Constructing the Construction State: Cement and Postwar Japan
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Volume 15 | Issue 11 | Number 5 | Article ID 5043 | Jun 01, 2017 The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus Constructing the Construction State: Cement and Postwar Japan William Steele Abstract that the Allied Occupation began to make comprehensive plans to rebuild the Japanese This paper inquires into the revival of the economy and undertake basic reconstruction of cement industry in postwar Japan. The Allied a country in ruins. In 1949, controls on the Occupation did not immediately undertake production of basic industries, coal, iron, steel, comprehensive plans to rebuild the country’s and concrete were lifted; and after the infrastructure. Only after controls on the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, cement production of basic industries were lifted in production began to rise dramatically. By 1956, 1948 did cement production begin to rise. By Japan produced 13,737,594 tons of cement, 1956, Japan produced 13,737,594 tons of double that of the prewar peak in 1939, and cement, double that of the prewar peak in could boast the largest cement export industry 1939. This paper examines the rebirth of the in the world. This paper examines the rebirth of Japanese cement and limestone miningthe Japanese cement and limestone mining industries in the period between 1945 and industries in the period between 1945 and 1956 and highlights the cement industry’s role 1956. It assesses the contribution of the Cold in the rebirth of Japan as a “construction War, and the Korean War in particular, in state.” reviving Japan’s cement industry. The paper inquires into some of the colonial origins of Keywords: Japan, cement, limestone, postwar, Japan as a “construction state” and concludes construction with thoughts on the environmental impact and legacy of cement in Japan and the world today. A Variety of Colonial Origins Introduction During the 1930s, thousands of idealistic As the war in Asia and the Pacific drew to a engineers, most connected with the Home close, air raids destroyed Tokyo, Yokohama, Ministry, flocked to Korea, Taiwan and and nearly all other major Japanese cities. Manchukuo to construct the infrastructure of Reconstruction began in earnest in the late modern states: roads, bridges, railroads, 1940s with onset of the Cold War serving as a canals, ports, water works, and major stimulus for Japanese economic recovery. communications networks.1 All of these projects In addition to new ferro-concrete buildings, required vast quantities of cement. To that end bridges and roads, cement was necessary for state-of-the art cement factories, one after the river and coastline repair, tetrapods,other, were set up in different parts of Japan’s embankments and dams. Although Japanese colonial empire as branch factories of major cement production had declined dramatically cement producers in Japan, particularly Onoda during the war years, the revival of the cement and Asano. After the war, many of these industry was initially slow. It was only after the engineers returned to Japan and eventually so-called “reverse course,” around 1948-49, became involved in rebuilding a country that 1 15 | 11 | 5 APJ | JF had been decimated by war. And, as in the case machine tools had been sent to China, the of Manchukuo, the revival of Japan’s cement Philippines, and other former enemy industry was essential for nationalterritories.3 And while some cement factories reconstruction. Asano, Onoda and other major did resume production, nearly 50 percent of cement producers were able to draw on the production for the first three years was Manchurian experience. As a recent book on requisitioned by occupation forces for huge the history of civil engineers in Manchukuo base construction projects.4 In the meanwhile, concludes, the “nation building”kokudo ( Japan remained in ruins. The so-called “reverse tsukuri) of postwar Japan was constructed on course” changed occupation policy. By 1948, foundations laid by the “national building” of American and Japanese officials initiated plans 2 Manchukuo. to build up basic Japanese industries, including cement, designated as a “strategic industry” along with steel, oil, chemicals, and electricity. Suddenly Japan was the recipient of American technology transfer, especially in areas related to strategic industries. The physical reconstruction of Japan began in the wake of the cold war and expanded dramatically during the very hot war in Korea—in 1950 and 1951, more than five years after the near total destruction of Japan’s urban infrastructure. And, as with the construction of Manchukuo, steel and cement were the building materials of choice for roads, bridges, buildings, ports, and communications and transportation systems. Aided this time by the United States, prewar policies dedicated to “wealth and power,” or Postcard: Building State Highways in Manchukuo (around 1934). In 1933, one year after the creation of Manchukuo, what Janis Mimura calls “techno-fascism,” an ambitious ten-year program of road building was resurfaced in sustained and comprehensive announced, seeking to build over 40,000km of new roads. programs of national reconstruction.5 Source: Author’s collection. Revival of Japan’s Cement Industry The peak in prewar cement production was in To this we may add another set of colonial 1940 at 6,048,499 metric tons. At that time origins. After defeat and loss of empire, Japan Japan ranked among the top five cement was occupied by the Allied Powers andproducing countries in the world, with a total of primarily by the United States. The occupation 38 cement factories within the country, and lasted for seven years, from 1945 to1952. Goals branch factories in Korea, Manchuria, and to democratize and demilitarize Japan did not China. The war years, however, exacted a initially include economic reconstruction. Aside heavy toll. In 1945, only slightly over 1 million from so-called “zaibatsu busting,” plans were tons were produced and in 1946, Japan’s first made to re-locate remaining industrialpeacetime year, production further declined to infrastructure to Japan’s former enemies as 927,089 metric tons. Some plants had been war reparations. Within a few years, the scale dismantled and sent to the Philippines as of this program was cut back, but by 1948 a reparations. All overseas production facilities few industrial plants and around 20,000 were lost and most homeland plants were in 2 15 | 11 | 5 APJ | JF poor shape. Moreover, industrial giants, such On the one hand special procurements meant as Asano and Onoda, were targets of SCAP’s demand for Japanese products, including ambitious zaibatsu dissolution program. cement, necessary for the war effort. At the same time, the war made export-led industrial Recovery was slow; indeed wartime controls growth possible. Cement companies had long over the manufacture of cement were replaced dreamed of profits from exports. As Kasai by occupation controls. For the cementJunpachi, the founder of Onoda Cement (1881, industry, substantial and sustained growth Japan’s first private cement company), was came only after January 1, 1950, whenfond of saying: “We must guard against imports government and military controls over cement and buying dirt from foreign countries; instead, production and limestone mining, in place since it is the duty of our countrymen to engage in 6 1934, were finally eliminated. Cement trade with Shanghai and Hong Kong and factories saw this new age of free competition thereby make profits by selling them our (jiyū kyōsō no jidai) as a major turning point, dirt.”9 Cement exports had expanded in the especially as the new exchange rate (360 yen to 1930s, primarily to Japan’s colonies; but it was the dollar) served to encourage exports of only after 1948 when SCAP and Japanese Japanese cement. At the same time, extensive government officials began to encourage free damage caused by Typhoons Kathleen (1947) trade that Kasai’s dream was realized. In 1948 and Kitty (1949), coupled with explosive the Japan Export Corporation was founded and population growth (Tokyo’s population swelled export by private corporations was allowed in from 2.8 million in 1945 to over 5 million in 1949. One year later, the outbreak of the 1950), made the need for housing and urban Korean War gave Japanese cement exporters reconstruction all the more urgent. access to markets in Southeast Asia, India, and The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 Australia. On February 18, 1950, for example, accelerated the expansion of cementnegotiations with the Philippines, Japan’s new- production. As the Asahi reported on October found ally in the Cold War, resulted in 15, 1952, the special procurement system permission for Nihon Cement to export 14,000 10 produced a welcome “cement boom” that tons of cement. Orders continued to roll in. served as a sort of guardian angel keiki( no Exports in 1948 were a mere 140,000 tons; in kami) over Japan’s economic recovery.7 Indeed 1949, they tripled to 486,000 tons; nearly the war proved profitable for Japan, the one doubling in 1951 to just over 1 million tons, and major non-combatant in the Korean War. After again by 1956 to over 2 million tons at which three years of a no growth policy and three point Japan was the world’s largest exporter of years of failed attempts to stimulatecement. The Japanese cement industry production, in 1951 the mining andcontinued to expand in the 1960s. The Suez manufacturing industries, including cement, crisis in 1957 increased Japan’s comparative were suddenly able to surpass prewar levels. advantage in Asian markets, and the damage Instead of the Dodge Line, it was the “three caused by the massive 1959 Isewan Typhoon white product boom” (sanhaku keiki) – sugar, (Typhoon Vera) which left 5,000 dead, created ammonium sulfate (fertilizer), and cement – opportunities and demand for further that led Japan out of its economic doldrums.