The Human Use of as Food and as Feed

GeNr R. DnFolnnr

Edible insects are afood resource tbat continues to be tapped extensiuely by populations in tbe rural Third World, wbile continuing to be ignored by food and agricultural scientists. Tbe unfounded V'estern auersion to insects asfood sbould no longer stand in the way of attempts, tbrougb ad- L)ocacy, research, and extetzsion, to increase tbe contribution tbat insects can make to buman nutrition.

OST EUROPEANS AND NORTH AMERICANS are barely, if sect species used has proven surprisingly large. Previous inr,esti- at all, a'ware that insectS have played an important role in gators of Yukpa food habits mentioned fewer than a dozen varieties human nutrition. The older literature contains numerous of and the specific identity of only one, but Ruddle's data in- accounts provided by explorers, naturalists, anthropologists, and dicate that 25-35 species are eaten, 13 of which could be identified assorted travelers describing the use of by the indig- to species. Most of the others belonged to one or another of nine enous peoples of most of the world. genera. lnZaire, one ofthe better studied countries from the stand- The desert loclst, Scbistocerca gregaria (ForskAl) (: point of food insect use, Bequaert ( 1921 ) and other early observers provided information on 14 species, including the of six Acrididae), well-known as a destroyer of crops, was itself in earlier , times a maior source of food in northern Africa and the Middle East. species of . In a recent careful study confined only to Ktinckel d'Herculais (1891; vide Bodenheimer 1951,205-206) gave caterpillars and only to the scluthern part of Zaire, however, Ma- the following account from Algeria: laisse & Parent (1980) distinguished 35 species that are used as The natives are well disposed to carry out orders for the de- food. struction of the locusts, since they use them for food. Around In Mexico, prior to studies initiated in the mid-1970s byJ. R. E, de Tougourt every tent and house has prepared its store of lo- Conconi (National Autonomous University of Nlexico), fewer than (de custs, on the average about 200 kilo to each tent. Sixty 20 species had been reported as food. Her group Conconi et al. loads (9000 kilo) are the quantities of locusts accumulated 1984) reported 101 species that are regularly consumed-fresh, daily in the Ksours of the Oued-Souf. They are a valuable re- roasted, or fried-in Mexico; the total known has since been in- source for the poor population. To presen'e them, they are first creased to more than 200 (l.R.E. de Conconi, personal communi- cooked in salt water, then dried in the sun. The natives collect cation, 1986). Current information suggests that 30 species or more and prepare such considerable stocks that apart from their are used by indigenous populations in many Third $/orld countries, own needs, they have some for trading on the markets of Tou- although the specific identitl' of relatively few of the species is gourt, Temacin, etc. I have in my hands now two boxes of known. ireshly prepared locusts and I convinced myself that they are Also, where careful studies have been conducted, the t,olume of quite an acceptable food. The taste of is verv pro- insects consumed as a percentage of the total animal proteins has nounced; with time they lose their quality been shown to be appreciable. In 7967, Gomez et al. estimated that Although few insects other than the desert locust were used as insects furnished lO% of the 48,000 metric tons of animal proteins food in northern Africa, hundreds of species have been used in produced annually in Zaire, compared with 30o/o from game, 477" central and , Asia, Australia, and Latin America. the from fishing, l"/o from fish culture, 70% from grazing , and reported total approximates 500 species in more than 260 genera 2% from poultry Insects furnishedbetween 26 and 37"/" of the an- and 70 families of insect. The actual numbers are probably far imal protein consumed in four of the country's 25 districts and be- (and greater than the numbers reported, howeveq for two reasons, both taveen 22 and 64/" in 29'of it,s I37 territories. It is interesting attributable to the well-known Vestern coolness toward the idea of revealing) that in projecting the country's future protein needs, insects as food. Gomez et al. assumed that the contribution of insects would be In his study of the food habits of the Yukpa of Colombia and Ven- maintained but did not consider the possibiiity that it could be in- ezuela, Ruddle (1973,95) stated: "Foraging for insects has generally creased. Although data from elsewhere in Africa are more fragmen- been overlooked bv most visitors to the region. Those scholars who tarll it appears probable that the variety and volume of insect con- have noted the phenomenon have done so only imprecisely, unfor- sumption inZaire is not atypical of that in most countries of central, tunately with little regard for the procurement of specimens for sourhern, and eastern Africa. zoological identification." This statement applies to other rep;ions, Among the Tirkanoan Indians in the Colombian Vaupes region, provided as well. Thus, for many countries we know from the published lit- Dufour (1987) found that the more than 20 species used erature only that "termites," "locusts," "grasshoppers," "caterpil- up to 12% of the crude protein from animal sources in men's diets lars," or "insects" are used as food, but frequently we can only guess at the precise number and identity of the species used. Ge Nn R. DrFolrqnr is professor of entomologt at tbe Uniuersit! of Visconsin, 'Where careful studies have been conducted, the number of in- Madison. lVis.

)) 001 \ H-< I xo 0022 U0tqt02 0U 0 O l9ti0 EntorrrolugtcJl soL iel| o[AmcricJ and 26% in women's diets during gng season of the ,vear, May-Jur-re, and probably 5-77" over the entire year The insects also contrib- uted substantial amounts of animal fat to the diet-up to 2O% dur- ing certain seasons of the 1ear. According to Dufour (p. :ql), in- sects "s'ere often used to dampen fluctuations in the availability of fish and game." Denevan (1971) in Peru, Chau,rndrka (7975') in , and other investigators have similarly recognized the quentitative im- portance of insects to indigenous diets altl.rougl.r precise data were not obtained. Char.'unduka credits insect consumption as averting many potential cases of kwashiorkor (protein-calorie malnutrition) among the 1'oung in remote rural areas of Zimbabwe. Posey (198J 193), noting that gathered foods are frequentll'eaten "on the spot," emphasizes that "unless researchers follow on routine gathering "mopanie ventures, constantly recording and weighing the gathered foods, Dried wonns," caterpillars of tbe saturniid, Gonimbra- purcbased importance of many gathered products may' be grossly urideresti- sia belin4 as in a uillage market in Zimbabwe. Courtesy mated." of R. J. Pbelps, Uniuersity of Zimbabwe, Harare. The second factor leading to a general underestimate of the mag- nitude of food insect use was also commented upon by' Rr-rddle (1973,94) in his study of the Yukpa: "The fact that man,v people re- erage infestation can collect 18 kg of larvae in an hour (although gard entomophagl' feating insects] as either a curiosity or a relict of there is a large loss in weight, especially of fat, during processing barbarism may unfortunately persuade the indigenous population 'and drying). Considering the ecological deterioration and reduced to withhoid information from investigators." Me1'er-Rochow (1973) availability of food insects in and noting the existence in a comparative study of the food habits of three ethnic groups of of a fairly extensive trade in roasted, dehydrated mopanie worms, Melanesians in Papua Nen Guinea made the same point in a some- Quin recommended expansion of the masonja industry as proba- what different fashion. Kiriwinians lir.ing on the coast of the Tio- bl1' the most feasible remaining wa1' of meeting the need and de- briand Islands denied eating anv insects and referred to the inland mand for insect foods, not only in the northern Tiansvaal where he people as insect eaters. Meyer-Rochox'noted, however, that the worked but also in Zimbabwe and . coastal people know well which insects are edible, and thev nere Dreler & \Xrehmeyer (1982) report that mopanie caterpillars have seen indulging especialll' frequentl,v in the vellow leaf ant, Oeco- made impressive gains in sales in recent years and that a mopanie ph1'lla smaragdina F (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). These studies cannery has been established at Pietersburg in northern Tiansvaal. and others suggest that the extent and importance offood insect The South African Bureau of Standards estimates annual sales use has been, and largell' continues to be, underestimated in manv through agricuitural cooperative markets at about 40,000 bags, geographic areas. each containing 40 kg of traditionally prepared, dried caterpillars. It should be understood that in those cultures in which the use of This amounts to 1600 metric tons, and the volume entering reported insects as food is traditional, the insects are highlv prized and channels of commerce presumably is only a fraction of the r,'olume much sought after, not used merell' to ward off starvation. The,v are actually consumed. One can't help but wonder what the ecological incorporated as a regular part of the diet when in season or and nutritional maps of Africa might look like today if more effort throughout the year if available. The proportionally small quantita- had been directed toward developing some of these , ter- tive contribution of insects to the diet, compared with foods of mite, and other food insect resources. plant origin, has undoubtedly been dictated primarill bv limited Considering the popularity of edible insects, it is not surprising supplies rather than by any deficiencies in palatabiliry that scores of species have been, and are, prominent items of com- The Pedi of South Africa prefer certain insects to (Quin merce in the town and village markets of Africa and other tropical 1959), do the Yukpa of Colombia and Venezuela (Ruddle 1973). and semitropical regions of the tuorld. In several areas of Zim- ^s Malaisse & Parent ( 1980) state that in the search for animal proteins babwe, some families "make a fairly good living from selling cater- in the Kipushi Territory of Zaire, caterpillars are indisputablv the pillars" (Chavunduka 1975,219). In southern Mexico, food insects first supplement chosen. Villagers are knowledgeabie about the are not only prominent in the marketplaces of the rural towns and hosts of the edible species and the season when each is read1, for villages, but some are sold in the finest restaurants in the largest harvest. This knowledge among indigenous peoples of the host cities and exported abroad to Europe and the United States (Eerde plants and seasonal history of local food insects has been noted by 1981, de Conconi 1982). writers in other tropical countries. In the recent and elegant cookbook, "The Thste of Mexico," In South Africa, the caterpillars of the saturniid, be- (1986), Patricia Quintana, executive chef of the Mexican Bureau of liru'Wesnvood, known as masonja or "mopanie worms" are a spe- Tourism, and Villiam Orme describe several recipes based on in- cial favorite. The Pedi not only prefer masonja to meat, but, accord- sects. In a 7974 survey in Mexico City (de Conconi et al. 1984,63) in ing to Quin, prefer a quarter pound of these caterpillars to a pound which 12,300 people were interviewed,93o/" considered that insect of fresh beef. Vhen masonja are avaiiable for sale, they seriously foods are "in the future" and that commercially produced food in- affect the sale of beel There are up to three generations per 1'ear of sect products should be developed. The fact that food insects serve the mopanie caterpillar in South Africa and a good picker in an av- not only as a direct source of needed nutrients available to the

SPRING 1989 23 Grassboppers of tbe gentts Sphenarium in a uillage market in Oax- aca state, soutbern Mexico. As sold bere, the! baLte been mixed witb A close-up o/ Sphenarium grassboppers (Cbapulines) sbowing tbe , garlic, and cbili powder, boiled (during ubicb tlte.)' turn different measures fu' wbicb tbey are sold. At 1984 prices tbe small- pinkisb brown in color), sun-dried andfried. Pboto courtegt of Dr. est container beld 5O pesos'wortb, tbe largest container 5OO pesos' Julieta Ramos Elordul, de Conconi, National Autonomous Uniuer- wortb. Pboto courte$) of Dr..lulieta Ramos Elordult de Conconi, sity, Mexico City. Natiorla l Autonomous Unit ersit),, Mexico C it1t.

poorest of the poor in cultures retaining strong elements of the would act to the benefit of vast numbers of natives. Instead of wast- gatherer society but also add importantly to the rural economy ing resources in destroying certain insects often regarded as crop should be a matter of great interest to individuals, organizations, pests, the insects themselves should be used. Quite often they rep- and agencies concerned with alleviating world hunger and in der'el- resent a higher nutritional value than the vegetable that they have oping greater food self-sufficiency among rural populations at risk been eating. . . ." Of the three Melanesian groups studied b1' Meyer- of malnutrition. Rochow, the Chauve who inhabit the central New Guinea high- There are several factors that threaten a reduction in the availa- lands, and among whom malnutrition and starvation are fairly wide- bility and use of insects as food in the developing world. In addition spread, ate the greatest variety of insects. to acculturation toward Western attitudes already mentioned, they It iii interesting, however, that the Kiriwinians who iive on the include ecological deterioration in such forms as tropical forest de- Trobriand Islands and who raise pigs and chickens, harvest yam, struction and water pollution (aquatic food insects are of particular taro, sweet potato, and coconut "and live on a balanced diet of importance in Asia), and lack of government recognition and sup- fruits, vegetables, fish and meat" also eat a wide varietv of insects. port. Malaisse & Parent (1980, 17) state that inZaire "the degrada- This again makes the point mentioned earlier that in general, indig- tion of the rainforests and their transformation into bushy arboreal enous peoples eat insects not because they have to, but because savannah, which is occurring presently at an accelerated rate, will they like them. Gope & Prasad (1983) conducted proximate anal- be accompanied by a noticeable reduction in the number of species yses on eight of the nearly 20 species found in a preliminary surrey of edible caterpillars" (translation). Similarll', the production of to be commonly used as food by the various tribes in Manipur State abuabutle (Mexican caviar) and axaltacatl, which are composed of in northeastern India. They conelude that insects represent the the eggs and the nymphs and adults, respectively ofseveral species cheapest source of animal protein in Manipur and their consump- of aquatic Hemiptera, is much reduced as the result of land-filling tion should be encouraged because many of the people cannot af- and lake pollution as Mexico Ciry has expanded (1. R.E. de Conconi, ford fish or animal flesh. Dufour (1987,395) notes that "the wide- personal communication, 1986). These hemipterans formerly bred spread practice of warrants further attention in any in tremendous numbers and for centuries were the basis of aquatic evaluation of availabiliry of protein resources" in the Amazonian farming. ecosystem. Government recognition of these traditional insect Relative to the need for government recognition, the reduction of foods would help provide respectability and would provide legiti- insects to a relatively minor role in the diet of the Pedi (South Af- macy for the research and extension needed to enhance their use. rica) was rated by Quin (1959) among the factors, both accultural Despite the erosive influences of acculturation and environmen- and ecological, that had by then placed the Pedi between bare ex- tal destruction, food insect use continues to be widespread, as istence and starvation. Quin (p. 275) concluded that "the recogni- shown in the following statements by individuals in a position to tion and encouragement of their traditionai foods and feeding hab- know the current situation in various countries. In a personal com- its could be the means of alleviating, and perhaps even solving, the munication, K. Ruddle (1987), now based inJapan (National Mu- great problem of malnutrition and disease among these people." seum of Ethnology Osaka) and involved primarily in Third Vorld Meyer-Rochow (1973, 576) came to a similar conclusion: "If the aquaculture and coastal fisheries research, states: "Insects are new Papua and New Guinea government can be persuaded not to widely consumed here in Asia. Despite great modernization and' accept the European attitude toward insects as human food, it the like they are widely appreciated here in Japan, particularly in

24 BULLETIN OF THE ESA 'lbrtillas sented in a restaurant in llexicct Cit-l', tuitlt u;lsite agate Tbrtillas serued in a restaurant in Llexico Cit1,, 41i76 red agaue u'onns (g,usano blttttco del magpel,), lart'ae of tlse skipper butteryl-t', uorms (gusano rosado clel maguqt), lantae of tbe co.wy' Xl.leutes Aegiale hesperiaris. Courteq, of L B fltrcbner, [ittit'ersitlt o.f wis redtenbacl-ri. Courteg, of L B. Huebne4 Uniuersit), of Wisconsin, consin, Department of Entonlology. Department of Entomologlt.

rural arcas-often as a snack to accompanv alcohol. Insect cor-r- wlro come in from rural areas to collect nsenetrc." sumption rates are high in Southcast Asia, particul:trlv amor-rg the Correspondence from former Peace Corps volunteers has alscr Thais, Laotians (the market in Vientiane is full of stalls n'ith edible vielded valuable informatrcln sl-ron'ing continued wide use of in- insects), Burmcse, and Kampucheans. . . . The Nlalan'ians Iof Africa] sects, including in a number of countries for n'hich there l-ras becn consume plentv of a wide varietv of insects." In Ruddlc's opinion, citl-rer no published record or none in the past half century "Insects can make a potentiallv enormous contributiort to solving problems of human nutrition." He has also considcred attcmpting Nutritional Importance of Insects in the Developing rJ/orld to produce insects as lou.cost feed lor pond fish

on to something of grcat significance for manY Africatl societics. . . . rangcd as high as 64% (de Cclnconi 1982, 101), being bcrween 78 Specifrcallii I particularh. commend Ifbr devektpment] trr'o insects: and 99% of crude protein. In commor-r rvitl-r results obtained on in- winged termites and cone-headed grasshoppers. Thev xre great sects elsewhere bv biochcmical anal,vsis, N{exican insects are lon'in delicacies among man)'tribes in Uganda and other Eastern and methionine, cvsteine, and trl.ptophan (see later undcr fcecling trial Central African countries." Tl-re cone-headecl grasshopper rcferred results, horvevcr). Hcmiptcrans and ants (Hvrnenoptera) are rela- to is probably (:Homorctcor-i,pblts) ttiticlula (Scopoli) tiv-elv high, l-rowever, in methionine and the former in tn'ptclpl-ran (fami\.) which occurs rvidelv in East Africa and at con-rpared v!'ith man)' insects. least as far soutl-r as Zin-rbab*-e (Chavunduka 1975). The grasshttp- Corn, a high-energv grain, has a caloric valuc of 320-340 kcltl/ per is known as nsenene in Uganda ( On'en 1973) The introduction 100 g. tsv comparison, caloric values for nine Nlexican insect species of electric strect lights into the tolvns of East Africa has revolutkl-t- (calculated from proximate anah'ses bv de Conconi et al. 11981 l) izerJ nsenene collecting as the insects are attracted in vast numbers rar.rged from 377 kcal/100 g of inscct n'raterial (dri'weight) for abu- to the lights. Of this species in the citl'of Kanrpala, Orlen 'nvrote (p. abutle to 516 and 513 kcal/100 g, respectivelrl for larvae of X1,/sute. 134), "the streets mav be completelv blockecl to traffic bi'people redtenbacbi Hamm and Lcrniifercl cyclades Druce, $r.o species of

SPRING 1989 25 . Cravioto et al. (1951) lyzed mineral and vitamin content of cbopborus pboenicis is high in zinc, thiamine, and riboflavin; 100 g ^n several Mexican insects and found axalacatl a particularly rich of insect in each case provides more than the daily requirement. source of iron and riboflavin--10O g of insect providing 2670/o and Zafte. In Zaire, Malaisse & Parent (1980) conducted nutritional 7l)o/o, respectively, of the daily allowances recommended by the analyses on 23 of the 35 species of caterpillar found to be used as Food and Agriculture Organization. food in the Kipushi Territory north of Lubumbashi. The caterpillars Angola. Oliveira et al. (1976) conducted analyses of the nutri- are roasted on heated slleet metal, cooked in boiling water, or fried tional value of four species cooked according to traditional meth- in oil. Salt or possibly red peppers are sometimes added. \fhen ods in central Angola (Table 1 ): part of a harvest is to be preserved, the caterpillars are either Macrotermes sublryalintn (Rambur) (Isoptera: Termitidae) is a smoked or boiled in salt wateq drained, and dried. termite with wide distribution; it is common in the north and east For analysis of nutritional value, caterpillars were prepared in a of Angola. The reproductive form or alate, known as juinguna, is manner identical to that which precedes their culinary preparation, consumed after the wings have been removed and the body fried in then dehydrated. Crude protein content averaged 64%, ranging palm oil. from 46 to 80%; kcal/100 g of dry weight averaged 457, ranging Imbrasia ertli Rebel (Lepidoptera: ) larvae feed on from 397 to 504. Most species proved a good source of phosphorus. the leaves ofAcacia and nvo other host species in tropical rain and Thev are also an excellent source of iron: On average, for 21 spe- open forest of the Ethiopian faunal region. The mature is ap- cies, 100 g provides 335o/" of the daily requirement. One species of proximately 8 cm long and known as engu (plural, ouungu). Nter unidentified Limacodidae was, for an insect, unusually high in cal- removing the viscera, the larvae are either cooked in water, cium, containing 1.6 9/100 g of insect. The samples analyzed in- roasted, or sun-dried. Salt is added for further flavoring. cluded 17 species of Saturniidae, one ofLimacodidae, and hve of [Jsta terpsicbore (Massen and Veymer) (Lepidoptera: Saturni- Notodontidae. idae) larvae are common in Angola and widely distributed in the South Africa. In South Africa, the food insects of the Pedi are Ethiopian region. They feed on several species of plants and are usually served as a relish with their cereal meal porridges and are known locally as olumbalala (plural, olombalala). The ful\' grown, what provides the porridge with some flavor. In preparing the re- larva is about 8 cm long and is prepared for eating in a fashion sim- lishes, the insects are used fresh and whole except for the caterpil- llar to Imbrasia ertli. lar and grasshoppers, some of which are Rbltncbopborus pboenicis (F) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is a cured when supplies are plentiful. The only ingredients added dur- weevil that is an important palm pest in Africa, mainly affecting the ing preparation are salt and water. The insects are stewed dry, then oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacquin). The local name of the apod roasted crisp (except for Bombltcomotpba pallidtt Distant and Cir- larvae, which are about 3 cm long, is magbogbo. After hrst incising inaforda (Vestwood), which are not roasted). The protein content the bodli the larva is fried whole in oil. and calories in these relish servings, as found by Quin (1959), are The high fat content of Macrotermes subbyalinus and Rlryncbo- shown in Table 2. Quin noted 13 species, and other investigators pborus pboenzczs is reflected in their high energy values, 613 and have reported at least a dozen additional species used as food in 561 kcal/100 g, respectively (Table 7). Usta terpsicbore is a rich various parts of South Africa. source of iron, copper, zinc, thiamine, and riboflavin; 100 g of cooked insect provides more than 700% olthe daily requirement of Protein Quality of Insects Fed to Rats each of these minerals and vitamins. It is also relatively high in cal- cium compared with many insects, and in phosphorus. Macro- Finke et al. (1987b) used rat-feeding trials to evaluate the protein termes subbyalinus is high in magnesium and copper, and Rhyn- quality ol Mormon cricket meal, Anabrus simplex Haldeman (Or-

Thble 1. Proximate, mineral, and vitamin analyse s of insects used as food in Angola (pe rcentages of daily requirements/loo g of insect as consumed ) (Oliveira et^1. 1976)

Reference man Macrotms Imbrasia Usta RWncbophorus Nutrient (FAO 1973) subl4talinusb ertlic tqpsicbore' pbomicis'l

Energy 2850 kcal 27.5o/o 73.2"/" 73.00/o 79.7",6 Protein' 11 o 38.1 26.3 /o.J 18.1 Calcium 1o 4.0 5.0 3t.5 18.6 Phosphorus 1o 43.8 54.6 69.5 31.4 Magnesium 400 mg 704.2 57.8 13.5 7.5 Iron 18 mg 41,.7 10.6 197.2 1) a Copper 2mg 680.0 70.0 120.0 70.0 Zinc 15 mg 153.3 158.0 Thiamine 1.5mg 8.7 244,7 201.3 Riboflavin 1.7m9 o /.4 112.2 131.7 Niacin 20 mg 47.7 26.0 38.9 'From Ecology of Food and Nutrition 5:96, I976, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers Ltd., Great Britain 'Termite (Isoptera). 'Saturnid (silkmoth) caterpillar (Lepidoptera). dPalm weevil (Coleoptera). eProtein percentages based on biological values, not crude protein.

26 BULLETIN OF THE ESA thoptera: Tenigoniidae) (MqM) alone, when mixed with a comple- From amino acid analyses cricket protein appears low in methi- mentary protein source, and when supplemented with methionine. onine and cysteine for rats, and by inference ficr humans and swine. Corn gluten meal (CGM) was sele6ted as the complementary pro- Supplemented with methionine, howeveq these rwo cricket species tein source because of its high methionine content. A four-parame- have an almost ideal amino acid pattern. In comparing these results ter logistic model (Finke et al. 7987a) was used to describe the with those of Phelps et al. (1975) in Zimbabwe, it appears that dose-response curves, and protein qualiry was evaluated by com- cricket proteins are superier to termite protein in rat diets. As the paring the nitrogen intake required to achieve identical levels of termites were dried at 60"C and lightly fried to simulate their use as performance. Vhen used for maximum weight gain the order of food in Africa, it is possible, however, that the high temperature ranking was MCM plus methionine, MCM-CGM, I,ICM, and CGM. may have altered the quality of the termite protein by decreasing The ranking of the protein sources when used for weight mainte- lysine availability nance was MCM, MCM plus methionine, MCM-CGM, and CGM. The results show Mormon cricket meal to be a good-quality protein Protein Quality of Insects Fed to Poultry source with methionine being the first-limiting amino acid when. used for growth rather than maintenance. Amino acid analyses indicate that insect proteins, compared with Finke et al. (In press) compared MCM, house cricket mea| Acb- soy protein, are low in methionine-cysteine, arginine, and trypto- eta domesticus (L.) (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) (HCM), and eastern phan if used in chick rations. Feeding trials have shown, however, tent caterpillar meal, Malacosoma americanum (F) (Lepidoptera: that the quality of insect proteins is bener than indicated by amino Lasiocampidae) (TCM) to lactalbumin and isolated soy protein fed acid analysis. Several investigators have conducted studies on fly to n'eanling rats. The four-parameter logistic model (Finke et al. pupae or larvae as a high-protein source for poultry generally with 1987a) was used to describe the dose-response curves, and pro- the aim of using the fly larvae to recycle animal wastes. The crude tein quality was determined by comparing the curves at various protein content of fl1, iarvae and pupae ranges from about 53 to performance levels. Vhen compared with lactalbumin, the three 630/o on a dry weight basis compared with 44-480/" in soybean insect protein sources and soy protein exhibited an inferior abilir,v tneal. to promote maintenance or maximum growth. MCM was equal to Biochemical analyses backed by chick feeding trials have been and HCM was slightly superior to soy protein, however, at all levels conducted on the house fly, Musca domestica L., pupae produced in of intake. The ability of TCM protein to promote growth was poor, poultry manure (Teotia & Miller 1973,1974); in CSMA (Chemical but toxicity rather than protein quality may have been responsible. Specialties Manufacturers Association) fly medium (Calvert et al.

Table 2. Protein and energy content of insect relishes (per serving) used by the Pedi of South Africa ( adapted from Quin 1959 )"

Stage Vernacular Veight of Protein, KcaU consumed name serving, g 9serving serving Coleoptera Buprestidae S terno cera orrss, Buquet Adult lebitsi-k54oma 57 16.9 96 Curculionidae Polyc leis equestris Boheman Adult kgakgaripane )) 2, 104 Pot.t'c I e is p I u m bezs G ueri n Adult kgakgaripane z Hvmenoptera Formicidae Carebara uidua Smith Flying sexual dintlbwa makbura (female) 28 2.7 68 dintlbua boguale (nale) Lepidoptera Lasiocampidae Bombycomorpha pallida Distant Larva ngu ana mamab lu, e h lw ana 774 77.2 159 G onome ta p o st ic a'Xlalker mmakonokono 42 8.0 702 Saturniidae Cirina forda (Vestwood) Larva noto 1r4 21,.4 778 G oni m brasi a b e I i na'Vest:wood Fresh larva notoleetsana 774 13.5 93 Cured larva 85 8.6 242 Gynanisa maia (Klug) Larva legakgale 57 11.7 o) Sphingidae Herse conuoluuli (L.) Larva naatla 774 8.2 /4 Orthoptera Acrididae Cyr t ac an t b acris sep temfasc i at a (Serville) Flier maphata-kalala Lo c us t atza p ar dn I ina (Va|ker) Flier segongwane 85 18.5 tt Hind legs 8 4.4 20 P.vrgomorphidae zonocerus elegans (Thunberg) Hopper kodi 42 12.4 58 "Adapted from Foods and Feeding Habits of the Pedi, p. 235,1959. wirwatersrand Universit)' Press,Johannesburg

SPRING 1989 27 t969); in municipal oiggnic waste (Ocio er al. 1979); on larvae of poultry manure by Mttsca domestica was unsuccessful, however, Musca domestica the blow fly, Protopbormia terraenouae (Ro- mainly because of low yield and problems with moisture control, ^nd bineau-Desvoidy) (Calliphoridae) (Abdel-Gawaad & Brune 1979); aeration, and regulation of larval density in the semi-liquid me- and on larvae of the soldier fly, Hermetia illucerc (L.) (Stratiomyi- dium (Morgan & Eby 1975). Low yield of pupae may be an insur- dae) (Hale 1973). Similar tests have been conducted on pupae of mountable problem for Diptera-based systems. Maximum yields of the face flv, Musca autumnalis DeGeer, produced in cattle manure pupae plus larvae wereuestimated to be 3.2% of the fresh manure (Koo et al. 1980). In a series of feeding trials, Teotia & Millcr (1974) (Calvert 7977) and approxirnately 4% on a dry matter basis (El adjusted the levels of corn, milo, and either so),bean meal or house Boushy et al. 1985). fly pupae so that protein levels were nearly equal. At seven weeks of In parts of Asia pupae of the silkworm, (L.) (Lepi- age there were no significant differences in either final body doptera: Bombycidae), are avail^ble as a by-product of the in- weights or feed/gain ratios. In addition, an informal taste panel dustry and have been used both as human food and as a high-pro- could not detect any differences between birds fed the control and tein supplement for poultry In 1977,Ichhponani & Malek reported experimental diets. Generally similar results were obtained b,v the annual production of de-oiled silkworm pupae meal (pupal res- other investigators who incorporated fly pupae or larvae into chick idue after oil extraction) at 20,000 metric tons in India alone. A diets. crude protein content of 63% has been reported for silkworm pu- During recycling, the muscid larvae convert poultry manure to a pae (74-76% for de-oiled pupae) fed to poultry (Bora & Sharma loose, crumbly texture. It is a nearly odorless substance that when 1965; Chopra et al. 1970, Vijayasinghe & Rajaguru 7977). Landry et dried is suitable for use as a feedstuff or soil conditioner (Miller et al. (1986) report a crude protein content of 49-58"/o (drv weight ba- al.7974). As summarized by El Boushv et al. (1985) from studies of sis) for larvae of six North American lepidopteran species repre- others, moisture is reduced by 5O-85V", and organic matter is re- senting the families Saturniidae, Sphingidae, and Noctuidae. In duced bv 80% during digestion of manure b1' larvae. An attempt to chick feeding trials, weight gains and feed/gain ratios of chicks fed develop a mass-production method based on larval recycling of corn-larvae diets to three weeks of age did not differ signiflcantly

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28 BULLETIN OF THE ESA from chicks fed a convenfional corn-soybean control diet. reference (corn-soybean) diets. In the trials using practical diets, In studies on the Mormon cricket (DeFoliart et al. 1982), proxi- feed/gain ratios improved significantly however, when diets were mate analysis revealed a crude prdtein content of 58% (dry weight supplemented with both methionine and arginine but not with basis), and amino acid analysis indicated that methionine, arginine, either alone. Feed/gain ratios in trials with the purified diets indi- and tryptophan, in that order, would be limiting amino acids. In cated that tryptophan is also limiting. feeding trials, however, practical corn-and-cricket-based diets pro- Minerals were analyzed ip some of the above studies on fly pu- duced significantl)' better growth of broiler chicks to three weeks pae, silkworm pupae, and Acbeta domesticus, but the only study on of age than was produced by a conventional corn-soybean-based bioavailability of insect minerals to poultry appears to be that of diet supplemented with methionine. Dashefsky et al. (1976) who found pupal phosphorus of Musca au- Supplementing the corn-cricket diet with purified amino acids tumnalis highly available (92-700"/o) to chickens when used as a did not significantly increase the weight of chicks feeding on that feed supplement. diet over those on the unsupplemented corn-cricket diet. Finke et al. (1985), using Mormon crickets in purified diets, found that argi: Food Insects Research and Development Proiect nine and methionine are colimiting. In an eight-week chick feeding trial, however, in which Mormon crickets were incorporated into The Food Insects Research and Development Proiect (FIRDP) practical diets replacing soybean meal as the maior protein source, was organized at the University of Visconsin in Madison in 1986. It there were no significant differences in weight gain or feed/gain ra, is as yet little. more than a set of objectives aimed at stimulating a tios in the corn-Mormon cricket diet and the corn-soybean meal wider awareness among food and agricultural scientists, govern- diet. All diets were formulated to meet or exceed National Research ment agencies, and the public that insects are a food resource that Council (1977) recommendations. In taste tests, no off-flavor was warrants serious investigation. The deeply rooted traditions of food detected in the meat of broilers that had been fed Mormon crickets. insect use among many if not most, ethnic cultures of non-Euro- Using both semi-purified and practical diets in chick feeding pean origin provide an existing base upon which to build-from trials (to three weeks of age) involving Acbeta clomesticus crickets, the bottom up, as opposed to the usual direction of innovation Nakagaki et al. (1987) found no significant differences in the final from the top down. weight of chicks fed the practical experimental (corn-cricket) and Insects offer a number of attributes, such as high food conver-

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SPRING 1989 29 sion efficiency compared with conventional meat animals, use of a International Agricultural Programs. Creation of FIRDP as a frame- wide array of organic substances not efficiently used in conven- work to foster easy interdisciplinary communication among Univer- tional agriculture, and producibiliry without the need for additional sity of Visconsin scientists was seen as a step in establishing a arable land, irrigation, fertilizers, herbicides, , or expen- broader North American voice of advocacy sive equipment, that make their use highly compatible with the principles of low-input sustainable agriculture. Further, because Approaches for Enhancing the Nutritional Contribution many important food insects are also important pest insects, it may ofEdible Insects be possible in some cases to incorporate food insect harvest as part of pest management programs, thus helping to reduce the need for Deuelopment of a sronger global uoice of aduocacy by for crop protection. establishing better communication and mutual support among The proiect's resources include a food insects laboratory located scientists and otbers interested in tbe buman ttse of insects as in the Department of Entomology and approximately 25 faculty and food and animalfeed. research staff members in various university departments who. are kept informed as to proiect objectives and developments and are 'Wider advocacy by informed persons will be essential to gaining available as advisers in their areas of expertise. They are also po- wider government recognition of the nutritional importance of in- tential collaborators when and as funding opportunities arise. This sect foods and their contribution to rural economies. Researchers informal liaison is maintained with researchers in the Eepartment interested in this subject have had little opportunity for the kinds of of Entomology Nutritional Sciences, Food Science, Food Microbiol- contact and intellectual cross-fertilization that are taken for granted ogy and Toxicology, Animal Sciences, Poultry Science, and Agricul- in more widely recognized disciplines. Tbe Food Insects Newslet' tural Engineering, among others, and with the universiry's Office of ter,begtn in 1988 and internationally distributed, should help facil- itate such information exchange. A current proiect in support of advocacy is the development of upto-date inventories on the use of insects as food or animal feed in each of the 40 or more countries where such use is important. This is being accomplished by literature search and by soliciting unpublished information on current use from locally knowledge- able persons, including entomologists who work in developing na- tions and returned Peace Corps volunteers. The bibliography upon THE which the inventories are based currently stands at nearly 700 titles. GENERAL PURPOSE The addition of literature updating the or containing rel- "BLACK LIGHT'' evant biological information will increase this total to more than TRAP 2,000 titles. Aduocacy of stronger support for scientists and otbers from

. Scientilically designed lor the best possib/e deueloping n/ztions wbo are interested in maximizing tbe catches ol noctumal and crepuscu/at lrsecls. nutritional conffibution of tbeir indigenorcfood insect . Developed undet lhe diecllon 0t sclenllsts ,n p/ant resources, pest contol lor use in the lield by enlomologists, and researchers in tnsect monitoring. In attempting to accurately estimate the role and potential role of THE GENERAL PURPOSE "BLACK LIGHT'TRAP... food insects as part ofa national nutritional base, a great deal of ...is built kom top to botlom with the field user in new and resynthesized information will be needed. One of the ur- mind. lt is ruggedly made yet nol oveMeight, lt gent initial needs in most countries is for stronger taxonomic input. knocks down for compact transport hom one Accurate taxonomic identification,is the essential starting point in location to another, yet s€ts up easily and quickly with plien and screw driver. gathering enough biological infcrmation to reveal desired lines of

The collection container is ample even for a big catch ol relatively large insecls. To help in research and clues to simple species-specific innovations for im- segregating lhe catch by size, interior baskels with screen bottoms may b added. proving harvest efficiency Of utmost importance is information place Collection container unhooks easily for removing catch, locks firmly in rvhen resetling trap. about the seasonal occurrence ofeach species in relation to the I Wired 110 cycle current, power pack Electdcal Bor: for hook-up to V.,60 AC or availability of other affordable foods offering similar specific nu- r Day/NightPholocelloption:15rvatttrapisnowavailableforbatteryoperationwrthan trient value. automatic switch that cuts off current in full daylighl. This switch is actualed by photocell and is adjustable. Food insect harvest methods are, for the most part, as primitive as they were generations ago. Some species will continue to be ob- Write or phone lor additional details. tainable only by labor-intensive collecting; the supply of others could be significantly increased through simple innovations in MANUFACTURED AND DISTRIBUTED BY small-scale harvest or culture. Still others will prove subject to O.B. ENTERPRISES, INC. more sophisticated methods of large-scale harvest from nature or 4585 Schneider Drive r Oregon, Wl 53575 have characteristics that make them excellent candidates for devel- (608) Phone: 835-9416 opment of controlled mass-production, thus extending their period of seasonal availability Whatever the approach, if there is to be any.

30 BULLETIN OF THE ESA lasting change in the status quo, the main thrust must come from Deuelopment of controlled nnss-production of food insects local scientists and institution indigenous to deueloping countries.

Deuelopment of economical mass-banvest metbo* and strategies It is likely that many of the insects that are now candidates for im- for potential food and feed insects tbat are attracted to ligbt or to proved harvest will become candidates for controlled year-round cbemical traps. production as more is learnqd about their biology that is relevant to sustained culture. Saturniid caterpillars, for which there is great Numerous species of insects in all of the major orders, including demand in central and southern Africa, appear to be particularly many that are of food importance, are highly attracted to light. The promisin'$ candidates for controlled mass-production using simple tettigoniid grasshopper, Ruspolia nitidula, is one example. \Xiinged methods of rearing. A project in Mexico under the direction of termites are another. Huge catches of miscellaneous insects, from J. R. E. de Conconi is aimed at developing a mass-rearing method gnats to large beetles and moths, are not uncommon in tropical re- for the "white agave worm," the caterpillar of Aegiale besperiaris gions, and such catches could, in some areas, prove to be excellent. Kirby (Lepidoptera: Megathymidae). The larva is considered a deli- sources ofhigh-protein feed for pond fish or poultry Light traps or, cary throughout Mexico and is served in the finest restaurants. It where there is no electriciry lantern traps represent simple tech- was formerly an item of export but is now relatively scarce because nology of potentially great use in the harvest of fr;od and feed in- of over-collection. Problems in rearing involve failure to induce ad- sects. equate mating and oviposition in captiviry A current cooperative project in Nepal is aimed at harvesting the Another current proiect is related to the introduction of silk- large cricket, Bracbltrupes portmtosus (Lichtenstein) (Orthoptera: worm culture into southwestern Colombia several !€ars ago as a Gryllidae), a crop pest that is attracted to light traps by the "bag- diversification for small coffee farms (National Federation of Co- full" per light trap night (E Neupane, Institute of Agriculture and lombian Coffee Producers 1984). It is also spreading as a silk prod- Animal Science, Rampur, personal communication, 1986). The ucts cottage industry under the initiative of a local women's coop- catches also include four smaller cricket species and a large scara- erative (P Conway, $Tisconsin Farmers Foundation, Inc.; The baeid beetle. The gclal is to use the crickets and probably also the beetles as a high-protein replacement for the expensive fish meal now imported for poultry production. Crickets and tettigoniids, as detailed earlier, are among avariety of insect species that have been shown equivalent or superior to soybean meal as a high-pro- tein source for chick growth (DeFoliart et al. 1982, Finke et al. 7985, Nakagaki et al. 1987). This Nepal proiect, in addition to its immediate objective, has broader implications. Bracbytupes portentosus is widely sold as o human food in Burma (Ghosh 1924), Southeast Asia (Nguyen-Cong- Tien 1928), and Indonesia (Bodenheimer 795I,236). A related cricket, Bracbytrupes membranacezs Drury, also a crop pest, is MONITOR & INSECT TRAP considered a particular delicacy in Uganda (Owen 7973) and 1n other parts of eastern Africa as far south as Zimbabwe (Gelfand 1971, Chavunduka 1975). Vhat is learned about harvesting these crickets in Nepal could help facilitate their availability in much wider areas of Asia and Africa. Some insects are attracted in large numbers to food or phero- mone baits and lures. A well-known example is theJapanese beetle,' Popillia japonica Newman (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), a conge- rCaptures and monitors roaches and other neric species of which, Popilliafemoralis Klug, is an important insects food insect in Cameroon. Japanese beetle traps can hold 4,000- rNon-poisonous for safe use 5,000 beetles, and when beetles are numerous such as they were '7" x 3 l12" trap is really three insect traps during the summer of 7987, the traps fill to overflowing in less than in one 24hours (M. Klein, USDA, \Wooster, Ohio, personal communication, rAdhesive backing allows trap to stick beetle baits in this country contain 1987). CommercialJapanese problem They are expensive, costing to for wherever insects are a both floral and sex lures. $2 $3 .Space enough bait to operate a trap for about six weeks. According to provided to record date and loca- Klein, both the sex lure and the floral (or feeding) lure in these tion of trap baits show cross-activity for other Popillia species in Korea and rObservation openings make maintenance Okinawa. Vhen purchased in bulk, either the sex or the floral lure easier could be made available at only about 10 ceuts for enough home- Available from your distributor: made bait to operate atrap for six weeks. The traps are simple and Laboratories. Inc. Madison, wr s3704 u.s.A. can be made from inexpensive materials, thus representing easily R""tt transferable technology

SPRING 1989 31 Even less expensive cricket diets might be possible if banana, pineapple, or other agricultural wastes widely available in the de- veloping world can be substituted for corn as the energy source. Also, as a substitute for poultry manure, high-protein (20% or more) leaf and vine meals from certain agriculturally under-used tropical and arid-adapged plants (National Academy of Sciences 1979) might prove suitable as nitrogen sources for crickets. Explor- atory research in this direction in some cases yielded high rates of survival but in all cases slow gro$'th. Before further progress can be made in using various organic wastes that may be available within a region, a study is needed to determine cricket dietary re- quirements more precisely Research in Ohio by Schurr (1972,1976; K. Schurr, personal com- munication, 1987) indicates that it should be economically feasible to harvest the biomass from terminal sewage lagoons as feed for animals. Tl-re high nutritional quality of the biomass comes mostly As Brachytrupes is a crop pest, tbis parasitic uasp is considered from aquatic insects at the top ofthe food chain in properly loaded benef.cial; for Brachytrupes as food or animal feed, tbe wasp be- terminal lagoons. comes a pesst insect, reducing tbe potential ban,est. Deuelopment of mass- baraest strategi.es for migratory locusts, grassboppers, tbe Mormon cricket, and otber major pest species Colombia Exchange, Milwaukee, Wis., personal communication, tbat.form destructiue aggregations tbat moue en mAsse in nature. 1987). In Colornbia, as in much of the deraloping world, the lack of ' inexpensive, high-protein leed sources is a major problem con- Locusts, grasshoppers, or both are included in the diet of almost fronting poultrli swine, and pond fish producers, and the pupal by- every country for which an1'published record exists. A quite mod- product from this cottage industry could represent a major new re- est attempt to combine food harvest with grasshopper control, source for the farmers of the region, either for local use or for ex- without sophisticated technological input, was described in the port. Pupal dry weight averaged 0.33 g in a sample sent from Col- Nov 13, 1983, edition (p. 15) of Tbe National Reuiew, a newspaper ombia. At the expected production rate of 1.2 million to 1.44 published in Bangkok, Thailand. In a campaign launched by local million silkworm cocoons per hectare per year, the a\erage vield

32 BULLETIN OF THE ESA Although now reduced in nirmbers in most areas, it might be pos- to ensure the timely release of newsworthf information. Other ed- sible to manage it as a valuable poultry and meat animal feed re- ucational efforts to date include a one-credit course, Use of Insects source, with the added benefit ofreducing the need for insecticides as Food and Animal Feed, initiallv offered at the uni\ersitv during on western rangelands. At cricket densities of lO-20/m' , a 1-km'? the spring 1988 semester-possibly the first time a colrrse has been band totals 77-22 metric tons of high-protein (58%) powder (De- offered on this subject. Foliart et al.7982). As noted earlier, it is an excellent protein source for broiler chickens. The wholesale value of harvested crickets in a Deuelopment, as small-farm entetprises, o.f controlled mass- band ofthe above size, based on 1981 prices for corn and soy'bean production metboclsfor certain insects as sTack items on tbe U.S. meal, would have ranged up to $6,600 (DeFoliart et al. 1982). nnrket.

Education of the American public about tbe palatability and Onl.v a small proportion of Americans indulge in the culinar)' de- nutritional quali4' 67 i^nrrt and tbeir importance asfoocl in lights offered by snails, vet escargot sales amount to more than mucb of tbe deueloping word. $300 million each year in the United States (ly'eezs Ttibune and Her- ald,Dultth, Minn., Feb. 8, 1987). Gi'"en the proper publicitli similar Insects are certainly not needed now as a source of nutrition in markets might be created for certain edible insects, thus opening the Unite

SPRING 1989 1i their income per colony per.)€ar bv going into dual drone brood Insects as food for long-term space.fligbt. and honey production. No more environmentally harmonious food production system can be imagined. Unfortunatelli introduction of - Among poSsible foods for long-term space travel, the National the Varroa mite into the United States has made the future of this Aeronautics and Space Administration has considered insects to the project somewhat uncenain. extent that it contracted for a report on their general use and nutri- Acheta Nymphs. Taylor & Catter (1976) describe 24 recipes that tional value as food (Dufour 1981). A major requirement of all life use crickets: tempura cricket with vegetables, cricket seaweed support systems in space is that they be compact and light weight. salad, Bombay curry, Punjab broth, cricket-on-the-hearth bread, An overriding problem, according to University of Wisconsin space confeni salad, creole pilaf, hot cricket-avocado delight, chocolate farming researcher, T \$ Tibbitts (personal communication, 1987), chirpies, jumping melon salad, pizzahopper, cricket pot pie, crick- is how to reduce the quantity of waste materials to a minimum be- ets and mushrooms, chirping stuffed ar,'ocados, cricket Louis, jump- cause they cannot be merely jenisoned in space. An1'thing that can- ing jubilee (prepared over flaming brandy), cricket India, cricket not be recycled must be returned to earth. This is where insects patties Claremont,John the Baptist bread, eggs en cocotte, Indone- with a recl,cling capability become of interest. Kok (1983) pro sian hoppers, cricket crisps, cricket rumaki, and stuffed cherry to- posed a closed system for space based on a small beetle, Srego- matoes. "Fishin' crickets" (Acbeta domesticus) are produced and bium paniceun (L.), although there is as yet no information on the sold by a number of wholesalers in the United States for about $14 nutritional quality of this insect. Possibly, however, the glamour of per pound G5a I. This is the approximate live weight of 1,000 8th- using insects as food in space mav be helpful in some quarters in instar cricket nymphs, the stage that would be desired for market- promoting more research on their use as food here on Earth. I ing as a novelty food. Ve are attempting to develop a low-input, mass-production system that would allow a self-emploied individ- Acknowledgment ual, with little or no additional labor and an initial equipment in- vestment of less than $10,000, to profitably produce at least five met- I thankJulieta Ramos Elorduy de Conconi,John Phelps, Kenneth Ruddle, ric tons of nymphs each year at a per-pound wholesale price Grace Stewart lbingira, Fanindra Neupane, Michael Klein, Karl Schurt Patri- cia Conwali Cartet and Ted Tibbitts fcr supplving valuable information appreciably lower than $14. The product would be suitable and eas- Janet via personal communication. Thanks are expressed also to Keesy for ily cost competitive as a snack food and for inclusion in dishes such Jo'rce assisrance in literature searching, to Heloisa Scholl and Diane Landrv for as those described by Taylor and Carter. Spanish and French translations, respectively and to Lynn Martinsen for ex- greater wax moth are also ex- Galleria Larvae. The larvae of the pert typing of the manuscript. The Research Division, the Curricular Revi- pensive to produce but are of gourmet food interest because of talization Project, the Office of International Agricultural Programs (LInited their extraordinary palatability Taylor & Carter (7976,135) state States Agency for International Development Title XII) of the College of Ag- that "Thev are our favorite insect. They are thin-skinned, tender, ricultural and Life Sciences, and the Graduate School, Uni!€rsity of Wiscon- and succulent. . . . Vhen dropped into hot vegetable oil, the larvae sin-Madison, supported research and various other activities related to the immediately swell, elongate, and then burst. . . . Anyone who enjoys subject matter of this article. the flavor of potato chips, corn puffs, or the like would delight in the taste of fried wax moth larvae." With gourmet outlets and clubs References Cited and trendier restaurants flourishing (Anonymous 1980; Hamlin 1985), wax moths could be produced commercially as an expensive Abdel Gawaad, A. A. & H. Brune. 1979. Insect protein as a possible source of protein to poultry Z. Tierphysiol., Tierernaehr. Futtermineldk. 42:216- item for these markets. Given a choice, New York diners looking for 222. adventure and willing to pay ff22 for half a roasted free-range Anonymous. 1980. Fat times for fancy foods: galore are eager to chicken accompanied by a large pile of shoestring potatoes might faourmets tickle their taste buds. Time, Oct. 27, p.92. a pile fried Galleria at the same price. well prefer smaller of Bequaert,J. 1921. Insects as food. How thev have augmented the food sup- pl,v of mankind in early and recent times. J. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 21: 191- 200. Conduct extensiue studies on tbe food quality and safe4t of Bodenheimer, n S. 195f. Insects as human icod. \(Junk, The Hague, Neth- selected insects. erlands. .Bora, L. R. & P K. Sharma. 1965. Assam Muga silk worm,Antbaracaassa- mensisrWw, pupae as protein supplement in chick ration. Indian YelJ.42: 354-359. In-depth studies are needed on the composition and dietary Calvert, C. C. 1977. Systems for the indirect recl'cling by using animal and quality of minerals, vitamins, lipids, and fiber in selected food in- municipal wastes as a substiate icr protein production. New Feed Res. 4: sects. There have been numerous biochemical analyses, but few 245-264. studies on bioavailability and other aspects of metabolic function- Calvert, C. C., R. D. Martin & N. O. Morgan. 1969. House fly pupae as food ing. Lipid studies, for example, should include not only determina- for poultryJ. Econ, Entomol. 62:938-939. tion of total fat content (/" dry weight), but the content of choles- Chavunduka, D. M. l975.Insects as a source of protein to the African. Rhod. terol, triglyceride, and phospholipids; fatty acid profiles; and Sci. News 9:277-220. S. S. S. Ichhponani. 1970. Evaluation determination of these parameters in relation to different feeding Chopra, A. K., N. Malek, G. Makker &J. of poultry feeds available in India. I. Proximate anal,vsis, energy values, regimens. In some situations, studies may be needed on the haz- and basic amino acid contents of feed ingredients. J. Res. LLtdhania' 8: 232- ards posed by certain insects as ingestant or other allergens, as se- 236. questerers of plant toxins, or as carriers of infectious helminths, Cravioto, R. O., G. Massieu, J. Guzman & J. Calvo de la Torre. 1951. Com- Salmonella, or other microbiological agents. Vhere desirable, food posicion de alimentos mexicanos. Cienc. Mex. XL129-755. chemists and engineers should be able to develop processing pro- Dashefsky, H. S., D. L. Anderson, E. N. Tobin & T, M. Peters. 1976. Face fly cedures that extend storage life or improve nutritional qualityi pupae: a potential feed supplement for poultqr Environ. Entomol. 5: 680- shape, texture, or flavor, thereby increasing attractiveness to a 082. broader range of consumers. de Conconi, J. R. E. 1982. Los insectos. Como fuente de proteinas en el fu-

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