 10.er.Indlan. who •• ,morale and Ph7- sique were undermined by the whlt. manta -tlre water· and cor­ rupt dealing. proved a liabllity rather than an ~as ••t in the ·98 ~ trade.

28Account books of various Indian agents on the Misaourl which are now 1n the Archlv•• ot the Kanaaa State Ki.tor­ ical LibrarJ contain very careful record. of the goode bought and sold under their Jurisdiction. Book ot Ac­ count. ot Ben&amin Otpallon 10. 21, 9; Indian Corre.pond­ enoe 32:331; • s. Senate booument., Ope cIt., 71; ~nt.ur, Ope clt., 1:10& '

The final and mo.t d.f1nitive cau•• of the decline of the tur trade 1n the Thr.e Fork. region was the competition of the Briti.h fur trader.. Becau.e ot a .ell organized Indian policy. .hloh operated' not only for the sood ~ the t UP , . traders but tor the Ind1ana a ••ell, the Hudson Bay Company eventually gained a aonoply of the fur trade in the Horth.e.t. One ot the rea.ona .hy the British ••re mol'. IUCce.stul in their d.allnge with the Indians .a. that they had b.tter gooda to offer th.a; the Judicious among the Indiana kne. that and preferred British manufactured goods. Th. American traders were at a further diaadvantage here becau.e they bad to pay 9h an .....8. duty of' s1,Xty percent on Britiah goods .hIle th. lluc:laOll Ba1 Company .. dld not. Jfumeroue .ppeals ••remade to tbe United Stat•• government to negotiate .a trade agreement with .Bngland whl.ch would remove dut!.. on the Imported Date- • 1a 1·• neoe ••ary 1n the fur trade.. 29

a~ . . lohn Work, 2~Oit., '2; U. S. Senate Document., ,p. cite, H; corr.am nee ot Superlntendent or IndIan At abe., 4:301; HI • 381 .

Failing thi. an ettort wa. made to have re.c1nded tn. prIv-

11ege that BritI.h tr.~r. 8nj01ed ot .elling theIr turs and pelt~le. In tbe United State. tree ot dutr. Thls~ too, taIled. From the earl1 leara of the fur trade evIdence. .ere not laoking ot Sr1 tiah oonni vance to arouse the In41ana agaInst . 30 the American trap pel'S and traders.

30 The .11e.' Re,i.ter ••emed to be ••peclalll concerned wIth thi. I ••u..£ oontaina .everal articl•• on this .ubjeot. Nile. Regiater 1811, 1161; 1818, 16:192 J 1818, 1~:117 J IM2'7, !!i21!

Atter the 1... I-/008.' .....ore their $15,000 worth ot propertl 31 wa. taken to the Budaon 8ay po.t.

31~. 2111 J -Iote. and Dooument.,· Til Pa.ltl0 I rta-••, ~.rll 1939, XXXli1-9S} Amerioan Sta:. 'apere !I11tari llaira ,SBl

Major O'Pallon, Indian agent top the Upper Ml.tourl and Wil11 .. Gordon, .mploye. ot the Ml.8our1 Fur COmp&Dr. .ere '17 alao or th4t opinIon that the BrIt 1 all turDi.hed tbe Indlana wlth ".apona for tMa .aaaore. 1'be pr... noe of' tb.e Britlab trapper. &Del b:untier. to the number of .Ix hundred t.o ODe tboWiand in the Northwest ...aulted 1.n the lapov8rlahJMnt of the !"uP oountl':r &n4 .ba.Itened the .pn.eral deo11ne ot tbe tur U trade.

:sa . stde P'P',!! IndIan Utal.... 11688: IF1_ emf- man_ _!!I!.. aS!4 ~8

. Chapter VI CONCLUSIONS

the era ot the MountaIn Ken 1. a dl.t.lnct phase or Montana bistory. LackIng In events of abIdIng polItIcal, economic or 80clal slgnlticance thl. era was, how.ver, not without it.

Intl~enc. In the development ot the state. fhere Is lom.thlne .ore than the lanlWlge of colnc14ence In the tact that the tirst whIte .ettlerl, the flrlt per.anent settle.ents, the earlIest missionary establlshments and the beginnIngs ot the mInIng boom were tound in the .ost lucratIve trapping reglon ot the state or In thol. areas contIguous to it. PrevIous to the minln, boom, that Is In the late·tittl.s and early sIxties, the fIrst whIte settle.ent.s In what Is now

Mo~tana were contined to Bannack, VIrc1nla CIty, Deer Lodge, Pioneer and MIssoula wltil here and there a hardy trapper dwell­ Ing tartrotl human habitatlon.1

1 Belen Fitzcerald Sanders, H~storl of lQotaaa, 11326, 331

Just whY these early resIdent. should congregat.e In one particu­ lar corner ot the stat. Is .xP~a1ned bl the rout.es ot travel and the knowledge or the scouts who guided t.hem to the region. In both Instances, the 1'01. ot pathtind.r. and ,ulde was played by the fur trapp.r.2

2 ~,. 4t7, 8, 14, 1~; Hlraa Chltt.n4.n, Al!r~ctR Fur 4£14. ot t If w,st, lax-x! 9r

!be rellclou. bistory ot the .tate 1a indebted to the aountaln Men. Without their services aa &U1dea the mi ••lonario. would bave proceeded at a .lower pace and would baye been loncer

4ola7ed In brlnc1nc ~ Palth to tbe IndIans an4 oven to the earlJ white settlers.) lp.ther ])ss.et·s tIr.' al.s1on.t 8t. 1lar1'., ... Jut at the ad,o ot the !bJt.. J'Ol"itl OOWltQ'. Father ate. e•• eral reterenoe. to hi. indebtedne.. to the HOUDUln .en 1D bis .,,1 tines. Hlr.. K. Chltten4en an4 Alf'Fed r. Rloba1-dSODAor;U, Iejt!H anbfiut6. !is5!ijll Pl.rrt::i!1Q Rllle~. S, J., 1 - 3, • 5,· ,

Wot untIl recent tI••• haa Montana'. ,eocraph1cal de.elop­ ment bee .....11 recorded and Wl4eretood "I it waa in the d.,.. ot the trapp.r. AccoWlte Vlrl tten In later Ioars a4d nothlnc that Is ea•• otlalll' new to the knowledge l.tt In trapper diarl•• and J ournala. 4

'H1ram Ch1ttenden, AI!E1caA Fur braOe in tOe f;r W'I~, 1:x1

Aa authorlt1•• on 1D0untain ,.ograpb,y and aGuntain lIt., the•• lIoantaln Men .aned the Oov.rDII8At w.ll. .,. redon ot thelr abl11tl to map out ••e., portion ot the ..at the, were ••peoia1l7 valuable as p.1d.s and scout. tor various allltar1 expedit1on. 1nto tb18 rec1an; not a tew or wh10h woul4 bave ..t an unbapP1 rate were It not tor their ..rvlc ••• '

'Katbar1ne Ca.aJl, bQD9I1c ""BAWl ot Wl' Far W"~t 11365-37,. I{)D

!heir cOIl8tant contact wIth the Indian. gave the .Ilountala.­

eer. a keen apprecIatIon or the lite alld habits or the varIo~' tribe. whloh could have been a powerful a14 to the aoverDlNtllt lr aoted upon. DurIn, the epOCh- or the fur trader m&n1 ot th•• , IDoludinl aoee and Colter, were .ent a' good will emi.sarle, to various In41an tribe•• '

6Sta1i0 Vinton, t - "'XXtn'4'l' • tlJ'1t4W •• ']' ""-..I."'; u. tanIe, Ve.tal,

In a letter to 'atner Verba.lan, S. J., at St. Loui., Father o.SDet referrIng to JIm Bridger's influence with the Indian, saYI. UBe hal .pent upward ot thlrtl years among the rndlana and 18 one ot the truest spacl:nEms of' a real trapper and Roclq Mountain Man. He haa a1w.." beeD very kind to us, and .8 be hal SUOh influence ..on, the various tribe. or the Far West be may atlll co~lnue to exerei •• it 1n our favor •••• "

7H• Chittenden and A. Rlohardson, QQ. 91\., 1488-89

Some ot the Koantain Men tau,ht the Indiana varlou. trade.

and introduced amoDi them ne. acr10altural pur.~lt.. L1sa broalht to them .Gch ve,.table. a. the lara. bean, the potato, turnip and numerous tools. ITta blacksmith. served the Indian. wIthout aD1 ObarC •• S

8K'athryn V. Frencb, ftll&mael Lisa," §otl~ i21kg~1 I!ls~gr12a. Coll"t~oQl, 41132 /01

III .plta or the tact that the Indian was a true savac. "he

..a not dIslIked b1 those who knew him most nearl1." ~t­ ever M1 have been t.he relatIone between the frontIer settler and the natives, oontact. between the traders and IndIan• • ere normall1 £"rlsnal1 .a eaoh groQP clepen4eet on the other.9

9 JJ1.rcatl Chltten4en, op, gl~., 2 :835'

The numerous experlencea ot the Uountain Men, whioh the, related to the ne ••paper reporters who met thea at Ute river landin, In st. Loul., dId muoh to publ1ci.e the West. Aa early as 1810 P1erre Menard was interYlewed o~ncernln, hle trip to the Three Forks and hIs account prInted in the Louistana Gazette.lO

10 thOMS James, ttv:ee butt' Mr>ng th! ID4tan' awl INLOID1, 284-85'

!he starl at Hu,h 01ae., .hiob haa alnce become a ClAssic, appeared In an 1825 isaue ot the ~i ••oarl Intelligence. Bradbury and Breck.ori4,e, standu4 authorl tIe. tor eventa 81;)01 the His.ourl

11 laahincton Irv1ne, ~Rtl'P Bonn.y1l •• , 631 S. Vinton, gR. S1t., 6S IOZ

With the opening of the mining boom at Virginia City in 1864 the bulk of the white population in the territory was concentrated in this Alder Gulch era ot Madison county. This county in addition to Ga~latin, Jefferson and Beaverhead were, among the first eigh~ to be created when Montana was made a territory in 1864.12

12 H. F. San~er., IP' cIt., 1.331. These counties are all carved trom the Three orks region.

When ~the pioneer farmers arrived they found the most desirable land preempted by some old trapper or trader and his numerous family. A number ot the Mo~tain Men had ~arried Indian women. They and their children usually settled in the regions that had formerly been their trapping haunts.13

13 K. Coman, OPt c,~., 1:375

Others among the Moantain .en turned to the cattle trade.· Betore the end ot the tur trading epoch, livestock had been driven north to supply the torts. \fill1.am Subletttd had driven cattle and milk cows trom St. Louis to the Green RIver rendez- vous In the spring of 1830. Three years later part at this stock was taken into Montana by Charles Larpenteur and other Rocky Mountain Uen. To protect their sore-tooted cattle, they made sboes tor tbem trom buffalo bide, a trick that later became a trade in manufacturing sboes tor cattle throughout the West. With the later influx ot settlers to the West a JtJB

..rket wa. opened tor the herds of cattle that had their origin d~ing the high-tide ot the tur trading'.ra.14

14 Charl.s Larp.nteur, Fori! Je,rs a 19£ tradlr on the Uppsr Ml"OUlI, 1:35-50; K. Coman, Opt c,~., :3 2

the crowning aChieve.ent of a Mountain Man wa. that he was a man. An amalgam ot strength and skill and courage plus un­ desirable traits that haTe already been noted, he succeeded in leaving an impress on the history of the West. Lives ot the Mountain Men were pocket editions of 80me of the so-called characteristics ot Westerners with their dislike for cast. and affectation, their generosity and hospitality w~ich operated without askiag too many questions. and their stub­ bornness in inststing on their own rights while granting equal rights to others. 101

BIBLIOG.RA.PHY Primary Source.

I. Kanuscript 1. Topeka, Kansas The ArchIve. or the l'ansas State Historical Society have the "41,£ qt the Mil,99Fi lRl CoaDanY. 181?-- "'- . - - - - "kt""Xya.r. *tfi* -"::tu !'"'."-,"*E:' Detalls con­ cernine e org sat on 0 t e Missouri PUr Company and the signature ot its founders are In the lecord Boqt. The Lt4fel has some valu­ able an interesting intoraa ron regarding the wages, the period ot employ.ent and the prices paid bl the emplolees tor goods sold to them. the Archives also contaln the corltSDondence ot In41tn ~t'i£'t St. Loulf' Thls co ectlon or twen y-O:n8 vo ames eons sts ot records sent trom and received bl the Superintendent ot Indian Arfalrs at st. Louis, Missourl, between the leal'S 1813 and 1855. It was partlcularly valu­ able tor the Intormatlon It contained regardlng the Indlan relations wlth the trappers. It also gave some worthwhlle statistics on prlces, ex­ penditures, articles given to the Indians, the nuaber ot deaths caused bl the Indians, the excellent general knowledge on the tur trade and Indian relatlons.

CRIII- ..--.Xl ,.--rh· .... -'--,-!"'='n·loc et" ,. ... , cons*y·t' sting IntheKansas ot tive gives a clue to the religious character ot Jedediah. Four ot these letters are written b, Jedediah to his brother Ralph Smith and one is a letter trom Austin Saith to Jedediah's tather telling ot the death ot Jedediah, .11&1 21, 1831, It> 5'

2. Helena, Montana In the Archlv.s of the Jiontana State lIistor­ leal Library, Helena, Montana, are ma.ny valuable maps. The most useful tor my purpose was the h

Chlttenden's map on th. AII,l,,, ~ !i"! or ~b, Par W"$ indicate. the Ttan8-MI~8~pp Terrltory of the United Stat•• durin, the period ot the American Fur trade a.'conducted fro. St. Loui. between the y.ars 1807-1843. Franel. P. Harper, 1901. Photostat copi.s ot the orieinal maps In the PI!!.t Q2~l,q,ton, Librarl of st. Loul. U., St. Lou s, Ui.sour , are also in the Montana Stat. Historical Library. The •• include maps ot the Yellowstone River, Upper Missouri River, Bl, Horn Riv.r, Ml ••ouri Rlv.r and the Great Bas~n. There Is a map or the Yellowstone River drawn by lam.s Bridg.r.

tmV tr.", *'I:+ Y t ,i.allIngton, D. w. pu~ 1 parr:' ent ..... or the Int.rior UnIted states GeologIcal Surv.y, Chas. D. Woloott, Direotor, was too r.oent to b. ot muoh value to this stud,. 101,

II. PI'1nted GovernMnt Docwaenta u. s. Coner•• !, 18th Congr.s., lat Sea.ion, Senate Docuaent No. ,0 ~ ;i2~~I~!'I:r~:lJ~ 18231

U. S. Congr.sa, 22nd Congress, lat Se ••lon, Senate DOOwaeJlt 10. 90 HlnoE' of i21bua PllchtE, 19 November 1831. ftf9~ §kilfap1£" v~ 2. "11111 tary Ufa1rs·' as 11'~, 3. ThIs volume oontains corre.pondenoe pertaInlnc to Ind1an relationa 1n the fur count17. AMr,cAA Statt PAD'E', v. 2. Waah1n,ton, 1834. thIs volQm. on ID41an Attalra baa maQJ eD- 11&bt.nlnc reports oODoern1nc the ~.. or l1quor amon, the Indiana and 1ta ev1l ettect•• III. Newspapers

Wl!klf ~It"t 75 Y018. Baltimore. 1811-1837; 111','.aahn'tonl.~8 -1 3 ; BaltImore, 1839-1846; Phila- d.lph1a, 1~-1 49. PublIshed a. '1111' II~'OQII 5,,1'ttr 1831-1849. !h1s reter.noe ..a us.tul tor the oontemporar1 vl... It gave re,ard1ng the BrItIsh intluence on the Indiana 1n the tar oountr1. J 07

SECONDARY SOURCES Book.

Abbott, R. C., Montag, In the !,kIn" BIlling., Montana, Gasette Printing Co., 193 • Thi. book is ot little value becaas. it is not alwa1' authentIc.

t __ • i . ___ _ W" y,,~.a'. n .. ' •• "T··_ z.· t.". t I".!" I m 1M 4"t'·~M •• ·t'XY·"

A. a biography this book is not yery sati.tying. Most ot it concerns the g.neral tur trade. It 1s not aa scholarly as one would expect trom an author like Alter.

Beckwourth dictated this book to !. D. Bonner. It i. discredited by mo.t authorities becaase it is so exag­ g.rated. Beckwourth credits himselt with manl achieve­ ment. which were not his at all. Burlingam., .errill G., Ph. D., tn! M§ti!pa Fronti.t, Belena, Montana, State Publishing Co., 1 • This book is verI sketchy and not very accurate on the tur trade. Ca.p,

Contains some interesting and yaluable intoraation on ledediah Smith. Has little material on the fur trade in the Horthwest.

Standard work on therur trade. Absolutely essential tor this study. I () fl

and Richardson, AI.tred T. t ::l~~ ~f"ln .. frIIS,'s 0' ',UWt C,err,-lean De_e).. S ::. - Zl.

Volume roar or this collection cJntalns some letters written by Father DeSmet In wh1ch he reters to Bridger and Fitzpatrick 1n a very commendable wal. Coman, Katharine, IitC9Iomlc Begifi1ngs or th, 'fir Welt, 2 vola. New York, MacaII an eo., ~2. Voluae one g1v •• a very good h1story ot the tur trade. This book may be used as a eood basic reference alonl with Ch1ttenden' ••

Coues, Elliott (ed) lortY Xears a Fur trader on ~b' MpR.' Mi'l- 0Bii , jge Personal Harratlye 9t 9bar'" LarRl9s'!f 1~3-1~2, 2 vols., New York, Francis P. Harper, 898. Charles Larpentaur, who was in the servic. otth. Ameri­ can FUr CompanJ for many years, gives a tirst-hand aCcoun~ ot his 11te amon, the Indians.. This. work 1s particularly valuable for the inSight It gives Into the tur trade and the lite at the varlous posts. Coa.s,

This volGae gives a good description ot the Blackreet Indian•• Coues, Elliott (ed) H Mn4 at _W,I. an

., This and fb.aitas' edit10n are con.idere. to be a.ong the be.t ed1tions or Le.i. and Clark Journal •• /()9

Dal·'DBar~~ ;" (ed)n~I'~-~~;1~ jbl Jlf I. orf,tnfroarna 8, ruda!e, it., fueland, Ohio, The Arthur H. Clark Companl, 1941. A verI acno1ar1, work. Well documented. Contains an excellent blbliographl. ~ost ot t.he material 1n this book pertains to the reglon .est ot the Rock!ea but the first part has an account ot Ashlel's work in the regioD eaat or all the Rockles.

+fhrq j.eN-'... Wf!9Hf ""V_t4.!!6+W.L'R JJf19_'!"''''

Jame. gives a very vivId account ot Lisa's tlrat expedI­ tIon into the Three Forks regIon. He 1. the sole authority tor thl. expedItIon. While James Is undoubtedly preJu- 4ioed against Lisat this work is nevertheless valuable tor descriptlons or the hardships endured by the earlJ traders and trappers.

Drumm, "~-" .. - U' '_.JII\ 1'_.~_

Containa excellent bibllocraph1. Explains olearly the fur-traders- de.lines with the Indiana. Favourt Alpheus H., Ql4 JlI11'!'! Chapel Bill, the Un1veraIt1 . or North CarolIna Pre•• , 9j6. A soholarly work. Little Intormation on this subJeot. FItzgerald, 8Ister!i4ary Paul, fi,goo fLtb. Plaint. Leavenworth, ltansaa, the Saint Mary Co lege, 9~§.

Good to~ the Un1ted states Governaent Indian pollOI.

vOQ5l1Plj~pnl xQ iPS I5OD2gr 'PAlz1D9 fA1- eJt ~R47nold., T. E. U. S. 4., and published by permission or the war department, Philadelphia, C. sneraan a Son, Printer.t 1862. Conta1n. valuable and compl.te lntoraatlon on the Indiana.

C08pl.te detailed aocount ot expedition wIth author'. speoial oontrlbut1ons. lIt) llUIaAt.Colonel Henry, the PlS §J.nt~ r. Hltl • lb. StOll of • ara.'_B1£hny, top.ka t rane o. t 1 • ao.e bri.t descript10ns ot early trappers. Not muoh valu••

Part I describes Hunt's expedition up the Missouri to the Columbia. rh. author ,ives SOIll. verI ,ood d.scrlptions ot sc.nes an4 1nold.nt. alone the Missouri. Part II haa so.•• aluable d.scriptions of trappers, custo.s and llt. in th. Indian country. Irving Is g1v.n to exaggeration bQt his works are very helpful 1n th. stu4, of the fur trade.

ltepharJ' to;::-' 1l)a~h«ti~Jg~F.~t'l.D.' t.w lork, ~u ng Pa • ng ompall1, '91 . Ruxton wa. a young EnCllsh sport.man who spent some time in th••• st. His book 1s exo.ll.nt tor the 4.sor1ptlons it contains ot the lite and mann.rs ot the Mountain K.n. Lewfs

'I~;;tltI;:'ft-::t=iJ;-i?t~~!!'i;_a+ ;: +10\. n~~ ~f! ''''~+!''''A: _t> wi", =a~~!"Q:~ !Ill'" .~~ftnft A -

the "otloo aD "Fur Trade In Northwest- .1. l00d tor th. gen.ral hlstorl of th. tur trad•• IlaCita!.~4H. 6JlWOD&!Qbl- eMIl.'" !II,~oq or, fitM- P&D1, &.

Complete, reliable account at the Hudson Bay C~pan7·. activitl.s.

!;l!;a;~;'r:tr.i:'IIH &1FS:;I:;~ arren A. .rr~th.n In~••• P~7 t:;liF£.E'o~Aaerl- can Fur CoIlP8Jll', Denver, Colorado, Fred A. Rosenstock the Old ....t Publlsb1nc COl8PaA1, 1940. 11/

!his book i8 one ot the beat on this subject. Ferria wrote objectively and witbout selt-Clorificat1on. He tells ot the confllct between the Amerlcan Fur CoapaD7 and the Rocky Mounta1n Men. His deacriptions ot the country, customs, Indians, etc., are excellent. Ro •• , Alezander, %hI hr Bynter. ot til' ll£ ·llltl . A Bur,t". ~d!'Dt9r'l., v. ., LoaninI on, 'i:fle , aDtE del'Bne and 'FtaiBtt0., •11j h9 aeter. only to the Brlt1ah tradin,.

IQ.aell spent Rost ot hl. t1me 1n the Yellowstone valle,. Be records some very intereattng experiences. One ot the best reterenoe. on the Indians. Invaluable tor this study. Sabln, Edwln L., III i""t: DJI' 1§22:\§§8, -Adventure. In the Path ot Emplr. '10 a., e. York, Pr••• ot the Pioneera, Inc., 193;. . Excellent tor the llfe ot the Mounta1n Men. Very compre­ henslve 4e.crlpt1o.n or every phaa. ot the llte ot tbe fioWltaln :.ten glven. Wid.e ua. ot primary .oarce.~ Good blbllocraphy 1n v. 2.

Good tor the flrat-hand descrlption. the author ,1••• ot hi. 11te In the Rocky Mountaln •• Sanders, ae1e. Flt.,erald, ftstiEl 6il,,!tlP! 1:326, 331, Lewl. PUDllab1nC Coapaft1, Cbeago, i t '10 a.

81.ber ••Einr:·~e41~~~~I8iif!~'; .. Krt~or •• t and Sue... ub. So. t i Too late tor .., purpo.e, rather f1ctltloua. " 1/2

ew.raf".&l'·W, "',,{'HI "9.,,6':,,,-,"'\1, '1+ _.,£.~ M!'tL'~Ni "'dr.U9ft".

Bra4bur7 gIve. an unprejudiced report ot the Indiana and their cOWltry. Hi. account ot Colter's escape fro. the Blaokteet 1s considered the best.

The be.t--both Journals unchanged, coaplate. Much valu­ able ed1torial material. Vestalt StaDl." lognta1n MeQ. Boston, Houghton M1tfllnComp&n7, 1937 Good.mater1al on l1ves ot the oQtstandlng Mountain Men.

f{;:::1!:::Hiiii;laMDi~i*:'i;5U':;iH;;:~!tfif:!r"

It tle speaka tor 1 t.elt! Meek, a 4,ed-1n-the-wool Mounta1n Man caye an account ot his lite to &rae Fuller. Wh1le it 1a .ulcerated 1n plac.a, it Is worthwhIle tor its informa­ t10n on the lives ot the MountaIn Uen. Stallo, 1J3

Boholarl, work. Good tor Colter's experiences in the three Forks reclon • .. cn·~;·~~~~lJ!x!ti!t!"S¥~v:i.!l:IIh. rrow. 0 era P8l11 t . • A very worthwhile reterence. The Introduction by Wagner cover. the hi.tory of the tur trade thorouCbly. Leonard's veracity Is unquestloned--he wrltea in a c,o_on sen•• manner, glvinl a good description ot the lit. he led In the West.

Excellent tor the route ot Lewi. and Clark. Ha. valu­ able Intoraation regarding the countr; througb which thel traveled. Especialll good tor the descr1ption 1t ba. or the Thre. Forks re,ion and Yello.stone Yalle,. Williams, Chauncey P., ~e 'tk, %he Litf 'tiEl qt Itl~ 111llMi. Part au • 0 4 West Ser e. Nuaber S x. Give. a minute descr1ption ot Old Bill W1l1ia•• , a. typ­ ical.ount.in man. W1sl1zenus, Frederick Adolphus, M. D., t Jgur,1J ~t ~! BQs., A ftv (trans a ted rom he .run ~thIIfYDtt'Glei a. eh\A, o~~au lW' or's I1te, bl Frederick A. Wi.- liz.nu., Esq.) St. Louis, st. Lou18 li.souri H1storleal Soci.t" 1912. Wi81izenus, a German retu,ee, was a physlcian in a countrl town not tar from St. Louis. Made a trip to the Rock1 Mountain. and later bee... a charter .ember ot the Mi.soari Hi8torical 8001.t,. 81. book ,lv... verI accurate descriptlon or lIte in the West. Hi. descriptions or the animal. in this area 1. unequalled. lit

PERIODICALS

u.rbaok, Herbert S., "014 'rrail., Old Forts Old Trappers and Trad.rs," utah B~stor,,,l QV,rtllll, Sa l t Lak. City, Utah, Utah Stat. BIitorloal 8001.t" 1941, 9.l3-SS G.n.ral in.formatlon on the tur trad••.

"Bonn.vill. and BrIdl.r," fxu~~ii;f~. 5@Jt~' Ulst9£lq.~ §ooll\l 2( li9'fAt_G~ J.p;i~Tp.!~aa'!l-~'~ilF&iQl·'

VerI 1itt1. intormatlon on this subject • . c .. ral. fll1l1a. O. B., "Beg1nnings of the Theatr. In St. to\1is," Cf't"fl~lt St.lla puma,t."lIEt B'!i0f,C'Ii'ogltfl tl.lssour~, H s or ell Sooi.t,.d. J.frersonM. Memorial, 1928, ,.131.136 Giv.s a ver1 good description or St. Louls In the early 19th oentury.

Desorib.. velY ooapl.t.l, the .1ssourl rlver and tb'

Dod.l'~ Maj. Gen. Grenvlll. M., "Biographloa1 Sketch ot I .... Bridger," @rs., at Wf2lllAC JU.1s:,'tq,l I2iPKH'pt QU'£H1ll .lalll$:in,· .,.nne, 924, 1, 1- ' Too aaoh or a .ulol)' to b. authentio. Dolch, Isabel S., "Some Asp.cts ot Early Indian PUr Trad.,· l".'gpr\ Hil,ori9a~ 84. '1014 C.Sho... kerl . _. -_.B8""1 8oclet1 or Mlasourl, 1y42, 321190-195 . Contain. general informat1on on the fur trad••

DOll11as1 Walt.r B., •... ml.1 Lisa." '11'~ HI.tRtHtl 'ool'$:1 g, 4!0"." 8t. Louis, 1900, Scholarl1 work, ••11 documented. Most oomplete and accurate account found on Lisa', 11t•• 1.15

Frenoh, lathrrn M., "Manu.l Lisa," South Dakot'i!iltorll'. fJ8i~C17t'!' SiOllX Falll, S. D., Pre •• ot k n. cott,

!hi. articl. ii too much ot an .uloer to be authentic.

Hol ••I, Capt. R., "Th. Fl•• Scalps," ~"O~1 Hl,tgrl". fOCi"f' .d. br St.lla Druaa, St. Lou~ J.t erlon Memorial, 93, .10-20

Not alwar. accurate regardlng dates, 10ca~lons, etc. Good ot Rose,'d"perado and mountain man.

Koo~P.ter, "Historical Sketch Boz.man, Gallatin Vall.y and Boz.man Pa •• ," MOitana BiS\r£~cal $991 co~~ctt2!t'J H.l.na, Montana. tate Publ s InlEoDlPany."y 1 ~. 2. 0-140 Good .uamary of the fur day. In Gallatln Valler. Lind.ay, Charl.s, "Th. Big Horn Ba.in," !lniv.r.l$l Studi,. e' th. Bgf!ers&tY ot N,brllil, Lincoln, N.b., Published by the v.rsity, 1932. A Doctor-s Di •••rtatlon, a scholarly, compr.h.naiv. Itud7 on the d.velopment of this reglon In Montana and Wyomlng. Lippincott, Isaac, "A C.ntury and a Halt of Fur Trad. at St. Louts," 'ftAinfton ¥nl1.rJ,tl Stj~lel' St. Louis, Walh­ ington Un vera tr, 91, 1233-2 W.ll document.d articl. on the g.n.ral fur trad.. Ha. 1011•.. valuable mat.rial on the m.thod, co.t., return., .tc., of th. fur trad•• "Notes and Docua.ntl The Int.rnational Sian1licane. of the Jones and Imm.ll Mas.acr. and ot the Arlcara OUtbr.ak 10. 1823," tat {,elriC N0f'h!"fnQ~t'i~l Seattl., 'ashlng­ ton, !h. Un var.Itr 0 Wash gon, ,,30'91-99 Contaln. oorrespond.nc. regarding Indian aftalr •• Bobertl, rhoaas P., "Th. Upp.r Mls.ourl River," tentaDI e!i*lll Hel.na, Mon ana, ocky lil't't'l~oun a n Pu • ng cg~l'9lftoel'0., 7, 11324 Not much value. Trail, Dr. E. B., "The Lite and Adventur.s ot John Colter," 01, TrtHtl fl,l •• , "John Colter NUIlber" pub. bi-monthlY Port P p Kearny, Banner, Wrolllng, Charles D. SChreibe1 ., .. Januar1-rebruary, 194~