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The University of Hull Bajau Gender THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL BAJAU GENDER: A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF SOCTO-ECONOMIC CHANGE ON GENDER RELATIONS IN A FISHING COMNUNITY OF SABAH, EAST MALAYSIA Being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of PhD in the University of Hull by JEAN MORRISON, M.A. (HONS) November 1993 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis has been more difficult and challenging than anything I have ever undertaken. I have been sustained, encouraged, advised, criticized and helped in this endeavour by a number of groups and individuals whom I would like to gratefully acknowledge. My project was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council for whose financial support I am very grateful. I would also like to thank the Malaysian Government for allowing me to carry out my fieldwork in Sabah. In Hull, first mention must go to my supervisor Mr Lewis Hill who saw me through the long process of writing the manuscript. He was a tremendous help in shaping the thesis, gave me valuable advice and comments, helped me to clarify the ideas presented and encouraged me each step of the way. I was also fortunate to have had a great deal of encouragement from Prof. Sandra Waliman's postgraduate workshop, and would especially like to thank Jessie Ogden who has been a staunch friend and a much appreciated source of practical and emotional support. I would (1) also like to thank Steve, my partner, who put up with a hectic homelife for the last few years. In Sabah I would like to thank IDS (Sabah) particularly Dr Yaakub Hj Johari for his practical support, helping me identify my study village and for introducing me to relevant material. I would also like to express my appreciation to both Mrs Tina Rimxner and Mrs Lily Ku with whom I stayed during my first few weeks in Sabah. Special thanks must go to the villagers of Mengkabong, especially my foster family, without whom this thesis would not have been possible. Due to my concern to preserve their anonymity they cannot be mentioned by name (throughout the thesis I have employed pseudonyms) but I will always remember each of them and the support they gave me. I just want to say, with deepest sincerity, terima kasih. A final mention must go to the women's movement as the ground in which this thesis grew, and which stimulated my awareness of many of the issues explored in this piece of research. (ii) TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................pp(i )-(ii) ABSTRACT ................................pp(iii)-(jv) LISTOF FIGURES .........................p(vii) LISTOF MAPS ............................p(vii) LISTOF PHOTOGRAPHS .....................p(vii) LISTOF TABLES .........................pp(vii)-(viii) CURRENCYNOTE ...........................p (ix) INTRODUCTION. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA: THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES .......ppl-21 SECTION ONE CHAPTER 1 "THE LAND BELOW THE WIND t': THE GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL SETTING OF THE STUDY ..................................... pp22-45 2 BACKGROUND: BAJAU ETHNOGRAPHY AND GENDER STUDIES ................................... pp46-78 3 STUDYING BAJAU GENDER RELATIONS: RESEARCH DESIGN AND FIELDWORK METHODS .............. pp79-97 SECTION TWO INTRODIJCTION:DYNANICS OF THE BAJAU HOUSEHOLD.pp98-100 4 THE HOUSEHOLD, KINSHIP AND SOCIAL ORGANISATION: THE IMPORTANCE OF THE MATRIKIN .................................. pp101-123 5 SOCIAL RELATIONS WITHIN THE BAJAU HOUSEHOLD: WOMEN AS WIVES, MOTHERS, SISTERS AND DAUGHTERS ................................. pp124-156 6 BAJAU MARRIAGE PRACTICES: THE CIRCULATION OFMEN .................................... pp157-190 7 EXTRA-HOUSEHOLD RELATIONS: FEMALE NETWORKS ANDCOOPERATION ........................... ppl9l-211 (v SECTION THREE INTRODUCTION. KERJA MAKAN NASI AND KERJA MAKAN GAJI: WOMEN, WORK AND IDEOLOGY IN KG MENGKABONG ...................................pp212-215 8 THE SOCIAL INVISIBILITY OF WOMEN'S WORK IN SABAH'S RURAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ..........pp216-242 9 THE GENDER DIVSION OF LABOUR IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ...............................pp243-273 10 WOMEN IN THE HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY: MANAGING MULTIPLEROLES .........................pp274-304 11 BAJAU WOMEN IN TRADE AND PETTY COMMODITY PRODUCTION ................................pp305-346 12 KERJA MAKAN GAJI: VILLAGE WOMEN' S INVOLVEMENT IN PAID EMPLOYMENT ............pp347-397 13 FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT: GENDER DIMENSIONS OF INCOME ALLOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN VILLAGEHOUSEHOLDS ........................pp398-424 CONCLUSION: WHAT CONTRIBUTION CAN FEMINIST THEORY MAKE TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE PROCESSES OF SOCIO- ECONOMICCHANGE' .............................pp424-442 APPENDICES ...................................pp443-448 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................pp449-472 (vi) LIST OF FIGURES Fig 1. Ideal model of accountability, hierarchically ranked in order of authority with grandfather atthe top............................... p131 Fig 2. Model of real levels of accountability and authority within Bajau households ....... p134 Fig 3. Diagrammatic Representation of Four House Clusters in One Section of the Village...p119 LIST OF MAPS Map 1 Location of Sabah...... ...................p(x) LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS 1. Kg Mengkabong in the 1950s ..................p(xi) 2 Kg Mengkabong in the 1980s ..................p(xi) 3. The houses of poor villagers ................ p40 4. Sederhana house............................. p40 5. Malam Berinai ...............................p181 6. Groom being prepared on eve of wedding......p181 7. Bersanding ceremony.........................p186 8. Bride and groom on their wedding day........p186 LIST OF TABLES 4.1 Bajau Consanguineal Kin Terms ...............p106 4 .2 Bajau Affina]. Terms .........................pill 4,3 Variations in Household Composition.........p116 4.4 Composition of House Clusters ............... p119 4.5 Type of Kin Relationship in House Clusters .pl2O 5.1 Female and Male Qualities ................... pl25 8.1 Rural Bumiputera Population aged 10 years and over by Labour Force Status, Sabah 1980 ........................................p219 8.2 Rural Bumiputera Population aged 10 years and over by Employment Status, Sabah, l98O..p220 8.3 Average Daily Time Allocation of Fishing- Related Activities by Gender and Class ..... p229 8.4 Average Daily Time Allocation of Agricultural Activities by Gender and Class.............. p232 8.5 Average Daily Time Allocation of Non- Agricultural Renumerative Activities by Genderand Class ............................ p234 8.6 Average Daily Time Allocation in Household Maintenance Activities by Gender and Class .p236 8.7 Average Hours Spent in Work Activities byGender and Class ......................... p238 (vi) 9.1 Gender Division of Labour in Kg Mengkabong before the Colonial Period ..................p252 9.2 Gender Divsion of Labour in Kg Mengkabong during the Colonial Period..................P259 9.3 The Contemporary Gender Division of Labour. .p269 12.1 Labour Force Participation Rates of Females and Males, Sabah, 1970 and 1980 .............p352 12.2 Percentage Distribution of Population aged 10 years and over by Occupation and Gender. .p364 12.3 Percentage Distribution of Females Unemployed aged 10 years and over by region.p367 12.4 Peninsular Malaysia/Sabah: Female-Male Literacy Rates by Rural-Urban Divide, 1980. .p380 12.5 Number of Pupils in Primary and Secondary Schools by Gender, Sabah (1957-1985) ........p382 (vi") CURRENCY NOTE During the fieldwork period (1991) the exchange rate was approximately M$4. 00 per 1 .00 0 ° It) _l C' r) 4L 2; -" N U Cl) ll 0 0 N <fç ; 4 u-I '-I I-I z. '-I z z w 0 Cl) J z U E-' I-, -it 0 p U) I.-, 8 Cl) 0 Q Map 1: Location of Sabah ()() Photograph 1: Kg. Mengkabong, Sabah in the 1950s. (Taken by Mr. R. Knowles). t Photograph 2: Kg Mengkabong in the 1980s. (X INTRODUCTION GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA: THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES "Development is a process that brings with it enormous changes in the very substance of people's lives. It touches their values, their cultural norms, and their perceptions of one another. It can bring an opportunity for personal growth and social harmony, or tragically, it can tear the social fabric asunder." (Huston 1979:3) Malaysia, like many developing countries, is currently undergoing a process of intensive socio-economic change. This involves a growing incorporation of people into the waged labour market and an increasing dependency on the cash economy and the competitive capitalist world market. This process of economic development has induced fundamental rapid transformation of traditional societies and cultures in Malaysia. The Bajau of Sabah, East Malaysia represent one important case where traditional cultural forms are currently undergoing extensive change. Whilst these developments influence all aspects of the Bajaus' lives they are most dramatically affecting gender relations within the Bajau community. The women in my study are experiencing changes in their involvement in the cash 1 economy, the penetration of national and political institutions and expanded educational opportunities. Consequently an examination of their lives reveals the impact of these changes, particularly within the realm of gender relations, and the villagers! responses to them. It is these profound transformations in female- male relations as a result of socio-economic development which I intend to explore throughout this thesis. Gender and Develo pment Planning - a brief overview The ILO has recently pointed out that women constitute 50% of the world's population, do two-thirds of the world's work hours, receive 10% of the world's income and
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