Kotik molmal! Discovering Lenca, a lost language of Central America

Alan R. King Linguistics seminar University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa September 2017

Kotik molmal! Discovering Lenca, a lost language of Central America

• What’s Lenca?

• Routes of discovery

• A linguistic problem

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Central America

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca?

Lenca in Central America HL Honduran Lenca

HL

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca?

Lenca in Central America HL Honduran Lenca

ESL El Salvador Lenca

HL

ESL

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Meso-American Cultural Area

Meso- American Area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Lenca outside MA Cultural Area

HL

ESL

Meso- American Area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Intermediate Zone

Intermediate Zone

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Lenca inside Intermediate Zone

HL

ESL

Intermediate Zone

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Lenca and the cultural areas

HL

ESL

Intermediate Zone Meso- American Area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Chief language families

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Chief language families

Mayan languages

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Chief language families

Mayan languages

Chibchan languages

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Chief language families

Mayan languages Misumalpan languages Chibchan languages

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Lenca and chief language families

Mayan HL languages ESL Misumalpan languages Chibchan languages

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Language families and cultural areas

Mayan languages Misumalpan languages Chibchan languages

Intermediate Zone Meso- American Area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Lenca, lang. families and cultural areas

Mayan languages Misumalpan HL languages ESL Chibchan languages

Intermediate Zone Meso- American Area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Meso-American language area

Meso-American language area MA language area

Intermediate Zone Meso- American Cultural Area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Mayan languages, MA language area

Mayan languages

MA language area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? SCA and MA language areas

Southern Meso- Central American American

HL language

ESL area

Southern MA Central language American area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Chibchan, Misumalpan and SCA

Misumalpan languages

Chibchan HL languages ESL

SCA language area MA language area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Honduras, ES and language areas

SCA language area HL HONDURAS MA ES ESL language area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Honduras, ES and language areas

SCA language area HL HONDURAS MA ES ESL language area

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Honduras Honduras and El Salvador

El Salvador

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? SCA languages of Honduras and ES

Pech

Language families: Chibchan

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? SCA languages of Honduras and ES

Pech

Miskito

Cacaopera

Language families: Chibchan Misumalpan

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? SCA languages of Honduras and ES

Tol Pech

Miskito

Cacaopera

Language families: Chibchan Misumalpan Jicaquean

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? SCA languages of Honduras and ES

Tol Pech

Miskito Honduran Lenca

Cacaopera ESL

Language families: Chibchan Misumalpan Jicaquean Lencan

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Areal frontier in Honduras and ES

Tol Pech

Miskito Honduran Lenca

Cacaopera ESL

Language families: Chibchan Misumalpan Jicaquean Lencan

Discovering Lenca Standard Average Central Honduran

SCA language area

Discovering Lenca Standard Average Central Honduran

SCA language area

Honduras

Discovering Lenca Standard Average Central Honduran

SCA language area

Honduras

El Salvador

Discovering Lenca Standard Average Central Honduran

SCA language area

Honduras

El Salvador

Northern SCA / Central Honduran

Discovering Lenca Standard Average Central Honduran

SCA language area

HL Honduras

El Salvador

Northern SCA / Central Honduran

Discovering Lenca Standard Average Central Honduran

SCA language area

HL

ESL Honduras

El Salvador

Northern SCA / Central Honduran

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? A Honduran Lenca market

Discovering Lenca What’s Lenca? Honduran Lenca market

Kotik molmal! Discovering Lenca, a lost language of Central America

• What’s Lenca?

• Routes of discovery

• A linguistic problem

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Lenca’s current situation • HL and ESL both stopped being spoken in the mid-twentieth century

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Lenca’s current situation • HL and ESL both stopped being spoken in the mid-twentieth century • Strong awareness of indigenous identity and interest in traditions

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Lenca’s current situation • HL and ESL both stopped being spoken in the mid-twentieth century • Strong awareness of indigenous identity and interest in traditions • Stated eagerness for language recovery

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Starting conditions for rediscovering Lenca • Nobody knows Lenca, and very little authentic knowledge of even fragments of language

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Starting conditions for rediscovering Lenca • Nobody knows Lenca, and very little authentic knowledge of even fragments of language • Minimal “rememberers”

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Starting conditions for rediscovering Lenca • Nobody knows Lenca, and very little authentic knowledge of even fragments of language • Minimal “rememberers” • False claims of knowing the language

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Starting conditions for rediscovering Lenca • Nobody knows Lenca, and very little authentic knowledge of even fragments of language • Minimal “rememberers” • False claims of knowing the language • Absence of rigorous linguistic work

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Historical documentation El Salvador Lenca: • A grammatical sketch (several pages, early 20th century, incomplete, unreliable) • Two substantial word lists • All are in the same dialect, Chilanga • No continuous text

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Historical documentation Honduran Lenca: • A 60-line conversation with a translation (contains transcription mistakes) • Several word lists (with frequent mistakes) • Capricious, inconsistent spellings • Several dialects represented • No grammatical description of the language except for one (incorrect) verb paradigm Historical documentation

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using direct evidence to “restore” the Lenca languages • “Deconstruct” the grammar sketch (ESL)

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using direct evidence to “restore” the Lenca languages • “Deconstruct” the grammar sketch (ESL) • Review other attempts to analyse (not many)

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using direct evidence to “restore” the Lenca languages • “Deconstruct” the grammar sketch (ESL) • Review other attempts to analyse (not many) • Posit phonology, codify data corpus

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using direct evidence to “restore” the Lenca languages • Posit grammatical structure from corpus data (mainly HL)

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using direct evidence to “restore” the Lenca languages • Posit grammatical structure from corpus data (mainly HL) • Reappraise data corpus and grammar sketch in light of new assumptions

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using direct evidence to “restore” the Lenca languages • Posit grammatical structure from corpus data (mainly HL) • Reappraise data corpus and grammar sketch in light of new assumptions • Systematize data and digitalize (create databases)

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using indirect evidence to push the limits of “restoration” • Becoming a “medium”

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using indirect evidence to push the limits of “restoration” • Becoming a “medium” No native speakers = no native speaker intuition A linguist-medium learns and internalizes the language, in order to harvest a (non-native) speaker intuition The linguist-medium becomes a channel for the language to “express itself” and facilitate transmission to a new generation of (native?) speakers

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using indirect evidence to push the limits of “restoration” • Becoming a “medium” • Family matters

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using indirect evidence to push the limits of “restoration” • Becoming a “medium” • Family matters The two Lenca languages are recognisably cognates with a probable separation of at least 1000 years. Each offers some help in positing or confirming analyses providing insight on the other language.

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using indirect evidence to push the limits of “restoration” • Becoming a “medium” • Family matters • Typological profiling

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using indirect evidence to push the limits of “restoration” • Becoming a “medium” • Family matters • Typological profiling Numerous features can be predicted with reasonable probability from the fact that Lenca is OV: postpositions, VAux, clause + subordinator…

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using indirect evidence to push the limits of “restoration” • Becoming a “medium” • Family matters • Profiling • Going local

Discovering Lenca Routes of discovery Using indirect evidence to push the limits of “restoration” • Going local Several features are common to Lenca and neighbouring languages, especially those belonging to the same linguistic area (SCA). This knowledge could lead to extrapolations to fill structural gaps, confirmation of tentative hypotheses or calques as a source of innovation Cf. Aramaic  Modern Hebrew

Kotik molmal! Discovering Lenca, a lost language of Central America

• What’s Lenca?

• Routes of discovery

• A linguistic problem

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Enclitics in El Salvador Lenca • ishko-na ‘the man’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Enclitics in El Salvador Lenca • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Enclitics in El Salvador Lenca • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Enclitics in El Salvador Lenca • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’ • ishko-pa ‘(he) is [a] man’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Enclitics in El Salvador Lenca • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’ • ishko-pa ‘(he) is [a] man’ The one enclitic rule: *ishko-na-pa, *wara-na- num…

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem A different -pa • Mapila nanta-pa. ‘Come here!’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem A different -pa • Mapila nanta-pa. ‘Come here!’ • Kopokon wesha-pa. ‘I’m bringing the light.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem A different -pa • Mapila nanta-pa. ‘Come here!’ • Kopokon wesha-pa. ‘I’m bringing the light.’ • Masakon nani-pa. ‘I shall return’ (literally, ‘I am returning’)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem • Mapila nanta-pa. ‘Come here!’ • Kopokon wesha-pa. ‘I’m bringing the light.’ • Masakon nani-pa. ‘I shall return.’

Usual SOV order is flouted

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem • Mapila nanta-pa. ‘Come here!’ • Kopokon wesha-pa. ‘I’m bringing the light.’ • Masakon nani-pa. ‘I shall return.’

Usual SOV order is flouted -pa occurs at end of clause

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem • Mapila nanta-pa. ‘Come here!’ • Kopokon wesha-pa. ‘I’m bringing the light.’ • Masakon nani-pa. ‘I shall return.’

Usual SOV order is flouted -pa occurs at end of clause -pa attaches to non-predicative constituent

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem • Mapila nanta-pa. ‘Come here!’ • Kopokon wesha-pa. ‘I’m bringing the light.’ • Masakon nani-pa. ‘I shall return.’

Usual SOV order is flouted -pa occurs at end of clause -pa attaches to non-predicative constituent

What is non-predicative -pa?

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem

• Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem

• Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’

light

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem

• Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’

light ARTICLE

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem

• Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’

light ART 3s

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem

• Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’

light ART 3s bring.IMPERATIVE

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Unmarked order: • Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’ light ART 3s bring.IMPERATIVE Marked order: • Kopokon wesha-pa. ‘I’m bringing the light.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem

• Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’ light ART 3s bring.IMPERATIVE • Kopokon wesha-pa. I’m bringing ‘I’m bringing the light.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem

• Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’ light ART 3s bring.IMPERATIVE • Kopokon wesha-pa. I’m bringing light ‘I’m bringing the light.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem

• Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’ light ART 3s bring.IMPERATIVE • Kopokon wesha-pa. I’m bringing light -pa ‘I’m bringing the light.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem

• Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’ light ART 3s bring.IMPERATIVE • Kopokon wesha-pa. What is the I’m bringing light -pa function of ‘I’m bringing the light.’ -pa?

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem ESL and Honduran Lenca ESL: • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’ • ishko-pa ‘(he) is [a] man’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem ESL and Honduran Lenca ESL: • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’ HL: • emeshi-nan ‘the man’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem ESL and Honduran Lenca ESL: • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’ HL: • emeshi-nan ‘the man’ • wara-p ‘in [the] river’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem ESL and Honduran Lenca ESL: • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’ HL: • emeshi-nan ‘the man’ • wara-p ‘in [the] river’ • she-ina ‘(it) is good’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem ESL and Honduran Lenca ESL: • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’ HL: ENCLITIC COPULA/PREDICATOR • emeshi-nan ‘the man’ • wara-p ‘in [the] river’ • she-ina ‘(it) is good’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem ESL and Honduran Lenca ESL: • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ (*wara-na-num) • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’ HL: • emeshi-nan ‘the man’ • wara-p ‘in [the] river’ • she-ina ‘(it) is good’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem ESL and Honduran Lenca ESL: • ishko-na ‘the man’ • wara-num ‘in [the] river’ (*wara-na-num) • sham-pa ‘(it) is good’ HL: • emeshi-nan ‘the man’ • wara-p ‘in [the] river’ (*wara-nan-ap) • she-ina ‘(it) is good’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem HL’s “mystery enclitic”

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem HL: • kayu-ne ‘the horse’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem HL: • kayu-ne ‘the horse’ (*kayu-nan-ne)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem HL: • kayu-ne ‘the horse’ (*kayu-nan-ne) • telwan-ne ‘yesterday’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem HL: • kayu-ne ‘the horse’ (*kayu-nan-ne) • telwan-ne ‘yesterday’ • u-ne ‘I’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem HL: Kosa waina kin-ne? good is road-ne ‘Is the road good?’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem HL: U-seya-ne kashi-lan-tia ushaina telwan-ne. my-brother-ne sun-with-APPROX arrived yesterday-ne ‘My brother came early yesterday.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem HL: U-seya-ne kashi-lan-tia ushaina telwan-ne. my-brother-ne sun-with-APPROX arrived yesterday-ne ‘My brother came early yesterday.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem What is -ne in Honduran Lenca?

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem What is -ne in Honduran Lenca?

• It is enclitic: X + ne

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem What is -ne in Honduran Lenca?

• It is enclitic: X + ne • A ne-phrase can occur after a verb: S O V X-ne

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem What is -ne in Honduran Lenca?

• It is enclitic: X + ne • A ne-phrase can occur after a verb: S O V X-ne • or clause-initially: X-ne S O V

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem What it probably isn’t.

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem What it probably isn’t.

• It isn’t an article: (Strange distribution for an article: telwan ne ‘yesterday’, u ne ‘I’ etc. The article is nan, a different enclitic!)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem What it probably isn’t.

• It isn’t an article.

• It isn’t a case marker or postposition: Unlikely distribution. No plausible function(s) identified.

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem What it probably isn’t.

• It isn’t an article.

• It isn’t a case marker or postposition.

• So what is it?

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Proposal

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Proposal Ne is a topic / antitopic marker

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Proposal Ne is a topic / antitopic marker • Foregrounded topics precede the SOV core of a clause. (“John, he’s an acrobat.”)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Proposal Ne is a topic / antitopic marker • Foregrounded topics precede the SOV core of a clause. (“John, he’s an acrobat.”) • Background topics (“antitopics”) follow the SOV core. (“He’s an acrobat, John.”)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Proposal: ne is a topic marker • Any overt clause constituent except the predicate may be topicalized.

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Proposal: ne is a topic marker • Any overt clause constituent except the predicate may be topicalized. • A clause can have more than one (anti)topic.

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Proposal • Any overt clause constituent except the predicate may be topicalized. • A clause can have more than one (anti)topic. • (Anti)topics are (optionally?) followed by ne.

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Building the case for topic marker ne

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Building the case for topic marker ne • The original hypothesis emerged from internal analysis of Honduran Lenca data.

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Building the case for topic marker ne • The original hypothesis emerged from internal analysis of Honduran Lenca data. • The hypothesis is compatible with the data and more plausible than other options.

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Building the case for topic marker ne • The original hypothesis emerged from internal analysis of Honduran Lenca data. • The hypothesis is compatible with the data and more plausible than other options. • The implied syntactic distribution for topics, and the mechanism of marking topics, have typological precedents and are functionally coherent.

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Reinterpretation of ESL non-predicative -pa The ne topic hypothesis suggests that El Salvador Lenca has an analogous enclitic -pa (chiefly clause-final): • Mapila nanta-pa. ‘Come here!’ • Kopokon wesha-pa. ‘I’m bringing the light.’ • Masakon nani-pa. ‘I shall return.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Something about Tol

Tol Pech

Miskito Honduran Lenca

Cacaopera ESL

Language families: Chibchan Misumalpan Jicaquean Lencan

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Something about Tol

Tol

Honduran Lenca

ESL

Language families:

Jicaquean Lencan

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Something about Tol

Tol

Honduran Lenca

ESL

Language families:

Jicaquean Lencan

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Some typological similarities • Basically SOV

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Some typological similarities • Basically SOV • Enclitics:

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Some typological similarities • Basically SOV • Enclitics: –Macario mo’o ‘in Macario’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Some typological similarities • Basically SOV • Enclitics: –Macario mo’o ‘in Macario’ • Proclitic object markers:

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Some typological similarities • Basically SOV • Enclitics: –Macario mo’o ‘in Macario’ • Proclitic object markers: –Jipj nus tjinyuca ‘you saw me’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Some differences • No definite article

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Some differences • No definite article • Nominal plural markers (animates only)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Some differences • No definite article • Nominal plural markers (animates only) • Nominal “object markers” (?)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking El Salvador Lenca: • Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking El Salvador Lenca: • Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’

light ART 3s bring

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking El Salvador Lenca: • Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’

light ART 3s bring

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking El Salvador Lenca: • Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’ • (Kopila wesha-pa. ‘ditto’)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking El Salvador Lenca: • Wesha-na i- kopila. ‘Bring the light.’ • (Kopila wesha-pa. ‘ditto’) NO OBJECT (CASE) MARKER IN ESL

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Honduran Lenca: • Kin nan tishiuna. ‘I know the way.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Honduran Lenca: • Kin nan tishiuna. ‘I know the way.’

way ART I know

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Honduran Lenca: • Kin nan tishiuna. ‘I know the way.’

way ART I know

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Honduran Lenca: • Kin nan tishiuna. ‘I know the way.’ • (Tishiuna kin ne. ‘ditto’)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Honduran Lenca: • Kin nan tishiuna. ‘I know the way.’ • (Tishiuna kin ne. ‘ditto’) NO OBJECT (CASE) MARKER IN HL

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol (Dennis Holt, 1999): • Tinyuca wo -sis. ‘He saw the house.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol: • Tinyuca wo -sis. ‘He saw the house.’

he.saw house OBJECT

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol: • Tinyuca wo-sis. ‘He saw the house.’

– The O takes a suffixed case morpheme (-sis).

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol: • Tinyuca wo-sis. ‘He saw the house.’

– The O takes a suffixed case morpheme (-sis). – The O follows the V. (contradiction of SOV rule??)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol (Ron Dennis, p.c.): • (Napj) jupj wo tjinyuc. ‘I saw his house.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol: • (Napj) jupj wo tjinyuc. ‘I saw his house.’

I his house I.saw

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol: • (Napj) jupj wo tjinyuc. ‘I saw his house.’

• (Napj) tjinyuc wo-sis. ‘I saw [his] house.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol: • (Napj) jupj wo tjinyuc. ‘I saw his house.’

• (Napj) tjinyuc wo-sis. ‘I saw [his] house.’

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol: • (Napj) jupj wo tjinyuc. ‘I saw his house.’ • (Napj) tjinyuc wo-sis. ‘I saw [his] house.’

– The morpheme -sis only occurs if the object follows the verb! (i.e. in non-prototypical word order)

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking Tol (Steffen Haurholm-Larsen, p.c.):

– Object NPs can occur without -sis (as we’ve seen). – The morpheme -sis can also occur with NPs that are not objects. – Occurrence of -sis depends on position in clause (always post-V) – Thus THE -SIS SUFFIX IS NOT AN OBJECT MARKER.

Discovering Lenca A linguistic problem Object marking HYPOTHESIS for further study: The so-called (cf. Holt) “object-marking” suffixes are really antitopic-marking morphemes whose function and syntax are comparable to El Salvador Lenca (non-predicative) -pa and Honduran Lenca ne.

Discovering Lenca A short bibliography • Campbell, Lyle. 1976. “The last Lenca.” IJAL 42. • Campbell, Lyle et al. 1986. “Meso-America as a linguistic area.” Language 62. • Constenla Umaña, A. 1991. Las lenguas del área intermedia. U. de Costa Rica. • Holt, Dennis. 1999. Tol (Jicaque). Lincom Europa. • King, Alan R. (2015.) “A sentential particle for Guajiquiro Lenca?” Unpublished draft. http://tushik.org/wp-content/uploads/A-sentential- marker-for-Guajiquiro-Lenca.pdf • King, Alan R. (2016.) “The function of non-predicative -pa in Chilanga Lenca.” Unpublished draft. http://tushik.org/wp-content/uploads/Non- predicative-pa-in-Chilanga-Lenca.pdf • Lehmann, Walter. 1920. Zentral-Amerika. I. Die Sprachen Zentral-Amerikas. Berlin. • Membreño, Alberto. 1897. Hondureñismos. Tegucigalpa. • del Río Urrutia, Ximena. 1999. “El lenca de Chilanga.” U. de Costa Rica.

Discovering Lenca

An incipient Lenca language recovery effort is currently underway. For general information, see the Iralapil group on Facebook.

Discovering Lenca Mahalo! To learn more about Lenca and neighbouring languages, please visit:

tushik.org

If you don’t find something there, contact me at: [email protected]

Discovering Lenca Mahalo Nui Loa to: Lyle Campbell for his support and encouragement, Ron Dennis and Steffen Haurholm-Larsen for information and discussion about Tol, Jan Morrow for much needed material and logistic support, and everyone for your kind attention! (The blame for all errors is mine alone.)

Kotik molmal!

Discovering Lenca, a lost language of Central America

[email protected] http://tushik.org

Alan R. King Linguistics seminar University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa September 2017