r

I Wisconsin Magazine of History

Father Marquette Goes to Washington: The Marquette Statue Controversy E. DAVID CRONON Chief Buffalo and Other Wisconsin-related Art in the l^ational Captol JOHN O. HOLZHUETER The Prophet and the Mummyjums: Isaac Bullard and the Vermont Pilgrims of 1817 F. GERALD HAM French Colonial Attitudes and the Exploration ofjolliet and Marquette CORNELIUS J. JAENEN Harry Elmer Barnes JUSTUS D. DOENECKE

Published by the State Historical Society of Wisconsin / Vol. 56, No. 4 / Summer, 1973 THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF WISCONSIN

JAMES MORTON SMITH, Director

Officers E. DAVID CRONON, President GEORGE BANTA, JR., Honorary Vice-President JOHN C. GEILFUSS, First Vice-President E. E. HOMSTAD, Treasurer HOWARD W. MEAD, Second Vice-President JAMES MORTON SMITH, Secretary

Board of Curators Ex Officio PATRICK J. LUCEY, Governor of the State CHARLES P. SMITH, State Treasurer ROBERT C. ZIMMERMAN, Secretary of State JOHN C. WEAVER, President of the University MRS. GORDON R. WALKER, President of the Women's Auxiliary

Term Expires, 1972 E. DAVID CRONON ROBERT A. GEIIRKE BEN GUTHRIE FRANCIS PAUL PRUCHA, S.J. Madison Ripon Lac du Flambeau Milwaukee SCOTT M. CUTLIP JOHN C. GEILFUSS MRS. R. L. HARTZELL J. WARD RECTOR Madison Milwaukee Grantsburg Milwaukee MRS. ROBERT E. FRIEND MRS. HOWARD T. GREENE ROBERT H. IRRMANN CLIFFORD D. SWANSON Hartland Milwaukee Beloit Stevens Point

Term Expires, 1973 THOMAS H. BARLAND MRS. RAYMOND J. KOLTES FREDERICK I. OLSON DONALD C. SLICHTER Eau Claire Madison Wauwatosa Milwaukee E. E. HOMSTAD CHARLES R. MCCALLUM F. HARWOOD ORBISON DR. LOUIS C. SMITH Black River Falls Hubertus Appleton Lancaster MRS. EDWARD C. JONES HOWARD W. MEAD NATHAN S. HEFFERNAN ROBERT S. ZICMAN Fort Atkinson Madison Madison Milwaukee

Term Expires, 1974 ROGER E. AXTELL REED COLEMAN ROBERT B. L. MURPHY MiLO K. SWANTON Janesville Madison Madison Madison HORACE M. BENSTEAD PAUL E. HASSETT MRS. WM. H. L. SMYTHE CEDRIC A. VIC Racine Madison Milwaukee Rhinelander THOMAS M. CHEEKS WILLIAM HUFFMAN WILLIAM F. STARK CLARK WILKINSON Milwaukee Wisconsin Rapids Nashotah Baraboo

Honorary Honorary Life Members EDWARD D. CARPENTER, Cassville MRS. ESTHER NELSON, Madison RUTH H. DAVIS, Madison DOROTHY L. PARK, Madison MRS. MARGARET HAFSTAD, Rockdale MONICA STAEDTLER, Madison PRESTON E. MCNALL, Clearwater, Florida BENTON H. WILCOX, Madison WILLIAM ASHBY MCCLOY, New London, Connecticut PAUL VANDERBILT, Madison

Fellows VERNON CARSTENSEN MERLE CURTI ALICE E. SMITH

The Women's Auxiliary Officers MRS. GORDON R. WALKER, Racine, President MRS. DAVID S. FRANK, Madison, Vice-President MRS. JAMES S. VAUGHN, Milwaukee, Secretary MRS. HUGH HIGHSMITH, Fort Atkinson, Treasurer MRS. GEORGE SWART, Fort Atkinson, Ex Officio VOLUME 56, NUMBER 4 / SUMMER, 1973 Wisconsin Magazine of History

WILLIAM CONVERSE HAYGOOD, Editor WILLIAM C. MARTEN, Associate Editor JOHN O. HOLZHUETER, Editorial Assistant

Father Marquette Goes to Washington: The Marquette Statue Controversy 267 E. DAVID CRONON

Chief Buffalo and Other Wisconsin-related Art in the National Capitol 284 JOHN O. HOLZHUETER

The Prophet and the Mummyjums: Isaac Bullard and the Vermont Pilgrims of 1817 290 F. GERALD HAM

French Colonial Attitudes and the Exploration of Jolliet and Marquette 300 CORNELIUS J. JAENEN

Harry Elmer Barnes 311

JUSTUS D. DOENECKE

Communications 324 Book Reviews 325 Book Review Index 349 Accessions 350 Contributors 352

Published Quarterly by The State Historical Society of Wisconsin

THE WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY is published Microfilms. 313 North First Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan; quarterly by the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, reprinted volumes available from Kraus Reprint Company, 81(1 State Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. Distributed 16 East 46th Street, New York, New York. Communica­ to members as part of their dues (Annual membership, tions should be addressed to the editor. The Society does $7.50, or $5 for those 65 or over or members of affiliated not assume responsibility for statements made by contribu­ societies; Family membership, $10.00, or $7 for those 65 tors. Second-class postage paid at Madison and Stevens or over or members of affiliated societies; Contributing, $25; Point, Wis. Copyright © 1973 by the State Historical Business and Professional, $50; Sustaining, $100 or more Society of Wisconsin. Paid for in part by the Maria L. annually: Patron, S500 or more annuallyl. Single numbers, and Simeon Mills Editorial Fund and by the George B. $1.75. Microfilmed copies available through University Burrows Fund. Society's Iconographic Collections Once the object of abuse and controversy, Gaetano Trentanove's statue of Father Jacques Marquette now stands in timeless dignity in the Capitol in Washington.

266 FATHER MARQUETTE GOES TO WASHINGTON:

The Marquette Statue Controversy

By E. DAVID CRONON

"TiURING MAY AND JUNE of 1973 Wis- the Mississippi as far as the mouth of the ^-^ consin celebrated one of the significant Arkansas River before turning back out of events in its history. Exactly three hundred concern for hostile Indians and the danger of years earlier, a party of seven Frenchmen, ac­ capture by the Spanish, having ascertained companied for a time by two Indian guides, beyond doubt that the Mississippi flowed into became the first Europeans to cross what the Gulf of Mexico instead of the Pacific as would become the state of Wisconsin, in the they had hoped. To save time on the difficult process discovering and exploring the upper return trip upriver, the party crossed over to Mississippi River. The expedition was led by Lake Michigan by way of the Illinois River Louis Jolliet, a restless twenty-seven-year-old, and the Des Plaines-Chicago portage, and Quebec-born fur trader and explorer, and thence to Green Bay, where Father Marquette Father Jacques Marquette, a dedicated thirty- spent the following year at the St. Francis six-year-old French Jesuit missionary. Using Mission at the site of the present city of De two frail birchbark canoes, the Jolliet- Pere. Although the Wisconsin portion of their Marquette party ascended the Fox River from trip was relatively uneventful and took less Green Bay to its headwaters near the present than a month, the entire journey of some 2,700 city of Portage, where they transferred to the miles over four months was extremely Wisconsin River, reaching the Mississippi on hazardous and exhausting, and undoubtedly June 17, 1673, just below the present city of contributed to Marquette's early death two Prairie du Chien. They then proceeded down years later after ministering to the Illinois Indians. Although Jolliet was the real leader of the expedition, Marquette was to achieve the NOTE: This article is a slightly revised version of a greater fame, no doubt because of the ro­ paper presented at the annual meeting of the State mantic interest inspired by his sacrificial Historical Society at Stevens Point on June 16, 1973, the day before the three hundredth anniversary of the labors as a Christian missionary among the discovery of the Mississippi River by the Jolliet- Indians, and probably also because his map Marquette expedition on June 17, 1673. The research and journal were the best surviving records of for this paper was done in connection with the His­ tory of Wisconsin Project of the State Historical the trip after Jolliet's more detailed account Society, specifically for my forthcoming Wisconsin was lost when his canoe capsized as he was in the Progressive Era, 1893-1915, which will con­ returning to Quebec in 1674. Whatever the stitute volume IV of the multivolume History of Wisconsin. reasons for this enduring interest in Father

267 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973

the legislature gave serious consideration to the matter of placing a Wisconsin statue in the national Capitol. In January of that year Senator George C. Ginty, a Republican news­ paper editor from Chippewa Falls, introduced a bill proposing that the state honor Father Marquette by placing his statue in Wash­ ington. Ginty's motives were not clear. He may simply have reasoned that the intrepid and saintly Marquette was Wisconsin's strong­ est contender for the honor, for as he told the senate, "if ever an unselfish man walked the earth, it was the missionary who planted the cross on the shores of Lake Superior in the latter half of the sixteenth [sic] century."^ Or, as some observers pointed out, he may have hoped that this gesture would both please his numerous constituents of French Canadian Society's Iconographic Collections descent and attract broader Catholic support State Senator George Clay Ginty of Chippewa Falls for his as yet unfulfilled gubernatorial ambi­ who nominated Father Marquette for Statuary Hall. tions.^ Whatever his reasons, Ginty's proposal met Marquette, it led to another, posthumous, with widespread approval. The well-known journey by the Jesuit priest some two cen­ Milwaukee humorist and Democratic editor, turies later, this time from Wisconsin to George W. Peck, declared that the suggestion Washington, D.C. This later trip is of in­ merited bipartisan support. "There is no poli­ terest because in many respects it was fully tics in this scheme," he pointed out, "as Father as adventurous, difficult, and, as it turned Marquette belonged to neither political party. out, far more time-consuming than the orig­ On the contrary, he was a Christian."* Most inal expedition across Wisconsin in 1673. newspaper comment agreed that a statue of Marquette would be an appropriate symbol of T N 1864 Congress decided to turn the old the courage and resourcefulness of the state's -*- Hall of the House of Representatives in the early pioneers and a fitting tribute to France, newly enlarged national Capitol into a Sta­ which had contributed so much to the devel­ tuary Hall to honor a select group of dis­ opment of Wisconsin and the United States.^ tinguished Americans. The President was ac­ Besides, as the Wisconsin State journal ob­ cordingly authorized to invite each state to served in giving its backing to the project, provide statues "in marble or bronze, not ex­ honoring Marquette would avoid the certain ceeding two in number for each state, of de­ controversy and hard feelings involved in ceased persons, who have been citizens there­ choosing among more recent figures, for all of, and illustrious for their historic renown, could agree that "Pere Marquette had no or from distinguished civic or military serv­ rivals in his labors in Wisconsin as the first ices, such as each state shall determine to be explorer and missionary."^ When the Mil- worthy of this national commemoration."' Wisconsin obviously could afford to ponder this opportunity at length. With but sixteen years of statehood behind it at the time, any ^ Wisconsin Senate Journal, March 23, 1887, p. 480. 'Ibid., 483; Marshfield Times, April 1, 1887; list of appropriately distinguished but de­ Milwaukee Wisconsin Patriot, November 3, 1894. ceased Badger notables was bound to be a ' Chippewa Falls Herald, February 4, 1887. " La Crosse Morning Chronicle, January 22, 1887; brief one. Indeed, it was not until 1887 that Milwaukee Sunday Telegraph, January 23, 1887; Wausau Central Wisconsin, February 12, 1887; Mil­ waukee Evening Wisconsin, March 25, 1887. " Wisconsin State Journal, March 24, 1887; Janes­ ^ U.S. Statutes at Large, 13: 347. ville Daily Gazette, March 25, 1887.

268 CRONON: FATHER MARQUETTE GOES TO WASHINGTON waukee Sentinel objected that Marquette did timid handling of the matter. The Governor not qualify because he had never been a Wis­ should "have had the statue made in accord­ consin citizen, other editors quickly dismissed ance with the act of the legislature, and taken this technicality as a concern unworthy of the it to Washington to be put in place," Ginty state whose constitution had first extended declared. "Had he done that, no upstart of a the right of suffrage to aliens.'' superintendent of buildings would have taken The Ginty bill easily passed the senate with­ it upon himself to decide that the statue of out opposition on March 23, 1887, by a vote Pere Marquette was one that did not come of 29 in favor and 4 abstentions. The assem­ within the law."'" bly concurred two weeks later, although by While the Marquette statue project lan­ narrower margin—36 in favor, 29 against, guished for want of congressional interest, and 35 abstaining. As George Peck had anti­ Wisconsin experienced a major political up­ cipated, the issue cut across party lines, but heaval that helped to spark renewed interest the bill tended to draw more support from in the scheme. This was the controversy over Democrats and Catholics (the two were be­ the short-lived Bennett Law of 1889, which coming increasingly synonymous in Wiscon­ required all children between the ages of seven sin politics by this time) than from Repub­ and fourteen to attend school twelve weeks a licans and Protestants.* Unreconciled in de­ year, and stipulated that certain subjects—the feat, the Milwaukee Sentinel suggested sar­ three R's and American history—must be castically that Senator Ginty himself would taught in the English language. The Bennett be a more suitable Wisconsin representative in Law seemed innocuous enough when adopted Statuary Hall, since his portly figure was am­ by the Republican legislature and approved ple proof of the good life in the Badger State. by GOP Governor William D. Hoard, but it "There could be but one objection to the sub­ quickly aroused a storm of opposition from stitution of Col. Ginty for Father Marquette," Wisconsin immigrant groups, many of whom the editor observed sourly. "It would take regarded their foreign-language parochial a good deal of marble to reproduce him in schools as an essential means of preserving life size, and marble is mighty expensive."*' their language and culture. The measure Notwithstanding its unkind humor, the served for once to unite German Catholics and Sentinel seemed vindicated the following year, German Lutherans, the state's largest ethnic when the superintendent of the Capitol ruled bloc, whose religious differences normally that Marquette was not eligible for Statuary were reflected in their separate political align­ Hall because he had never been a citizen of ments. The result was a sweeping victory for Wisconsin as specified by the law. At the re­ the Democratic party in the elections of 1890, quest of Governor Jeremiah M. Rusk, Repre­ the first such since the mid-1850's. In addi­ sentative Ormsby B. Thomas introduced a re­ tion to winning control of both houses of the solution to provide congressional authoriza­ legislature, the Democrats elected George W. tion for the state to place Marquette's statue in Peck, the Milwaukee newspaperman and the Capitol, but the measure died in com­ author of the popular humorous sketches mittee, as did similar resolutions in succeeding about "Peck's Bad Boy," as governor. The sessions. The project appeared thoroughly Bennett Law upheaval provided important dead, and its author, George Ginty, assigned lessons for Wisconsin politicians of both part of the blame to Governor Rusk for his major parties. It demonstrated the importance of the ethnic vote, especially a unified Ger­ man vote. It also showed the dangerous vo­ latility of religious issues in politics, a sen­ sitive matter in a state roughly evenly divided ' Milwaukee Sentinel, February 9, 1887; Milwaukee between Protestants and Roman Catholics. Catholic Citizen, January 29 and April 2, 1887; Whitewater Register, April 14, 1887. "Wisconsin Senate Journal, March 23, April 11, 12, 1887, pp. 480-484, 737, 745; Wisconsin Assembly Journal, April 8, 1887, pp. 1058-1059; Wisconsin Session Laws, 1887, Ch. 544, p. 627. ° Milwaukee Sentinel, April 11, 1887. ' Chippewa Falls Herald, August 30, 1889.

269 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973

Mitchell of Milwaukee, authorizing the statue in April, 1892.'' Vilas' hesitation nearly trig­ gered an angry public attack by the Milwau­ kee German-language Catholic paper, Colum­ bia, a danger that was headed off only after the intercession of the state Democratic chair­ man, Edward C. Wall, with Archbishop Frederick X. Katzer. Wall warned Vilas that any such editorial criticism "might prove fatal" to the party's uneasy coalition of Cath­ olics and Lutherans, and "our whole great work might be upset." He suggested that Vilas should at least not actively oppose the Marquette statue. "I had rather see the Statue there than lose or rather take the chances of losing," Wall cautioned. "As I have said to you many a time before, prejudice is a far more potent factor than argument, and I hate to have prejudice work against us; I prefer to use my efforts to have prejudice work against the other side."'^ A relieved Chairman Wall reported to Vilas subsequently that Arch­ bishop Katzer had promised "to quiet down the malcontents."'^ Wall's arguments were powerfully rein­ forced in February of 1893 when Wisconsin's Society's Iconographic Collections Democratic legislature adopted a joint reso­ Humorist and Governor George W. Peck at first sup­ lution calling upon the state's two Senators to ported the project on the grounds that Father Mar­ use their influence to pry the Marquette quette had not been a politician, hut "On the con­ trary, he was a Christian." statue resolution out of committee and secure Senate approval, "so that the will of the peo­ ple of Wisconsin, as expressed by law, may This last point was not lost on Democratic be made effective."'* Humphrey J. Desmond, leaders as they considered how to consoli­ the editor of the Catholic Citizen, Milwaukee's date their new power, for one of the matters Irish Catholic paper, informed Senator Vilas pending was the proposed Marquette statue. of plans to launch a national campaign to Catholic supporters of the project naturally persuade the Senate to adopt the Marquette expected the Peck administration to push it statue resolution. With a threat only slightly vigorously in Washington, inasmuch as the veiled by its respectful tone, he assured Vilas Democratic party was the political home of that although he had "some misgivings about most of Wisconsin's Catholic ethnic groups, the courtesy" of this move, he was confident and the recent election had demonstrated how that it was being undertaken "without the important their support was. But the party's slightest spirit of criticism toward the Sena­ 1890 victory had also come in large part from tors from Wisconsin."'' This removed what- its success in wooing German Lutheran voters away from their traditional allegiance to the GOP. Their interest in erecting a monument " Congressional Record, March 11, April 9, 1892, to a Jesuit priest was hardly overwhelming. pp. 2015, 3134. Small wonder that newly elected Democratic " E. C. Wall to William F. Vilas, May 18, 1892, in Senator William F. Vilas was uncertain as to the William F. Vilas Papers, Archives-Manuscripts Division, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. what position he should take on the matter af­ '" Wall to Vilas, June 3, 1892, in the Vilas Papers. ter the House of Representatives approved a " Congressional Record, March 3, 1893, p. 2496. resolution, offered by Congressman John L. '•' H. J. Desmond to Vilas, February 7, 1893, in the Vilas Papers.

270 CRONON: FATHER MARQUETTE GOES TO WASHINGTON

ever lingering doubts Senator Vilas may have had about the politics, if not the merit, of the statue, and in the closing hours of the Fifty- second Congress he persuaded the Senate to concur in the House's approval of the project. Unfortunately, President Benjamin Harrison neglected to sign the resolution before leav­ ing office the next day, and the hard-won con­ gressional authorization lapsed. Undaunted, Wisconsin Democrats redou­ bled their efforts in the Fifty-third Congress, confident that Democratic President Grover Cleveland would be more sympathetic. Two Wisconsin Democratic Congressmen, George H. Brickner of Sheboygan and Peter J. Somers of Milwaukee, promptly introduced resolu­ tions authorizing the Marquette statue in the House, which passed the Brickner resolution on October 11, 1893. The very same day the Senate adopted a similar resolution offered by newly elected Democratic Senator John Society's Iconographic Collections Mitchell of Milwaukee, taking the precaution, State Democratic chairman E. C. Wall. however, of amending the request to be sure that Father Marquette would be counted as Crosse attorney, as chairman; Robert M. La half of Wisconsin's quota of no more than two FoUette, a young Madison attorney seeking statutes in the Capitol. President Cleveland a political comeback after losing his congres­ gave his approval on October 21, and the way sional seat in the Bennett Law debacle of at last seemed clear to carry out the decision 1890, as secretary; Archbishop Katzer of made by the Wisconsin legislature more than Milwaukee; Frederick Layton, a wealthy Mil­ six years earlier.'^ waukee meat packer, philanthropist, and art But back in Wisconsin Governor Peck collector; and James Bardon, a Superior bank­ proved to be in no hurry to provide a statue, er and businessman. The Governor instructed perhaps because of the delicate political prob­ the commission to provide "as good a statue lems that had worried Vilas and Wall earlier. of Father Marquette ... as any state has Not until July of 1894 did he appoint a com­ provided for any citizen," and suggested that mission to select a sculptor, and then only it could accomplish its mission in perhaps only after the major English4anguage Catholic two meetings. "There is nothing in it for any­ paper of the state, the Milwaukee Catholic body," he advised candidly, "only the feeling Citizen, began regularly publishing the num­ that you have done a good thing for the ber of weeks remaining in Peck's term and state.'"'' pointedly asking when he was going to do In contrast to earlier delays, the commission something about Father Marquette's statue. moved swiftly to discharge its assignment. Peck was careful to name a distinguished bi­ Promptly announcing a nationwide competi­ partisan commission, explaining that he was tion, it invited artists "at their own expense, himself "not sufficiently informed as to that to furnish models, drawings and full informa­ species of work." The group consisted of tion in detail" for judging on October 15, Judge Joseph W. Losey, a prominent La 1894. The commission specified that the

""' Congressional Record, September 6, 28, October 2, 11, 12, 21, 1893, pp. 1278, 1867, 2002, 2409-2410, " George W. Peck to Robert M. La Follette, July 2382-2383, 2401, 2427, 2429, 2762; U.S. Statutes at 16, 1894, in the Robert M. La Follette Papers, Box Large, 28: 12. B-60, Library of Congress.

271 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 statue "must be of the finest and best grade it be overlooked. Miss Mears' sister reminded of statuary marble, and must be equal in Governor Peck that she was "young, am­ quality and workmanship to any in Statuary bitious and all of her teachers testify as to her Hall in the Capitol at Washington, and at least unusual talent, but the five hundred dollar equal in size to the one of Hon. James A. prize which was awarded to her by the Mil­ Garfield, lately placed therein by the state of waukee Ladies' Club a year ago is now almost Ohio."'* Coming as it did in the midst of exhausted, so she asks, as a Wisconsin girl, a severe economic depression, the Marquette the help of the Governor of Wisconsin."^^ statue competition elicited a good deal of in­ By the time of its October 15 deadline, the terest from aspiring American and European commission had received fourteen proposals, artists. Not all of those responding appeared though two included neither the name of the to have strong qualifications. One such was artist nor a bid. Several others arrived before the Pickel Marble and Granite Company of the final decision three weeks later. The mod­ St. Louis, whose letterhead indicated that the els varied considerably in artistic conception firm specialized in "furniture, radiator and and quality, to say nothing of price, which plumber tops, altars, headstones, monuments, ranged from $4,000 to $10,000. None of the and tombs."'^ Some sculptors requested the best-known American sculptors had bothered commission to send a photograph or give to enter the competition, however. Indeed, particulars about Marquette's height, weight, one had warned the commission that this "is dress, etc., to which Secretary La Follette in­ always an unsatisfactory way of getting a variably responded, "There are no pictures of design, resulting almost invariably, in a lot Marquette in existence and, of course, artists of bad ones, for the reason that no sculptor must depend upon their own conception for of ability has time to compete in that way."^^ figure and features, each having the same The art critic of the Milwaukee Sentinel, Ed­ opportunity to learn the facts of his life from win C. Eldridge, expressed great disappoint­ history."20 ment at the motley collection, "there being but Two Wisconsin women entered the competi­ few of them," he said, "at all worthy of seri­ tion. One of them, Jean P. Miner, whose ous consideration." Typical of Eldridge's statue "Forward" was at this time being cast disdainful reaction was his complaint that for placement on the grounds of the Wiscon­ Chicago sculptor Leopold Bracony, by pre­ sin capitol, submitted only a sketch, having senting the figure of a pious and reflective failed to get her model ready in time for con­ philosopher, had "made a solemn fool of Pere sideration.^' The other, Helen F. Mears, a Marquette, . . . absolutely foreign to the sub­ twenty-two-year-old Oshkosh resident, whose ject in question." Eldridge's favorite was the statue "The Genius of Wisconsin" was then model by Gaetano Trentanove, a Florentine on exhibition in the Wisconsin Building at the sculptor known to Milwaukeeans for his busts Chicago World's Fair and would subsequently of such prominent residents as Matthew H. be placed in the capitol in Madison, entered Carpenter and William E. Cramer, the former a model which she described as of "the pious now in the possession of the State Historical and gentle Marquette, clothed in the habit of Society and the latter belonging to Marquette his order, . . . gazing for the first time over the broad expanse of the Mississippi." Lest

"' M. Mears to George W. Peck, October 12, 1894, with enclosure, in the La Follette Papers. Ironically, "Press release, July 30, 1894, La Follette Papers. Miss Mears later lost the opportunity to do the fif­ " Pickel Marble and Granite Company to La Fol­ teen-foot statue of "Miss Forward" for the top of the lette, September 10, 1894, in the La Follette Papers. new state capitol in 1911, though she received $1,500 " See, for example, George T. Brewster to La Fol­ for her preliminary work after the capitol building lette, August 29, 1894; G. Turini to La Follette, Sep­ commission decided her rather teutonic maiden had tember 4, 1894; Julius Loester to La Follette, August too ample a silhouette, and gave the contract to the 22, 1894; La Follette to Henry H. Kitson, October well-established sculptor Daniel Chester French. 25, 1894, all in the La Follette Papers. Wisconsin Then and Now, IX: 1-3 (March, 1963). "^Jean P. Miner to La Follette, July 19, November ""H. K. Bust-Brown [?] to La Follette, September 6, 1894, in the La FoUette Papers. 25, 1894, in the La Follette Papers.

272 CRONON: FATHER MARQUETTE GOES TO WASHINGTON

stirred up by the rapidly growing American Protective Association. Founded in Clinton, Iowa, in 1887, coincidentally at the very same time as the Wisconsin legislature was deciding to honor Father Marquette, the APA was a secret fraternal order dedicated to saving the United States from what it regarded as the imminent threat of papal domination through the hoards of Catholic immigrants pouring into the country. At its inception, the APA was but one of a considerable number of patriotic and nativist organizations concerned with protecting American values and institu­ tions from being undermined by the flood of immigrants of alien backgrounds. By 1893, however, the APA had become the most prom­ inent of these numerous patriotic orders, and its initials were synonymous with anti-Catho­ licism. APA members swore secret oaths not to employ Roman Catholics in any capacity if Protestants were available, not to vote for Catholics or Catholic sympathizers, and in general to combat "the diabolical work of the Roman Catholic church."^^ The order pre­ cipitated panic by spreading rumors of arse­ Photo by Lance Neckar nals hidden in the basements of Catholic Chicago sculptor Leopold Bracony's rejected model churches, of priests receiving shipments of for the Marquette statue, owned by the Society's arms in coffins or in boxes labeled "holy Museum. wine," and of Catholic armies secretly drilling at night while they awaited word from Rome University.^* The commission members evi­ as to the hour to strike. One frightened Ne- dently agreed with this assessment, for on braskan wrote to the Governor of that state November 7, 1894, they unanimously decided in August of 1893: to award the contract to Signor Trentanove, who thereupon departed for northern Wis­ The people of this part of the State are consin to become more familiar with the sub­ greatly alarmed over rumors of an upris­ ject by visiting some Indian reservations.^" ing soon to take place by the Roman Catho­ Ironically, although both the Trentanove and lics, in which all protistants [sic] are to be Bracony models subsequently came to the His­ slain. Many of our people are nearly frantic torical Society, it is the pensive Bracony with fear and are doing all they can to pre­ model—the one art critic Eldridge con­ pare a defense. sidered "a solemn fool"—that the Museum I have no knowledge of anything of the staff currently favors enough to put on dis­ kind, but rumor has it that Catholics are play, relegating the winning Trentanove model constantly receiving consignments of arms and ammunition for the purpose named.^'^ to storage! But as sculptor Trentanove began chipping Although the American Protective Associa­ away on his eight-foot block of "best grade" tion quickly spread from coast to coast, the white statuary marble, a new threat loomed. core of its strength remained in the Middle This was the mounting tide of anti-Catholicism

""Donald L. Kinzer, An Episode in Anti-Catho­ ""Milwaukee Sentinel, October 21, 1894; Milwau­ licism: The American Protective Association (Uni­ kee Evening Wisconsin, October 16, 1894. versity of Washington Press, Seattle, 1964), 49. ^ Milwaukee Sentinel, November 8, 1894. ''Ibid., 97.

273 SUMMER, 1973

cine. La Crosse, and Eau Claire, and one each in more than a dozen other Wisconsin cities.^" With its growing strength in Wisconsin, the APA was naturally aroused over the decision to move ahead with the Marquette statue. Even before the statue commission had made its choice of a sculptor, a correspondent in the Wisconsin Patriot denounced Governor Peck for his "cowardly surrender" after the state had resisted Catholic pressure for the statue for seven years. The thought of Mar­ quette as Wisconsin's favorite son, when he was really nothing but "a French tramp," was galling in the extreme. "Let us hope," the writer concluded despondently, "that we have had the last Wisconsin legislature of sycophantic demagogues, and the last gov­ ernor who will crucify the honor and reputa­ tion of the state at the command of a foreign potentate—the avowed enemy of our most cherished American institutions. Oh hum­ bug! where is thy shame ?"^'' An APA mem­ ber in Port Washington belligerently asked whether "this whole abominable Marquette business could be overturned." "Just because Gineral [sic] Ginty betrayed the state into the hands of the papists and that weak little In this cartoon from the violently anti-Catholic Wis­ specimen of a political accident. Gov. Peck, consin Patriot of April 27, 1895, a Jesuit priest smirks was ready to lend himself to the final con­ as a stereotyped Irish visitor to Statuary Hall says to his companion: "Whist, Pat! Aff wid yer hat, mon! summation of the impudent scheme, must we Here's the sainted son av the Shtate av Wisconsin." swallow the dose and be resigned to our fate? The statue, coming to life, exclaims: "What's that? I I hope not."^' APA councils and newspapers a son of the State of Wisconsin? Why, there was no such state in existence when I was alive. There across the country reacted angrily to the pros­ must be some mistake!" pect of the desecration of the nation's Capitol by the statue of a foreign Jesuit priest. West where it had originated. In Wisconsin With the ever vigilant American Protec­ the APA enjoyed an impressive following— tive Association now at the peak of its strength estimated to be larger than in any other in Wisconsin and throughout the country, the state—probably as a result of the bitter reli­ likelihood that Father Marquette could be gious controversy over the Bennett Law in slipped quietly into Statuary Hall was doubt­ 1890 and the reaction to the large foreign- ful indeed. Sculptor Trentanove did not help born and Catholic population.^' The Wiscon­ matters when he reported late in 1895 that his sin APA began publishing its own weekly statue would be ready for installation in the newspaper, the Wisconsin Patriot, in Milwau­ Capitol by March 1, and announced that he kee in 1893, and a Milwaukeean, Henry M. had accordingly taken the liberty of inviting Stark, was elected treasurer of the national a number of guests to what he obviously in­ organization the following year. By late 1894, tended to be a rather elaborate unveilins cere- even the Catholic Citizen, Milwaukee's major English-language Catholic paper, although previously inclined to play down the APA jViirf., 177-179. strength in the state, conceded worriedly that •'' Catholic Citizen, September 22, 1894, cited in there were at least twenty APA councils in ibid., 116. ™• Wisconsin Patriot, November 3, 1894. Milwaukee, four in Oshkosh, two each in Ra- "Ibid., January 19, 1895.

274 CRONON: FATHER MARQUETTE GOES TO WASHINGTON mony. Trentanove was evidently unaware of the political controversy over the statue, for his list of invited dignitaries included Presi­ dent Cleveland, who had promised "he would attend if no unforeseen obstacles intervened"; Cardinal Gibbons and Archbishop Ireland, the two most prominent members of the Amer­ ican Roman Catholic hierarchy; Cardinal Sa- tolli, the Apostolic Delegate to the United States; representatives of the Jesuit order; the French and Italian ambassadors; and a large party representing Wisconsin, including Governor William H. Upham, ex-Governor Peck, the statue commission, the entire Wis­ consin congressional delegation, and various interested citizens. Trentanove's grandiose plans even contemplated running a special car from Milwaukee to Washington for the oc- casion.^^ The statue was duly delivered to the Capitol on February 21, 1896, and in sub­ mitting his bill for $8,000 Trentanove mod­ estly assured Governor Upham that it was

"unquestionably the finest work of the kind in ru)i;T ipln (.ollettions the Hall." To his agent in Milwaukee he Governor William H. Upham, Peck's Republican wrote: successor.

Oh! I feel better, my statue is in place, siasm for the statue had always been re­ and exuse [sic] me, if I look a little vain. strained at best, shrewdly begged off from the I am proud to say to you that, the statue assignment, explaining that he was neither an of Pere Marquette, is considered the best art expert nor familiar with the terms of the work in the Capitol. This morning when I consign[ed] it to contract and the model on which the statue the Architect of the Capitol[,] Mr. Ed was based. Instead, the Governor was obliged Clark, an old man 77 years old, he took my to send Judge Losey, the chairman of the hand, and congratulating [me] he says, statue commission, to Washington. Losey "Young man, this is the best work we have" viewed the statue in the company of Trenta­ honour to yourself and to the State. . . . nove on February 29 and wired Upham: "The The formal unveiling is to be held in statue of Marquette by Trentanove fully com­ about a week or 10 days with a great cere- plies with the contract made by the state[.] monie [sic]. ... It will be quite an affair.^^ As authorized by you I have accepted the No doubt in the interest of keeping this same."^* Trentanove was particularly grati­ a bipartisan project. Governor Upham, a Re­ fied by the placement of the statue in what he publican, asked Senator Vilas to inspect the considered "the most favorable position" statue and accept it on behalf of the state if available, just to the right of the entrance to he found it appropriate. Vilas, whose enthu- the hall and next to the somewhat smaller statue of a brooding Abraham Lincoln.^^

"' Catholic Citizen, November 2, 1895, January 25, February 1, 1896. •'" G. Trentanove to William H. Upham, February "Upham, to Vilas, February 14, 26, 1896; Vilas 21, 1896; Trentanove to Benjamin M. Weil, February to Upham, February 20, 1896, in the Vilas Papers, 21, 1896; bank draft for $8,000 dated February 24, Box HY 26; J. W. Losey to Upham, February 29, 1896, cashed March 6, 1896; all in Executive De­ 1896, telegram. Executive Department Administra­ partment Administration, Correspondence with U.S. tion, Box 5; Milwaukee Sentinel, February 27, 1896; and Other Governments, 1885-1905, Series 1/1/1-7, Catholic Citizen, February 29, 1896. Box 5, Archives-Manuscripts Division, State Histori­ '° Catholic Citizen, November 2, 1895, February 29, cal Society of Wisconsin. 1896.

275 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973

remarked that its removal from the Capitol would be worth a half million votes to the Democrats. "If that's true," eagerly responded a New York Congressman within hearing, "it would be a good thing to blow it up."^'^ In Congress opposition to the statue was led by Representative William S. Linton of Saginaw, Michigan, generally considered to be the leading APA spokesman in the House. Using the occasion of a debate on an appro­ priation for Catholic schools on Indian reser­ vations, Linton cited the Marquette statue as further proof of a papist conspiracy. He ex­ pressed shock that "this statue of a zealous priest, who never knew the meaning of the precious word 'liberty,' and never heard the name or even dreamed of the great State he is supposed to represent, has this day been placed . . . next to and towering above the marble form of a statesman, the martyred Lin­ coln." He quoted a colleague's sarcastic com­ ment that the only thing necessary now to turn the Capitol into a cathedral was "to change the exterior but slightly by removing the Society's Iconographic Collections Goddess of Liberty from the Dome and sub­ stituting a figure of St. Peter."^* Linton Dapper sculptor Trentanove reveled in the personal publicity the controversy evoked. promptly introduced a resolution calling for the removal of the Marquette statue from the Capitol and its return to Wisconsin on the Others were by no means as pleased. While grounds that "the said Marquette never was the statue was briefly uncovered for Judge a citizen of any State nor of the United States, Losey's inspection, it attracted a sizable and nor performed any civic or military duty not entirely friendly crowd of spectators. One therefor," and his statue thus violated the law man was arrested for asserting boisterously establishing Statuary Hall.^^ that if he had a chance he would take a broad The Wisconsin congressional delegation was axe to the statue "and make short work of understandably embarrassed by the Linton jj. "36 jjjg antagonism was such that Losey resolution and the mounting furor over their and Trentanove prudently decided to remove state's gift to the Capitol. The plans for an the covering without fanfare the next day in elaborate dedication ceremony, and especially the hope that the unveiled statue would at­ its heavy dose of ecclesiastical participation, tract less attention. This only increased the were quickly scrapped, and Senator Vilas in- crowds and brought new threats, requiring the Capitol police to keep a constant guard in the area. An old woman attached a card to the '^New York Times, March 1, 1896; Washington adjacent Lincoln statue asking how "Dear Post, March 1, 1896; Milwaukee Sentinel, March 1, Uncle Abraham" could allow "that Jesuit 1896. image to remain so near." Following a bomb "" Washington Post, March 2, 3, 4, 5, 1896; New York Times, March 4, 1896; Milwaukee Sentinel, threat, nervous police quickly apprehended a March 3, 1896. man who had deposited a mysterious box at '" Congressional Record, February 24, 1896, pp. the base of the Marquette statue, only to dis­ 2081-2082; Wisconsin Patriot, March 7, 1896. '" Quoted in "The History of the Marquette Statue, cover that it contained a toy beehive. Many Presented to Statuary Hall, in the Capitol, by the spectators commented favorably on the great State of Wisconsin," United States Catholic Histori­ artistic merit of the statue, however, and one cal Society, Historical Records and Studies, HI: 393- 394 (1904) ; Milwaukee Sentinel, March 1, 1896.

276 CRONON: FATHER MARQUETTE GOES TO WASHINGTON stead spoke vaguely about a program of Wisconsin to withdraw its offensive gift. speeches in the upper house at some appropri­ Launching a furious campaign, the American ate time in the future.'"' Most Wisconsin Con­ Protective Association inundated Congress gressmen were reluctant to talk about the and Governor Upham with petitions demand­ Linton resolution to remove the statue. Theo­ ing the removal of the statue. Over the next bald Otjen, who had been elected from Mil­ month Upham received fifty-one petitions, waukee when the Republicans regained their bearing hundreds of names, from APA coun­ customary control of the state in 1894, de­ cils all over the country, protesting Wiscon­ clined comment except to say that he under­ sin's decision to honor a "despotic" Jesuit stood Congress had already accepted the and asserting Marquette's ineligibility as a statue in its 1893 authorization. Samuel A. foreigner to be in Statuary Hall. Most of these Cook, likewise a newly elected Republican petitions simply followed a standard printed member from Neenah, had what a Catholic form, but the Illinois state APA convention, reporter described as "a bad attack of shivers" meeting at Peoria on February 26, also pro­ when asked his views. "I don't know what I tested against the placement of Marquette's think of it," Cook responded forthrightly. statue next to that of "the Immortal Lincoln, "Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof." stricken down by the hand of the Jesuit.'"'^ Only one Wisconsin Congressman, Republican The uproar over the statue posed a vexing Edward S. Minor of Sturgeon Bay, was will­ problem for Wisconsin politicians, still acute­ ing to go on record as agreeing that it was im­ ly sensitive to the unpredictable danger of proper to place a statue of a clergyman of religious issues in politics after the Bennett any faith in the Capitol, but he denied that Law upheaval in 1890. The Washington Post he intended to vote for the Linton resolution reported a rumor that some Wisconsin lead­ to remove the statue. "I have tried to take the ers favored sitting tight until the next session middle ground in this matter," he explained. of the legislature could designate two other distinguished Wisconsin citizens for Statuary In contrast to the politicians, sculptor Tren­ Hall, so that the Marquette statue might be tanove seemed to enjoy the burgeoning con­ withdrawn gracefully.'''' Evidently Governor troversy. "It only goes to advertise me," he Upham was not a party to this scheme, or exulted, "and the more they talk of me the maybe preferred to keep the ball in someone more fame I get."'*' An amusing incident oc­ else's court, for on March 19 he wrote to the curred when Trentanove and Representative presiding officers of both houses of Congress Linton happened to meet as the Michigan Con­ formally presenting the Marquette statue.*^ gressman was inspecting the controversial statue. Obviously embarrassed, Linton hast­ ened to assure the sculptor that his opposition '"Catholic Citizen, February 29, March 7, 1896; was based solely on the subject matter of the Milwaukee Sentinel, March 1, 3, 7, 1895; Washing­ ton Post, March 1, 2, 3, 1896; New York Times, piece, not its artistic execution, which he pro­ March 4, 1896. nounced "magnificent." "I regard it," he de­ " Catholic Citizen, March 7, 1896. clared warmly, "as the finest statue in the hall. " Washington Post, March 3, 1896; New York Times, March 4, 1896. It is out and away the best thing in here." " Detroit Free Press, February 27, 1896, quoted in Indeed, he was so impressed with both the Thomas A. E. Weadock, "Pere Marquette," in Michi­ statue and Trentanove that he withdrew his gan History Magazine, XIX: 81-82 (1935) ; miscel­ laneous petitions. Executive Department Administra­ resolution, explaining that it had already tion, Box 5; Catholic Citizen, March 21, 1896. served the purpose of forcing the cancellation " Washington Post, March 3, 1896. of any religious ceremonies and besides it was '^ Congressional Record, April 29, 30, 1896, pp. 4546, 4589, 4646. In pursuing this story one some­ embarrassing some of his colleagues. Linton times gets the feeling of deja vu. Governor Uphara's cautioned, however, that while he thought letter to the Senate was addressed to Vice President highly of the statue as a work of art, he still Adlai E. Stevenson, whose grandson and namesake some sixty years later was twice an unsuccessful can­ intended to oppose any move for its official didate for the Presidency. Moreover, one of the lead­ acceptance by the U.S. government.''^ ing champions of the Marquette statue at this time in the House of Representatives was Congressman John F. ("Honey Fitz") Fitzgerald of Massachu­ The withdrawal of the Linton resolution setts, whose grandson, John Fitzgerald Kennedy, had did not end the efforts to force the state of better luck in getting to the White House!

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quette was indeed a Jesuit. But, he asserted, "whatever faults the Jesuits of those days may have had were peculiar to their time." And, besides, "the Puritans, for instance, were every whit as bigoted as they." In any event, he said: The qualities of priest and of Jesuit had no part in determining Wisconsin's choice of Marquette for the honors of Statuary Hall. His pure and saint-like life, his writ­ ings and his fame as the explorer of the Mississippi controlled the selection. He was the first white man to traverse our territory and write a description of it. He was the first to map out our confines. He gave a name to the river after which our State is called. On our soil he planned his voyage of discovery. From our borders he first caught sight of the waters of the Mississip- pi.«

The more skittish House of Representatives, where Congressman Linton was already ar­ rayed in opposition, and where many members hesitated to brave the wrath of the APA in Society's Iconographic Collections an election year, was understandably not at Senator William Freeman Vilas. all eager to deal with the Marquette statue controversy. The resolution accepting the statue was promptly referred to the Library At the request of Wisconsin's two Demo­ Committee where it remained safely buried.''^ cratic Senators, Vilas and Mitchell, on April This course of inaction was evidently quite 29, 1896, the upper house approved a resolu­ agreeable to the Wisconsin congressional dele­ tion offered by Senator John M. Palmer of gation, which as a result was severely criti­ Illinois expressing thanks to "the people of cized by the Catholic press back home for its Wisconsin for the statue of James Marquette, "cowardly" failure to press the statue's the renowned missionary, explorer, and dis­ cause.''^ The APA, on the other hand, con­ coverer of the Mississippi River," and formal­ tinued its angry campaign against the statue. ly accepting it for the National Statuary Hall. The Wisconsin Patriot, the state's APA news­ There was no expressed opposition to the paper, called it "ridiculous," a "cunning resolution, which passed by an unrecorded trick," "an insult," "a stupendous fraud and voice vote, and Senators Vilas and Mitchell egregious lie." "The whole obnoxious pile were joined by Senators Palmer and James H. should be toted out to the American Vatican— Kyle of South Dakota, a Congregational cler­ erroneously called the 'Catholic University,'" gyman, in urging its adoption. All four speak­ the paper declared, "or Wisconsin should ers stressed Marquette's courage, his Christian promptly order the objectionable thing back zeal and self-sacrifice, and the significance of whence it came."*^ his explorations. Each of them also respond­ The Patriot rejoiced when the House ad­ ed to the criticism of the statue on religious journed in June without acting on the statue grounds. Pointing out that he was himself not a Roman Catholic, Senator Palmer de­ clared: "I would despise myself if the garb " Congressional Record, April 29, 1896, pp. 4546- 4552. of a priest of that church could hide from my "Ibid., April 29, 30, 1896, pp. 4589, 4646. view the noble, resolute, devout Christian hero *" Catholic Citizen, May 9, 1896. within." Senator Mitchell conceded that Mar­ " Wisconsin Patriot, March 21, 28, April 4, 18, June 20, July 11, 1896.

278 CRONON: FATHER MARQUETTE GOES TO WASHINGTON resolution. A correspondent pointed out that inasmuch as the federal government had not accepted the Marquette statue, Wisconsin now had the opportunity to replace Marquette with a more worthy representative. He suggested General Lucius Fairchild, the one-armed hero of the Battle of Gettysburg and three-term governor, who had just become eligible for Statuary Hall by conveniently dying the previ­ ous month.'^'' Following the Republican vic­ tory in the fall elections of 1896, for which the APA took undue credit, the Patriot renewed its demand that Father Marquette be with­ drawn to make room for Fairchild or for General Jeremiah M. Rusk, another Civil War hero and popular Republican governor, Con­ gressman, and the nation's first Secretary of Agriculture. "The Jesuit must give place to an American citizen," the Patriot exhorted. "Work, friends, work!"^' Society's Iconographic Collections Although one can only speculate on the ex­ Senator John L. Mitchell, son of financier Alexander tent of APA influence in the matter, during Mitchell and father of General Billy Mitchell. the summer of 1896 the Wisconsin Depart­ ment of the Grand Army of the Republic, the as "a citizen renowned for distinguished civic powerful organization of Civil War veterans, or military services," and noting that Wis­ launched a statewide campaign to place a consin now contemplated placing statues of likeness of General Fairchild, its former state Rusk and Fairchild in Statuary Hall, the and national commander, in Statuary Hall. memorial requested Congress to return the By the time the legislature met in January, Marquette statue so that it could be placed in 1897, the Fairchild campaign had triggered a a more suitable setting, the handsome new similar movement among the supporters of building being constructed for the State His­ General Rusk, and GAR leaders were quick torical Society on the campus of the Univer­ to concede that Rusk's service to the state in sity of Wisconsin.^^ Throughout, there was war and peace had been equally distinguished. no hint of objection to Marquette's religion Bills were introduced in both houses on Feb­ or priestly status: on the contrary, he was ruary 2 to provide a statue of Fairchild, and recognized as an "eminent" historical figure were followed the next day by similar bills for who deserved to be honored in an appropriate a statue of Rusk. historical setting. He was to be displaced in But what about Father Marquette, who al­ Statuary Hall, moreover, by two prominent ready occupied one of Wisconsin's two places Civil War heroes and popular Republican gov­ in Statuary Hall? The solution to that little ernors, a maneuver calculated to appeal not problem was provided in a memorial intro­ only to the powerful GAR veterans' lobby but also to a legislature that was overwhelmingly duced on February 9 by Assemblyman Charles Republican. "The whole scheme," as the W. Sweeting of Manitowoc County, offered state's major Catholic newspaper pointed out "by request," he said. Sweeting did not tell unhappily, was "cunningly conceived."'^ his colleagues that the memorial had come to him from Henry Sandford, the APA- oriented editor of the Manitowoc Tribune, who also doubled as a clerk in the state treas­ ""Ibid., June 20, 1896. '^^Ibid., November 14, 1896, January 16, 1897. urer's office in Madison. Explainihg that "~ Memorial to Congress, No. A3, Wisconsin As­ Father Marquette was a historical figure sembly Journal, February 9, 1897, pp. 195-196; Catholic Citizen, February 13, 1897. known as an "eminent explorer" rather than ^ Catholic Citizen, February 13, 1897.

279 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973

Although legislative leaders seemed inclined ble like whipped puppies every time a voter to deal with the issue only reluctantly and gin­ scowls cannot be cleaned out of public office gerly, their interested constituents quickly and kept out."^^ The Gazette expressed confi­ mobilized forces. The GAR bombarded Madi­ dence that "after our Bennett law disaster of son with petitions favoring the Fairchild hideous memory" there were now Republi­ statue, and to a lesser extent the Rusk statue. can legislators with "shrewdness enough to At the same time, conscious of their sizable detect and rebuke and defeat any attempt, Catholic membership, GAR leaders carefully however clever, to again use the republican refrained from taking a stand on the memorial party of Wisconsin as a club to cudgel the to withdraw the Marquette statue, which in Catholic church."^' Less sanguine was the edi­ turn was vigorously supported by the APA. tor of the Manitowoc County Chronicle who On the other side of the issue, the Marquette warned that there had always been more poli­ College Alumni Association organized a state­ tics than marble in the Marquette statue, and wide campaign among Catholic churches and suggested darkly that the State Historical So­ organizations to fight the proposed insult to ciety might have a hand in the current legis­ the memory of Father Marquette. Bishop lative activity in order to acquire "a very Sebastian G. Messmer of Green Bay de­ valuable work of art" for its new building.*" nounced the "cowardly" plot against Mar­ A number of editors felt that it was both un­ quette, which he termed "only a small side seemly and unfair to inject the honored names issue of a deep laid and widespread persecu­ of Rusk and Fairchild into the Marquette tion against Catholic American citizens."^'* At statue controversy, for, as the Racine Daily least one prominent Protestant clergyman also Journal declared, "it was never their tactics criticized the plan to withdraw the Marquette to have honor accorded them at the expense of statue, arguing that he was "a Christian hero, dragging the name of another in the mire, and whether a Jesuit or not."^^ Sculptor Tren­ it is unbecoming the state to withdraw the tanove announced that he intended to sue for honor it has conferred on Marquette."^' "If damages if his statue was removed from Wash­ ington, because his fee was based in part on the belief that his work was to be dis­ played prominently in the nation's Capitol.'^ " Chippewa Falls Catholic Sentinel, February 18, 1897; Catholic Citizen, February 20, 1897. °° Catholic Citizen, March 6, 1897; Catholic Senti­ With but few exceptions, Wisconsin news­ nel, March 11, 1897; La Crosse Morning Chronicle, papers took a dim view of the legislative March 7, 1897. For other Protestant support of the maneuverings over the statue. Some editors Marquette statue, see Catholic Citizen, February 27, 1897; Milwaukee Sentinel, February 25, 1897. criticized the GAR for being the tool of the •''" Fond du Lac Daily Commonwealth, February 15, anti-Catholic APA, and warned that the Re­ 1897; Milwaukee Sentinel, February 14, 1897; Eve­ publicans were risking another political ex­ ning Wisconsin, February 16, 1897; Catholic Citizen, February 20, 1897. plosion like the recent Bennett Law debacle. •*' Milwaukee Sentinel, February 18, 1897. Even the Milwaukee Sentinel, which had ob­ " Green Bay Gazette, February 15, 1897. '"Ibid., March 24, 1897. jected to the Marquette statue from the begin­ °° Two Rivers Manitowoc County Chronicle, Feb­ ning, asked editorially: "Would it not be ruary 23, 1897. There is no evidence to support this wiser, in the interests of peace, to admit that suspicion that the Historical Society had designs on the Marquette statue, nor does it appear that the the best time for objecting to Father Mar­ Society was even consulted about its willingness to quette expired several years ago, and to re­ accept it. It is an interesting coincidence, however, that the Society's director, Reuben Gold Thwaites, gard the discussion as closed, even though was at this time engaged in compiling his four- the decision was wrong?"^'^ Another Repub­ volume documentary history on the French regime in lican paper, the Green Bay Gazette, vigorously Wisconsin, published in the Wisconsin Historical Collections between 1902 and 1910, and was in cor­ assailed "the cowards and time-servers among respondence with Catholic leaders in Canada and our Wisconsin politicians" who were stirring Rome about the work of Jesuit missionaries like up "public mischief over the Marquette Father Marquette in Wisconsin. See, for example, R. J. Meyer, S.J., to R. G. Thwaites, March 22, 1897, statue, and declared that the real issue was in Wisconsin Historical Society correspondence, "whether the political and moral cowards 1894-1899, Box 43, Archives-Manuscripts Division, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. who lack convictions of their own and trem­ "^ Racine Daily Journal, February 17, 1897.

280 CRONON: FATHER MARQUETTE GOES TO WASHINGTON

General Rusk and General Fairchild could the Marquette statue to the State Historical rend the veil and speak," asserted another Society, the chairman frankly admitted that paper more bluntly, "they would doubtless the committee proposed to bury it. This was say something that would make the fanatics too cowardly for the assembly, many of whose who are clamoring for withdrawal of the members wished to be recorded in favor of Marquette statue very much ashamed of them­ Father Marquette, regardless of any decision selves, if they possess any sense of decency about a companion statue. Even Assembly­ whatsoever."^^ When it was learned that the man Sweeting, who had originally introduced new State of Utah was considering placing a the Marquette statue memorial, had seen the likeness of its founder Brigham Young in light (or felt the heat) and now declared that Statuary Hall, Wisconsin's statue debate he wanted to vote against his memorial. With seemed suddenly on a much higher plane. The a rare show of independence the assembly re­ Superior Telegram dismissed the Utah report quested the committee to report out the memo­ as "a rude western pleasantry," and sniffed, rial immediately, and then proceeded to vote "If the mormon legislature has any money to it down unanimously. As the Milwaukee burn in memory of the great apostle of much Evening Wisconsin described the action: "The marriage and many wives, it had better send Assembly last night killed the Pere Marquette him an asbestos mackintosh."*^ The Appleton memorial and then jumped upon its dead body Weekly Post speculated that if "that old arch- with both feet."*^ A few days later the assem­ polygamist, Brigham Young," should get into bly supplied the coup de grace by voting to Statuary Hall, "probably the admirers of Pere postpone the Fairchild-Rusk bill indefinitely. Marquette will themselves ask for the re­ Except for the diehard APA element, there moval of his effigy."*'' was general relief that the state had escaped Within the legislature there was by now understandably little enthusiasm for statues of any description. Grassroots sentiment was ob­ "^ Eau Claire Morning Telegram, February 19, 1897. viously mixed, and few legislators could dis­ See also Appleton Weekly Post, February 18, 25, 1897; Appleton Crescent, February 27, 1897; Fond cern an unequivocal mandate from their con­ du Lac Daily Commonwealth, February 17, April 14, stituents. Judging from newspaper editorials, 1897; Green Bay Advocate, February 25, 1897; Mil­ testimony at legislative hearings, and an waukee Sunday Telegraph, March 13, 1897; Evening Wisconsin, February 17, 1897. analysis of the 423 petitions received by the "^Superior Telegram, quoted in Appleton Crescent, legislature, however, direct opposition to the March 6, 1897. Marquette statue was not nearly so extensive •" Appleton Weekly Post, February 25, 1897. See also Milwaukee Sentinel, February 26, 1897; Green as its support. There was also strong senti­ Bay Advocate, February 25, 1897. ment for a statue honoring Fairchild, and to a "^ For an analysis of these petitions, see Gerald K. much lesser extent for one honoring Rusk, Marsden, "Father Marquette and the A.P.A.: An In­ cident in American Nativism," in Catholic Historical but these suggestions were often expressed in Review, XLVI: 17, fn. 40 (April, 1960). The Mars­ terms of Wisconsin's other vacancy in Sta­ den article is by far the best of the three previous tuary Hall and not at the expense of the Mar­ articles, all cited herein, dealing with the Marquette statue episode. See also Milwaukee Sunday Tele­ quette statue.*^ graph, March 13, 1897; Fond du Lac Daily Common­ wealth, February 17, 18, 1897; Milwaukee Sentinel, After pondering the problem for well over February 23, March 3, 1897; Appleton Crescent, a month, the assembly committee on federal February 27, 1897; Milwaukee Daily News, February 17, 24, March 3, 1897; Racine Daily Journal, Feb­ relations came up with what one newspaper ruary 17, 1897; Green Bay Advocate, February 18, described sarcastically as a "brilliant plan," 25, 1897; Appleton Weekly Post, February 18, 25, 1897; Eau Claire Morning Telegram, February 19, a new bill authorizing statues of both Fair- 1897; Catholic Citizen, February 20, 27, March 6, child and Rusk, but making no mention of 1897; Evening Wisconsin, February 13, 16, 17, March Father Marquette.** The committee obviously 3, 1897; Manitowoc Tribune, February 11, 18, 25, 1897; Wisconsin Patriot, February 27, 1897. intended to let Congress decide which of three " Wisconsin Assembly Journal, M-irch 31, 1897, p. statutes it wished to accept for Wisconsin's two 942; Evening Wisconsin, April 1, 1897. places in Statuary Hall. When questioned by "' Evening Wisconsin, April 2, 1897. See also Mil­ incredulous legislators as to what had hap­ waukee Daily News, April 1, 2, 1897; Wisconsin Assembly Journal, April 1, 1897, pp. 952-953, 968- pened to the memorial proposing to transfer 969, 971-972.

281 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 making itself look ridiculous. Sometimes, as fort was Alphonsus Bodden, the association's the Wisconsin State Journal mused afterward, president, whose skillful lobbying in Wash­ "a policy of 'let alone' does wonders."** As ington persuaded the reluctant Wisconsin con­ for Sweeting, he drew nothing but ridicule gressional delegation to use its combined in­ for his abrupt about-face. "A man had better fluence to get formal approval of the statue in have the reputation of being a bold A.P.A. order to head off a threat by the Marquette than a cringing, sneaking one," declared an alumni to agitate the issue throughout the editor in his home county, "and the latter re­ state during the 1904 political campaign.'''^ putation is all that he has earned."*^ With the skids well greased. Representative The rest of the story is almost anticlimatic. Otjen of Milwaukee introduced the resolution By the late nineties, the nation was emerging of acceptance on January 28, 1904, which was from the severe economic depression that had speedily reported out favorably by the Library begun in 1893, and both the APA and the Committee the next day, and quickly adopted anti-Catholic intolerance it promoted were by the House without debate on Saturday, rapidly declining. Politicians were no longer January 30. The Senate, not being in ses­ inclined to overestimate APA strength and to sion that day, had to wait until Monday, Feb­ fear its political retribution. Indeed, in 1898 ruary 1, when it, too, swiftly approved the the government even issued a commemora­ resolution without even bothering to refer it tive stamp bearing Father Marquette's like­ first to a committee.'^^ The quick legislative ness, complete with priestly robe, beads, cross, action attracted little attention and this time and all. "Just think," one Catholic exulted no significant opposition. Father Marquette's gleefully to a discomfited APA official who long and controversial journey from Wiscon­ had earlier sought the removal of the statue, sin to Washington, seventeen years in the "just think of the members of the great Amer­ making, was at last over. ican Protective Association being compelled The entire episode, despite its unpleasant to lick the back-side of Father Marquette but sometimes humorous aspects, represented every time they mail a piece of literature to a significant victory, not only for Roman enlighten the American people concerning the Catholics, but for Wisconsin and the nation disloyalty of their Catholic fellow citizens."'''' as well. For whatever the merit of the tech- The white marble statue of Marquette no long­ er attracted special attention in the Capitol, and seemed more secure in its niche in Sta­ "' Wisconsin State Journal, April 13, 1897. Ironi­ cally, considering the extensive support for a Fair- tuary Hall with each passing year, especially child statue in 1897, Wisconsin's one-armed Civil as its chief congressional critic. Representa­ War hero never made it into Statuary Hall. In­ stead, the state's second niche was eventually filled tive Linton of Michigan, had been defeated in 1929 by a statue of Senator Robert M. La Follette, for re-election in 1896. Sr., by the well-known sculptor Jo Davidson. Fair- child's memory is today honored only by a street Some Roman Catholics were nevertheless bearing his name in downtown Madison, of which he was an early resident, and by the small village still upset because the statue had not been and township of Fairchild in Eau Claire County. formally accepted by Congress in accordance Rusk, on the other hand, fared somewhat better, for in 1905 his name was given to the recently formed with the usual custom, Wisconsin Congress­ Gates County. Although Rusk County has remained men were unwilling to take up the issue again, an enduring monument to the now largely forgotten but in the Fifty-sixth and Fifty-seventh con­ three-term governor and first Secretary of Agricul­ ture, Rusk's home in Viroqua, long a recognized gresses, two Massachusetts legislators. Repre­ historic site, was ignominiously burned early in 1973 sentatives John F. Fitzgerald and Henry F. in a practice session by the Viroqua volunteer fire department in order to clear the site for an indus­ Naphen, introduced resolutions of acceptance trial park. which were again quietly buried by the Li­ " Manitowoc County Chronicle, April 6, 1897. See brary Committee.''' Finally, in the fall of 1903 also Catholic Citizen, April 3, 10, 1897. the Marquette College Alumni Association, ™ Quoted in Kinzer, Episode in Anti-Catholicism, which had led the fight against the scheme to 211. " Congressional Record, January 31, December 2, give the statue to the Historical Society in 1901, pp. 1764, 58. 1897, launched a new drive to secure congres­ " "History of the Marquette Statue," 428-439. sional acceptance. The key figure in this ef­ '^ Congressional Record, January 28, 29, 30, Feb­ ruary 1, 1904, pp. 1356, 1404, 1421, 1446.

282 CRONON: FATHER MARQUETTE GOES TO WASHINGTON nical arguments over Father Marquette's eligi­ undertaking to honor a courageous Jesuit bility for Statuary Hall, most of the critics ob­ priest in the nation's Capitol. Thus in a very jected not to Marquette's French citizenship real sense, as William F. Vilas informed his or lack of civic or military service, but to his Senate colleagues in 1896, the statue was religion. And it is worth emphasizing that Wisconsin's "monument and emblem of reli­ in a decade of blatant anti-Catholic bigotry, gious liberty."'^'* perhaps the worst in American history, the opponents of the Marquette statue were never able to muster enough support to block this "Ibid., April 29, 1896, p. 4552.

Addendum IVr EITHER the statues of Father Marquette nor of Abraham Lincoln were •^ ' destined to remain in the original Statuary Hall. Lincoln's is in the Capitol's Great Rotunda; Father Marquette's was moved to the corridor leading from the Hall to the House of Representatives following a 1933 ruling limiting the states to one statue each. Only forty-eight of the fifty states are now represented in the Hall itself. The statue of Senator Dennis Chavez of New Mexico is in the foyer of the former Senate and Supreme Court Chamber; that of Senator E. L. "Bob" Bartlett of Alaska stands in the same corridor as that of Father Marquette. The following statues are in Statuary Hall at present:

Alabama. General Joseph Wheeler, USA, Nevada. Patrick A. McCarran, senator. CSA. New Hampshire. Daniel Webster, states­ Arizona. John C. Greenway, USA. man. Arkansas. Uriah M. Rose, jurist. New Jersey. Richard Stockton, statesman. California. Junipero Serra, mission founder. New York. Robert R. Livingston, statesman. Colorado. Dr. Florence Rena Sabin, scientist. North Carolina. Zebulon B. Vance, gov­ Connecticut. Roger Sherman, statesman. ernor. Delaware. Caesar Rodney, statesman. North Dakota. John Burke, U.S. Treasurer. Florida. Dr. John Gorrie, inventor. Ohio. William Allen, senator, governor. Georgia. Alexander H. Stephens, statesman. Hawaii. King Kamehameha I. Oklahoma. Sequoya, Cherokee leader. Idaho. George L. Shoup, first governor. Oregon. Reverend Jason Lee, pioneer. Illinois. Frances E. Willard, WCTU head. Pennsylvania. Robert Fulton, inventor. Indiana. Lew Wallace, USA, author. Rhode Island. Roger Williams, founder. Iowa. Samuel J. Kirkwood, governor. South Carolina. John C. Calhoun, statesman. Kansas. John J. Ingalls, senator. South Dakota. General W.H.H. Beadle, edu­ Kentucky. Henry Clay, statesman. cator. Louisiana. Huey P. Long, senator. Tennessee. John Sevier, first governor. Maine. Hannibal Hamlin, vice president. Texas. Sam Houston, pioneer leader. Maryland. Charles Carroll, signer of Decla­ Utah. Brigham Young, Mormon leader. ration of Independence. Vermont. Ethan Allen, Revolutionary leader. Massachusetts. Samuel Adams, statesman. Virginia. Robert E. Lee, USA, CSA. Michigan. Lewis Cass, statesman. Minnesota. Henry M. Rice, senator. Washington. Dr. Marcus Whitman, pioneer. Mississippi. Jefferson Davis, statesman. West Virginia. Francis H. Pierpont, states­ Missouri. Thomas H. Benton, senator. man. Montana. Charles Marion Russell, artist. Wisconsin. Robert M. La Follette, Sr., Nebraska. William Jennings Bryan, states­ statesman. man. Wyoming. Esther Hobart Morris, suffragette.

283 CHIEF BUFFALO AND OTHER WISCONSIN-RELATED

ART IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL

By JOHN O. HOLZHUETER

W/'HILE WISCONSIN'S two official statu- Baptism of Pocahontas. The portrait of this ^^ ary choices for the U. S. Capitol, Father famous Virginia Indian woman was painted Marquette and Robert M. La Follette, Sr., by an unknown artist, the group by Con­ are well known, representations there of a stantino Brumidi. Her rescue of John Smith third historic Wisconsin figure have been escaped immortality in Capitol art. largely ignored. Two other works by Mrs. Hoxie appear in The figure is Great Chief Buffalo (Bee- the Capitol. Her marble statue of Lincoln is shekee or Bezhike) who headed the Lake in the Capitol rotunda. The other is one of Superior band of the Chippewa Indians and Iowa's selections—Samuel J. Kirkwood, gov­ who is one of only four identified Indians in ernor, U. S. Senator, and Secretary of the works of art in the Capitol. Two busts of Interior under President Garfield. The bronze Chief Buffalo, one marble and one bronze, casting was placed in Statuary Hall in 1913. have been a part of the Capitol art collection Like Chief Buffalo, Senator Robert M. La since the 1850's. The marble original, carved Follette, Sr., is represented twice in the Cap­ from life in 1855, stands in the Senate Gallery; itol. Jo Davidson's marble statue of him rising the bronze copy, made three years later, is out of a chair was unveiled in Statuary Hall located at the foot of the west staircase. House in 1929. (Mr. Davidson also made several of Representatives. busts of La Follette.) The senior La Follette, Two of the other identified Indians in together with John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, Capitol art works also have Wisconsin con­ Robert A. Taft, and Daniel Webster, was nections. Chief Flat Mouth (Aysh-ke-bah-ke- selected as an outstanding member of the ko-zhay), a fellow chief with Great Buffalo Senate by a special committee of the 84th and head of a Pillager band of Minnesota Congress, and all are honored with portraits Chippewa, had his bust taken at the same time. in the Senate Reception Room. La Follette's It is located in the Senate wing, third floor, was dedicated on March 12, 1959. Taken from east. Sequoya, who represents Oklahoma as a 1922 photograph by John A. Glander, it a leader of the Cherokee, inventor of the was painted by R. Chester La Follette of New Cherokee alphabet and as a philosopher, was York, the son of William L. La Follette, the sculpted by Vinnie Ream Hoxie, the Wiscon­ Senator's first cousin. sin-born sculptress who became famous for Chief Buffalo, Chief Flat Mouth, Sequoya, her statue of Lincoln. Mrs. Hoxie died No­ and Pocahontas are far from the only native vember 20, 1914, before the bronze statue Americans appearing in Capitol art work. was completed. George Julian Zolnay finished Numerous scenes in oil, relief, and marble in­ the work, which was unveiled in 1917. Se­ clude Indians, and Buffalo and Flat Mouth quoya stands in Statuary Hall. The fourth may have served as models for some of them. identified Indian in Capitol art work is, per­ The heads of the two Chippewa chiefs ap­ haps predictably, Pocahontas, who is concep­ parently were carved as an intended aid to tualized in a portrait and a large work, the Thomas Crawford, an American sculptor who

284 lived in Rome. In 1853 Crawford received a $20,000 commission for statuary to ornament the pediment of the Senate wing, which then was under construction as part of the 1850's extension of the Capitol. Crawford was to model fourteen figures in plaster and ship them to the United States, where marble carvers would duplicate them. Crawford's pro­ posal to have the statues carved in Italy was rejected because Italian marble could not withstand the rigors of Washington's climate. Less white but more durable marble from quarries at Lee, Massachusetts, was selected, and the carving was done at the Capitol. Captain Montgomery C. Meigs, who was in charge of construction of the extension of the Capitol, expressed concern to Crawford about the authenticity of Italian models for Indian figures, and arranged to send him materials in 1854 to assist him. Additionally, in ap­ parent collaboration with the artist Seth East­ man, Meigs sought American Indians to serve as models for the sculptors who were working at the Capitol and who would be responsible for duplicating Crawford's plaster figures. On February 17, 1855, Eastman wrote to Craw­ ford that deputations of Chippewa and Winne­ bago Indians were in Washington, and he suggested that some of them be modeled in clay. Chiefs Buffalo and Flat Mouth were selected. nPHE TWO were in Washington in connec- -'- tion with the 1854 Treaty of La Pointe, in which the Chippewa agreed to accept reser­ vation status. President Franklin Pierce in January, 1855, requested a February audience with the principal Chippewa chiefs "to enter into additional articles of convention with them" about their Minnesota lands and reser­ vations. Flat Mouth and two other chiefs of the Pillager bands, Hole-in-the-Day and six other chiefs of the Mississippi bands, the chiefs of the bands near Lake Winnipeg (some Library of Congress of whom lived in Minnesota), and other prin­ cipal Chippewas were included in the invita­ Marble bust of Chief Great Buffalo, head of the Lake Superior band of the Chippewa, carved from life by tion.^ Chief Buffalo was then ninety-five or Francis Vincenti in Washington in 1855, and now ninety-six years old (he died at the estimated located in the Senate Gallery. The shield on the pedestal is a faithful copy of a pre-1850 Chippewa shield which the Chief may well have carried with him to the Capital. The shield depicts a quiver with ^ George W. Manypenny, January 4, 1855, to Gov. arrows, a bow, a firearm, a stem for a peace pipe Willis A. Gorman, St. Paul, Indian Office Files, made in old style with suspended feathers, a rib­ letters sent, Archives-Manuscripts Division, State bon falderal, and ermine tails hanging from the Historical Society of Wisconsin. bottom edge.

285 ford's pediment statuary group. All of the native American figures in the pediment ap­ pear to be more youthful than either Buffalo or Flat Mouth, and it is improbable that their likenesses are found in the pediment itself. The sculptor Vincenti worked on the Cap­ itol extension from 1853 to 1858. Crawford referred to him as the most capable of the sculptors working on the Capitol in the 1850's, and he made anatomical models for the sculp­ tors who worked on Crawford's pediment. Vincenti carved for E. V. Valentine, a Rich­ mond, Virginia, sculptor after leaving govern­ ment employment, then returned to Europe. He spoke and wrote in French, and he must therefore have communicated rather easily with Chief Buffalo, who lived for years among French-speaking traders. The bronze bust of Buffalo was the work of a bronze founder, Joseph Lassalle, who worked as a foreman in the Capitol bronze shops from 1857 to 1859. He collaborated with a modeler, Vincenzo Fontana, on the Bronze copy of the marble bust of Chief Buffalo bronze copy, and added a medallion to Buffa­ made in 1858 by Joseph Lassalle in collaboration lo's chest, which reads: with Vincenzo Fontana. A medallion representing an Indian peace medal was added at the time. The Beeshekee the BUFFALO bronze is displayed at the foot of the west staircase. House of Representatives. (Photo courtesy the Archi­ A Chippewa tect of the Capitol.) Warrior from the Sources of the Mississippi after nature by age of ninety-six on September 7, 1855, and F. Vincenti AD 1854 [sic] was buried in the Indian Cemetery on Made­ Copied in Bronze by line Island), and despite his advanced age he Jos. LasSalle AD 1858 made the difficult overland winter journey from Lake Superior to a railhead several In addition to their treaty-making and hundred miles to the south. artistic activities in Washington, Buffalo and He appears to have sat to sculptor Francis Flat Mouth joined their colleagues in attend­ Vincenti for three days, from February 19 to ing a White House reception, a fair of the 21, and was paid the sum of $5.00.^ Two eld­ Metropolitan Mechanics' Institute, and in erly Washington men posed in March, 1855, touring government buildings. Some of the to assist Vincenti in finishing the sculpture. younger members of the delegation strode Flat Mouth is not mentioned in construction through Washington's streets and attracted a account books, and he may not have been paid good deal of public attention, and two of them for sitting to Vincenti. His identity was for­ were arrested for drunkenness. They left gotten in the nineteenth century, and not until Washington about March 14 and a few days nearly fifty years later was his bust definitely later arrived in St. Paul.^ established as his portrait. In June, 1855, Chief Buffalo survived the summer and Vincenti sculpted a young woman who was died during an historic visit of Commissioner used as a model for the Indian girl in Craw­

'National Intelligencer (Washington), March 10, ' Bill for expenses advanced by F. Vincenti, sculp­ 1855; Daily Union (Washington), February 21, 1855; tor. Works of Art, 1855-1910, book 2, Voucher Books, Manypenny to Flat Mouth, March 13, 1855, Indian Art and Reference Library, U. S. Capitoh Office Files, letters sent.

286 •f

^

Close-up of the marble bust of Buffalo as it appeared in 1963 Note that the tenZJvTTZ'tfdV'' 'H '™''"" -nd intended to hMtathtThtl oeen removed. I he headdress, known as a roach, was made of deer and uorcu pine hatr and was held in place by the ribbon tied in a bow at the neck Tubular glass earrmgs complete the ornament. (Photo courtesy the Architect of the Capitol.)

287 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 of Indian Affairs George Manypenny to La and on his deathbed heard reports of his Pointe, where he supervised a payment to the band's settling on the Red Cliff lands, which Chippewa and their removal to reservations. he had selected and where his descendants Buffalo himself never left Madeline Island, still live.

Bibliographical Note The architecture of and art work in the U. S. 55:3 and 4 (Spring and Summer, 1972), 175, 185- Capitol have been described in a series of govern­ 187, 290-291; 293-298, 300-304, 307-309, and 56:1 ment publications. These include: Glenn Brown, and 2 (Autumn, 1972, and Winter, 1972-1973), 45, History of the United States Capitol, Vol. 1 (1900), 49, 141. (Buffalo adopted Armstrong as a "son.") Vol. 2 (1902), 56th Congress, 1st Session, Senate A local history of Madeline Island, La Pointe: Document 60; Charles E. Fairman, Works of Art Village Outpost, by Hamilton Nelson Ross (St. Paul, in the United States Capitol Building, Including 1960), refers occasionally to Chief Buffalo and de­ Biographies of the Artists, 63rd Congress, 1st Session, scribes his grave in a note on page 177. Flat Mouth, Senate Document 169 (1913) ; Charles E. Fairman, too, is mentioned by Armstrong (WMH, 56:1, 45). Art and Artists of the Capitol of the United States Captain Meigs and Thomas Crawford both are of America, 69th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Docu­ the subjects of full-scale biographies: Russell Frank ment 95 (1927) ; and Compilation of Works of Art Weigley, Quartermaster General of the Union Army; and Other Objects in the United States Capitol, 88th a Biography of M. C. Meigs (New York, 1959), and Congress, 2nd Session, House Document 362 (1965). Robert L. Gale, Thomas Crawford, American Sculp­ A contemporary description of the bust of Chief tor (Pittsburgh, 1964). Mrs. Hoxie has fared less Buffalo appears in S. D. Wyeth, The Federal Citv; well. No full-scale biographical work about her has or Ins and A bouts of Washington (Washington, been published, but numerous articles and pamphlets 1865), 82. Two reference leaflets have been pre­ pared by the Art and Reference Library of the have been, including: R. L. Hoxie, Vinnie Ream Capitol, "Beeshekee (Bronze), Chippewa Indian," (1908) ; Porter Butts, Art in Wisconsin (Madison, and "Busts of Native Americans: Be-Sheek-Kee and 1936), 131-134; and Wisconsin Then and Now, a Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay." Society publication, 5:5 (December, 1958), 3-5. Jo To date, no full accounts of the 1855 Chippewa Davidson wrote his autobiography. Between Sittings: visit to Washington and Commissioner Manypenny's An Informal Autobiography of Jo Davidson (New 1855 visit to La Pointe have been located. Chief York, 1951), in which he states that moving his Buffalo figures prominently in Benjamin G. Arm­ five-ton statue of La Follette into a Park Avenue strong's Reminiscences of Life Among the Chippewa, New York gallery tied up traffic for nearly a day annotated and serialized in the Magazine of History, (238-239).

(Opposite page, top left) Bust of Flat Mouth of the Pillager Band of Chippewa, probably carved at the same time as that of Chief Buffalo. Chippewa occa­ sionally wore along the edges of their ears dozens of the German silver earrings Flat Mouth sports. His headdress is probably a yarn sash with the fringed edges showing. Both he and Buffalo wore wool blankets. His bust stands in the Senate Wing, third floor, east. (Top right) The brilliant Cherokee leader Sequoya, Oklahoma's selection for Statuary Hall, sculptured by Madison- born Vinnie Ream Hoxie, who died before the bronze casting was completed. (Lower left) Oil portrait of Robert M. La Follette, Sr., in the Senate Recep­ tion Room, painted in 1959 by R. Chester La Follette of New York, the son of William L. La Follette, the Senator's first cousin. La Follette was selected as one of five outstanding members of the Senate by the 84th Congress to be honored with such portraits. (Lower right) Sculptor Jo Davidson with his five-ton marble statue of La Follette, about 1929. The statue is now in Statuary Hall. (Last photo courtesy the Milwaukee Journal; all others courtesy the Library of Congress.)

288 HOLZHUETER: WISCONSIN-RELATED ART IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL

I^^H' ^KISHUH^^^^H

JM «•>«*••

L^c>:A"»:.t33r'# * THE PROPHET AND THE MUMMYJUMS:

Isaac Bullard and the Vermont Pilgrims of 1817

By F. GERALD HAM

r\N SEPTEMBER 10, 1817, the startled dividual souls "seem suddenly to burst the ^-^ inhabitants of Newton in Sussex County, bonds of matter by which they are restrained, New Jersey, looked on in unbelief as a group and soar impetuously toward heaven."^ of ten pilgrims from Woodstock, Vermont, Most of these flights of religious ultraism passed through the town on their way west were concentrated along a "psychic highway" to what they hoped would be the promised that stretched from the backcountry of New land. One observer, whose account of the England, across the undulating plains of sect appeared in the Sussex Register a few days western New York — "The Burned-over Dis­ later, noted that the sect was "possessed of trict" — into Ohio. Along this broad belt of a very singular appearance and deportment. land, observed Whitney Cross, the historian . . . They ask no charity; move very slow, of enthusiastic religion in this area, there "con­ with a cart yoke of oxen and one horse, and gregated a people extraordinarily given to say the Lord will provide for them, for where unusual beliefs, peculiarly devoted to cru­ they go, there He is. Their dress is very sades aimed at the perfections of mankind singular, long beards, close caps, and bear and the attainment of millennial happiness."'^ skins tied around them. The writer believes The source of religious ultraism—evangeli­ them a set of deluded enthusiasts."' cal revivalism—was deeply embedded in the As newspapers from New England to the life of the times. Throughout this area small Missouri Territory reprinted the article, the groups of "come outers," "New Lights," "Mer­ Vermont Pilgrims, the most bizarre and primi­ ry Dancers," and other anti-Calvinist radicals tive sect in American religious history, ap­ did battle with the conservative Congregation- peared on the national kaleidescope. alists and Presbyterians, while the constant Most Americans in that lackluster year, agitation of such theological questions as free which the Boston Columbian Sentinel not al­ will, human ability, perfectionism, and mil- together aptly labeled the beginning of the lennialism, produced a climate in which fanat­ "era of good feelings," were caught up in the icism thrived.* dominant currents of resurging nationalism, westward expansion, and post-war prosperity. Yet as the perceptive Frenchman Alexis de ^ Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Tocqueville noted a decade later, in an acqui­ translated by Henry Reeve and edited by Henry Steele Commager (New York and London, 1947), 342, 343. sitive society where the "great majority of ^Whitney R. Cross, The Burned-over District: mankind were exclusively bent upon the pur­ The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic suit of material objects," certain momentary Religion in Western New York (Ithaca, 1950), 3. ' In addition to Cross's thorough study there is an outbreaks occurred when small groups of in- excellent but brief essay on the impact of left-wing evangelical revivalism on religious radicalism and communitarianism in America in Stow Persons' essay, "Christian Communitarianism in America," in Donald ^Sussex Register (Newton, New Jersey), Septem­ Drew Egbert and Stow Persons (eds.). Socialism and ber 15, 1817. American Life (Princeton, 1952), I: 127-151.

290 HAM: THE PROPHET AND THE MUMMYJUMS

There were rumors of strange occurences It was from this religiously infectious at­ in Yates County in Western New York where mosphere of evangelical revivalism tinged the self-styled prophetess, Jemima Wilkinson with the radical doctrines of millenarianism had parlayed celibacy and equality of the and perfectionism that the Vermont Pilgrims sexes into a communitarian society known as and their charismatic leader, the minor proph­ the Community of the Publick Universal et Isaac Bullard, emerged. The society had its Friend. Farther west along the banks of the rise in the British Dominions to the north, at Ohio near Marietta, Abel Morgan Sarjant, a Ascot in the Compton District of Lower Cana­ renegade Universalist preacher, founded his da near the forks of the River St. Francis, some Halcyon Empire in 1801. With his twelve thirty-five miles above the Vermont border, apostles, "mostly women," God's Millennial a point which some Anglophobic and re­ Messenger, as Sarjant styled himself, toured ligiously orthodox Vermonters were not re­ the Ohio Valley preaching the annihilation miss to make.* of the wicked and proclaiming that Christ's Typical of the "come-outers" and spiritually thousand-year reign on earth had begun. Sar- dispossessed of the epoch, the Pilgrims were in j ant's followers, who were organized into revolt against the prevailing denominational- units called "tribes," believed they could ism of the time. They viewed the established achieve immortality by fasting. The Halcyons churches as being formal, lacking in piety and reduced their food quotient to "three kernals inspirational warmth, and corrupt. With a a day," but when one of the members died romantic yearning for the lost simplicity, "for want of food" the movement collapsed.^ universality, and purity of the primitive New Few states assayed higher in fanaticism than Testament Church, these restorationers sep­ Vermont, "a land of strange delusions." Her arated themselves in the hope of forming a citizens were already well known for their more holy and perfect communion after the religious as well as their political heterodoxy, apostolic model of the Book of Acts.^ and the intense religious ferment in the area The Prophet, "a compound, like the charac­ made it a spawning ground for such new ter of Cromwell, of hypocrite and enthusiast," messiahs as the Mormon seer Joseph Smith, was a man of "Elegant figure" who sported the Oneida Perfectionist John Humphrey a red beard of "superior length." Those Noyes, and that great "Watcher for the Sec­ who knew him in Lower Canada testified to ond Coming," William Miller.^ his good character and noted that his talents Finally, standing out as a kind of ulti­ were "much above the middle class of citi­ mate among enthusiastic movements were the zens." After joining this society of the simple celibate followers of Mother Ann Lee, the in faith and pure in heart, he easily rose to "Shaking Quakers." Combining in micro­ a position of leadership, although at the time cosm nearly every radicalism of the day, one correspondent learned that Bullard did Shakerism had a persuasive appeal to those not "believe himself possessed of the powers disenchanted seekers left in the wake of re­ he professed." Like any prophet worth his curring revivals and religious enthusiasisms. salt, he received divine revelation and pro­ For many spiritually dispossessed souls, the fessed to govern by immediate inspiration Shaker villages that dotted the rural land­ from Heaven. His authority was unques- scape in western New England, upper New York, and the Ohio Valley, often became a port of last call.'''

" Ira Chase to the Secretary of the Massachusetts Baptist Missionary Society, Clarksburg, [West] Vir­ ginia, January 6, 1818, in The American Baptist Magazine, I: 342 (May, 1818) ; Zadock Thompson, " Cross, The Burned-over District, 33-36; F. Gerald History of Vermont, Natural, Civil, and Statistical Ham, "Shakerism in the Old West" (Ph.D. disser­ (Burlington, 1853), Part II: 203; North Star (Dan­ tation. University of Kentucky, 1962), 278-281. ville, Vermont), May 22, 1818. " See David M. Ludlum, Social Ferment in Ver­ "Sussex Register, September 15, 1817; Timothy mont, 1781-1850 (New York, 1939), 238-260. Flint, Recollections of the Last Ten Years, Passed ' Cross, Burned-over District, 32; Ham, "Shakerism in Occasional Residences and Journeyings in the in the Old West," 261-286. Valley of the Mississippi (New York, 1968), 275.

291 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 tioned, and he ruled "the sect as an absolute quired converts and a base of operations. monarch in all things spiritual and secular."'" From this "hospitable protection" Bullard The Pentecostal seed of BuUard's gospel conducted proselytizing forays into Woodstock fell on arid soil. Failing to make headway in and neighboring towns. Within a short time, Canada, the Pilgrims disposed of their more a number of simple "unsuspecting souls," in­ encumbering earthly treasures and prepared cluding a few of "respectability and property" to move to Vermont. Reportedly, the trek were led into the Prophet's "snares." By mid­ was given an air of immediacy when the ful­ summer Bullard's ranks had swelled to nearly filling of a divine edict landed the Pilgrims forty converts, and the local postmaster, Alex­ in the King's courts. The charge was murder; ander Hutchinson, noted that none joined the the victim, an infant who had been given a sect but such as "were made to believe that decoction of poisonous bark "by command Isaac had power to make them the most miser­ of the Lord." The court found the evi­ able of human beings, and that nothing short dence against the saints inconclusive, but the of their joining him would prevent the exer­ Pilgrims' less judicially minded neighbors cise of his power upon them—and they in were of a contrary opinion. A forced march that belief became insane in a degree."'^ over the border became the "last resort" of Bullard never committed his beliefs to writ­ this new sect.'' ing, and contemporary inquirers found it all but impossible to engage the Prophet's fol­ T N 1817 the dormant embers of revivalism lowers in a discourse of their strange beliefs. -*- had flared anew in Vermont as the tired Their restorationist gospel, however, differed band of Pilgrims marched into the Connecticut little from the other chiliastic sects that sprang River Valley town of South Woodstock, in up around the lurid fringes of evangelical re­ May or June. Accompanying the Prophet vivalism. The Pilgrims rejected sectarian dis­ were his wife and an infant son—an alleged tinctions, abhorred ritualism, were intensely holy child who was called "Christ" or the anticlerical, and abandoned many of the sac­ "Second Christ"—and about six faithful fol­ raments. They relied on intuition, immediate lowers. Here in a "back and retired part of inspiration, and revelation rather than on the town" Bullard found "materials suited to his Bible and systematic credal formulations to purpose." Among the first to succumb to the certify correct practice and sound doctrine. Prophet's persuasive message was the Rever­ As the only true followers of Christ, these end Joseph Ball, a humble and affable minis­ rustic pentacostals believed they were com­ ter of the "Christian" connection, a radical missioned by the Almighty to go forth into anti-Calvinist sect which, stressing liberty of the unregenerated world to do His will. To conscience and freedom from creeds, had this end they had forsaken their homes, lands, been organized at Lyndon, Vermont, about friends, and "all this world's enjoyments," 1802.'^ Equally fortunate for the struggling and in imitation of the nomadic practices of sect was a conversion of Ball's brother Peter, the "ancient patriarchs and good men of old," for he had both a small farm and a large went from place to place doing good unto the family. Simultaneously, the Prophet had ac- children of men. Like many religious radicals of the day they held to the belief in the nearness of a millennial society in which man at last could triumph over sin and realize the ideal of Christian perfection. Even now the ^''Ibid., 276; The Philanthropist (Mount Pleasant, lost tribes of Judah—which held a strange Ohio), January 2, 1818; American Baptist Magazine, fascination for many an American prophet— 1: 342. '^Thompson, History of Vermont, II: 203; Flint, Recollections, 275; Virginia Patriot (Richmond), quoted in the Pittsburgh Gazette, November 4, 1817. '" Ludlum, Social Ferment in Vermont, 35-36, 242- 243; Records Kept by Order of the Church [New Lebanon, New York], 1780-1855, p. 51, in Shaker "Thompson, History of Vermont, II: 203; Pitts­ Manuscript No. 7, New York Public Library; Thomp­ burgh Gazette, November 4, 1817; Rutland Herald, son, History of Vermont, II: 203; American Baptist quoted in the American Yeoman (Brattleboro), Oc­ Magazine, I: 341. tober 14, 1817; The Philanthropist, January 2, 1818.

292 HAM: THE PROPHET AND THE MUMMYJUMS were "beginning to be gathered in"; and, to an apostle of pentacostal simplicity, the Proph­ hear the Pilgrims tell it, the way was fast et was without a peer. He commanded his opening when the "four quarters of the earth" disciples to dispense with everything super­ would be brought together in a universal com­ fluous, "avoiding all the sinful inventions of munion.''* men and devils in dress and luxurious food." But how was errant man to achieve the In addition to their bear skin girdles, on spe­ state of sinless purity that the prospect of cial occasions they wore sack cloth and ashes.''' the millennial kingdom seemed to demand? Their daily bread was as simple as their Bullard, like most anti-Calvinist radicals of habit, consisting of a gruel of milk and mush the time, found the answer in a typically or a broth of flour and water. Infrequently American counterpoise to a stern and deter­ their diet was leavened with a piece of meat, ministic Calvinism—in a covenant of works but of course they did not eat much, for that stressed voluntarism and human ability. their leader kept them "most constantly fast­ Rather than waiting and hoping God would ing." These religious primitives found such flood his soul with irresistible grace, the peni­ ornaments of civilization as knives and forks tent sinner must be an active participant in and tables and chairs inimical to their spir­ achieving his own salvation. Largely by his itual welfare. They supped in a standing po­ own efforts, he must strive for a life of sin­ sition, sucking up their meager repast through less purity. The transition from a life of car­ a perforated quill or cane stalk from a com­ nality to one of perfect holiness was marked munal trough or bowl.'* by tribulation and travail. In this work of Not satisfied with these atavistic innova­ regeneration Isaac Bullard called his followers tions, the red-bearded patriarch added an even to a life of repentance, poverty, and rigorous more nauseating dimension to the apostolic self-denial. Harsh penances were imposed faith—that of filth. In his Biblical researches on the contrite sinner corresponding to the Bullard found no injunction to wash, so he state or degree of perfection he had achieved. forbade his followers to bathe or to cut or The newly converted, for example, might be comb their hair. Again Bullard set the exam­ made to stand erect for as long as four suc­ ple. The saints alleged that their leader had cessive days without sleeping or sitting. Pos­ not changed his skins for seven years.'^ "They sibly a couple of days fasting might also turn are made to believe," declared one astounded the trick. Indeed, fasting was the primary onlooker, "that their filthy and ragged dress, mode of penance, "both as severe in itself, their frugal, dirty and badly cooked food and as economical.""^ Even the young were are meritorious; and to crown the whole, their not exempt. When one young mother, "not eating it amidst & mingled, with the most quite destitute of feeling" for her infant naucious [sic] stench, monstorum horendum "thirsting and weeping for some water" made marabile dictu."^" But to the Pilgrims filth, supplication to the Prophet, he bellowed, "If fasting, and wretchedness were the keys to the it cannot fast let it die."'^ kingdom. The most distinguishing feature of the Pil­ Their religious worship formed a pattern grim's faith was the extreme primitivism that with their other habits and observances. pervaded every facet of their daily lives. As Abasement of the individual personality was their aim. In an attempt to "mortify" the

" Interview with an unidentified Pilgrim, in The "Hunt to Sweny, August 20, 1874; Pittsburgh Farmer (Lebanon, Ohio), March 9, 1818; American Gazette, November 4, 1817. Baptist Magazine, I: 343; Pittsburgh Gazette, No­ "Flint, Recollections, 277; Western Balance vember 4, 1817; Thompson, History of Vermont, (Franklin, Tennessee), quoted in the Wayne Senti­ II: 203; Sussex Register, September 15, 1817. nel (Palmyra, New York), May 26, 1826; Hunt to " The Farmer, March 9, 1818; John Hunt to James Sweny, August 20, 1874; Records Kept by Order of Sweny, August 20, 1874, undated newspaper clip­ the Church, New Lebanon, New York, 51; Urbana ping in Josiah Morrow, Scrapbook of Lebanon and Gazette, quoted in The Farmer, February 7, 1818. Warren County [Ohio], Cincinnati Historical So­ "Thompson, History of Vermont, II: 203; Daily ciety; Flint, Recollections, 277. Advertiser (Albany), October 13, 1817. '" Western Star (Lebanon, Ohio), March 7, 1818. ^ Western Star, March 7, 1818.

293 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 carnal nature of the flesh, as they said, these the Pilgrims is extremely fragmentary. The early American "holy rollers" were often ob­ frontier missionary and literary publisher, served tumbling in the thick dust of the Ver­ Timothy Flint, learned that the sect was or­ mont byways. In supplication to the Almighty, ganized "to a considerable degree." The prop­ they prostrated themselves on the ground with erty of all who joined was put into a common their faces downward.^' In their more formal stock, amounting to some $8,000 or $10,000. worship, one correspondent reported, "The As the undisputed ruler, Bullard distributed Prophet always takes the lead by making the common stock as he saw fit. He also con­ many singular gesticulations with his hands ac­ trolled his followers most intimate social re­ companied with a variety of unmeaning lations, "marrying and unmarrying, reward­ sounds, in which the muscles of his face, ing and punishing, according to his sovereign have many changes—sometimes greatly ex­ pleasure."^''' Indeed, the social relations of torted." His followers would then ape his the sect gave rise to salacious rumors that de­ every movement. Their unintelligible chants lighted the orthodox. The Prophet, one news­ were characterized as "more ridiculous than paper reported, had abolished the marriage the romantick folly of children or the pow covenant allowing the saints to cohabit pro­ wow of the savage wigwam." The New Leba­ miscuously, while "A friend of Christianity" non Shakers gave them their euphonious name found "some transactions" among the sect after listening to several choruses of the fol­ "which decency and chastity" forbade him lowing chant: "My God, my God, my God, to mention. Most likely Bullard did conjure my God, What wouldst thou have me do?— up some form of spiritual wifedom, for one Mummyjum, mummyjum, mummyjum, mum- Shaker diarist learned "they pretend to marry myjum, mummyjum."^^ a woman in God & by so daoing [sic] sanc­ At Woodstock, Bullard instituted a rudi­ tify the flesh."24 mentary form of theocratic communitarianism. Though communal consciousness and social T>Y JULY or early August, 1817, Bullard cohesiveness were undoubtedly stimulated by -L' had exploited the messianic potentialities the hostility of the "gentiles," communalism of South Woodstock when, much to the relief among the Pilgrims was the child of necessity. of the local citizenry, he purportedly received Their nomadic life required some form of a celestial communication to strike out for co-operation while only in a communal in­ the promised land. The exodus was an un­ stitution could the saints be properly disci­ certain journey, for the Pilgrims "knew not plined, sustained in their arduous pursuit of where they were going being led & directed a life of self-denial, and insulated from the by the spirit." According to later accounts, unregenerate world. However, the subsequent each morning Bullard would throw his staff migratory nature of the sect and the lack of on the ground to learn the direction of the a sustaining economic foundation such as day's travel. Unerringly, the staff always distinguished the Shaker colonies and the pointed to the southwest.^'' The story is prob­ German Utopians at Economy in Pennsyl­ ably legend, but there is no question that vania and Zoar in Ohio made it impossible Bullard, like many of the social architects for the Prophet to develop a full-fledged disci­ plined communal institution. Documentation on community life among ^'Flint, Recollections, 277; Thompson, History of Vermont, II: 203. ''Daily Advertiser, October 13, 1817; The Farmer, March 9, 1818; Records Kept by Order of the Church, New Lebanon, New York, 51-52; A Ch[urc]h ''^ Thompson, History of Vermont, II: 203; Pitts­ Journal of current Events from Jan. 1st, 1816 to Oct. burgh Gazette, November 4, 1817. 10th, 1830 by John Wallace and Nathan Sharp - Western Star, March 7, 1818; The Farmer, March [Union Villase, Ohio], entry for March 11, 1818, 9, 1818; Records Kept by Order of the Church, New Shaker Manuscripts, Western Reserve Historical So­ Lebanon, New York, 51; Nicholas Bennet's Journal, ciety. 1814-1833 [New Lebanon, New York], entry for ^'' Records Kept by Order of the Church, New August 25, 1817, Shaker Manuscripts, Western Re­ Lebanon, New York, 51; Wayne Sentinel, May 26, serve Historical Society. 1826; Hunt to Sweny, August 20, 1874.

294 HAM: THE PROPHET AND THE MUMMYJUMS of the epoch, was lured on by a romantic was at hand, that darkness had covered the vision of the glories of the American Garden land and gross darkness the people but God of Eden, the transappalachian West. Surely, was now about to establish his kingdom on if God had never prepared a primitive para­ earth."28 dise where his chosen people would live in To broadcast this message of soot and sal­ millennial happiness, the great American West vation to the country, the Pilgrims divided was such a place. into two companies apparently after leaving Slowly the peripatetic saints passed over New Lebanon. The ox-cart brigade, mentioned the Green Mountains through Rutland and in the Sussex Register, proceeded down the Bennington County where they welcomed a Hudson Valley, across northern New Jersey, few more Vermonters into their fellowship.^^ and through Pennsylvania. On October 25 On August 24, the caravan arrived at the pros­ the Pittsburgh Gazette noted their presence in perous Shaker village of New Lebanon, New that bustling river town and learned that the York, nestled in the foothills of the Berkshire destination of these "wretched fanatics" was Mountains, some thirty miles southwest of the quiet Quaker hamlet of Mount Pleasant, Albany on the Massachusetts border. The Ohio, a few miles northwest of Wheeling, official Shaker scribe noted: "Some of the (West) Virginia. Here they apparently company, particularly the females were by tra­ planned to await a rendezvous with the larger velling & fasting, reduced to great weak­ northern caravan led by Bullard and now ness . . . and the whole company were very moving across the Burned-over District of dirty & filthy; and by travelling in this man­ western New York.^^ ner they became very lousy." Why should Even the volatile Yorkers gaped in unbelief Bullard and his saints seek out the sober as this strange "caravan group for Mecca" Shakers? Like so many other social archi­ passed through Troy and Cherry Valley slowly tects of the time, he probably wanted to learn plodding westward towards the Finger Lake of the "gospel order" as the Shakers called region in those warm autumn days of 1817. their increasingly well known and efficiently Leading the tattered band were the men, hold­ organized community life. Perhaps he also ing a short staff or stave in each hand which reasoned there might be some Shakers with forced them to march with their bodies bent a hearing ear who would forsake their vows parallel to the earth. Their hunch-backed of chastity and industry for the Pilgrims' stance, long beards, "odd grimaces, incoher­ offer of poverty and filth. Bullard, for his ent language, and singular maneuvers," wrote part, must have found the cleanliness, order, one observer, "gave them- a very ludicrous and industry of the Shakers revolting. The appearance."^" Bringing up the rear, the practice of celibacy was even less to his taste women and children followed in Indian file, and because the astringent Shakers refused with five horse-drawn wagons loaded with to allow the Prophet and his men to lodge a limited supply of bedding, food, cooking "promiscuously with their women," the Pil­ utensils, and other household goods. Along grims contemptuously refused the Shaker's the route the rag-tail saints could be heard kind offer of food and lodging; they cursed exhorting the Yankee inhabitants to repent­ and "prophesied judgements" against their ance and a life of poverty, pronouncing anathe- would-be benefactors.^'' Nevertheless, the brief contact with the Shakers reinforced Bullard's belief in the nearness of the millennial king­ dom. One of his female followers wrote: "We ^ Fanny Ball to the Brethren and Sisters at New began to preach that the coming of the Lord Lebanon, April 30, 1820, in Union Village Shaker Letters, Western Reserve Historical Society. This letter, written by Peter Ball's wife, is the only known extant document written by a Pilgrim about their beliefs and their search for the promised land. '^American Baptist Magazine, I: 342; Pittsburgh Gazette, October 28, 1817; The Philanthropist, Jan­ '^American Yeoman, October 14, 1817; Thomp­ uary 2, 1818. son, History of Vermont, II: 204. ""The Budget (Troy), September 23, 1817; Daily " Records Kept by Order of the Church, New Advertiser, October 13, 1817; Records Kept by Order Lebanon, New York, 51-52. of the Church, New Lebanon, New York, 52.

295 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 mas upon the scattered villages and their un­ who had recently paraded through the town regenerate citizens, or dolefully chanting, of Dryden on a painted horse carrying a ban­ "Oh-a, Ho-a, Oh-a, Ho-a, Oh-a, Ho-a, My ner proudly proclaiming that the rider was God, My God, My God!"3' none other than St. John the Divine.^^ The Mummyjums went into temporary quar­ During the winter the two companies were ters on the land of a compassionate farmer reunited somewhere in eastern Ohio. On near Dryden, a few miles east of Ithaca. Here March 1, 1818, after stopping at Zanesville, they were visited by a Baptist cleric, Ira Mechanicsburg, Xenia, and other towns to do Chase, who left the only recorded account of some proselytizing, they arrived at the Warren community life among the Pilgrims. Their County town of Lebanon, twenty-three miles habitation was a crude and hastily built A- northeast of Cincinnati. To the dismay of shaped lean-to affair. On the earthen floor the citizens, they made plans to stay until at one end of the hut was their bedding, and the spirit told Bullard to move on. Not only along the sides of the quarters were chests had the Pilgrims withstood the severity of the and boards which served for chairs. Laid winter, but along the way they had recruited up overhead were two muskets "ready for use," several converts. The band was now at a and in the center of the room was a fire with peak force of fifty-five.^^ a cooking pot hung over it. The Mummyjums, During the course of the march, the Proph­ happily learning that Chase and his com­ et had frequently received nocturnal revela­ panion were members of the hated clerical tions commanding him to alter the Pilgrims' caste, greeted them with "a torrent of abuse, strange habits of dress and mode of life. such as surpassed all that may be heard in By the time the band reached Ohio, they had the grog shop, from the lowest of the pro­ shed their skins and donned suits of rags, fane rabble." Bullard, in his only recorded the more patched and parti-colored the bet­ monologue, told the visitors, "0 rotten! rot­ ter. "If they wore one whole shoe," Flint ten! you go about living on the best fare noted, "the other one,—like the pretended you can find—preaching pride—with your pilgrims of old time,—was clouted and white handkerchiefs, and black coats, as slick patched." With patch sewed on patch as a mole.—Just as likely as not you spent and dirt piled on dirt, the "state of their half an hour in brushing them, when they were assembly," one Lebanonite wrote, "was filthy cleaner before than your characters. Hell and to the last degree and more disgusting than damnation, hell and damnation is your por­ the solitary abode of the uncultivated sav- tion, if you don't repent." Gnashing their age."35 teeth and pointing the finger of scorn, the Once again the Pilgrims came into contact faithful chimed in, "Yah, yah, yah, yah!" with the monastic followers of Mother Ann The day previous Chase learned "they under­ Lee. Two Shaker missionaries from the Union took, with the most frantic outcries, to expel Village community near Lebanon had been Satan from the camp." He thought they had sent to visit Bullard's followers at Xenia in not much success at it.^^ hopes of changing their allegiance. Respond­ At Dryden, Chase noted the people were ing to the Shakers' invitation, the squalid prepared "to embrace almost anything that is novel and extravagant." Here the Pilgrims made inroads among the "dancing Johnites" ^Ibid., 343. "* The Philanthropist, January 2, 1818; The Farmer, of another doomsday prophet, John Turner, February 7, 21, 28, March 8, 1818; Western Star, March 7, 1818; A Ch[urc]h Journal of current Events by Wallace and Sharp, entry for March 4, 1818. ^ Hunt to Sweny, August 20, 1874; Western Star, March 7, 1818; Flint, Recollections, 276, 277; The Farmer, March 9, 1818. A correspondent whose in­ terview with an unidentified Pilgrim appeared in "^ Daily Advertiser, October 13, 1817; Pittsburgh the latter newspaper noted: "The form of their dress Gazette, November 4, 1817; Hunt to Sweny, August indicated . . . the most sordid pride in appearing 20, 1874. before the world most singularly rediculous [sic] ^American Baptist Magazine, I: 341-344. Chase's by hanging about them rags and patches where they visit was on November 26, 1817. were not necessary."

296 HAM: THE PROPHET AND THE MUMMYJUMS

Mummyjums arrived at the sequestered Shak­ but it was becoming increasingly clear the er village on March 10. More liberal towards Land of Canaan was to be found in trans- the Pilgrims than their New Lebanon breth­ Mississippi America.^* ren, the Union Village Shakers fed and lodged A few weeks later the Mummyjums tied the group in one of their spacious shops, al­ up at the old Spanish garrison town of New lowed them to cohabit with their wives or Madrid, Missouri, a small depopulated village spiritual mates as the case may have been, of some twenty log houses and shops that was and gave them permission to exhort in the devastated during the great earthquake of village meeting house. Patiently the Shakers 1811. In his book. Recollections, Timothy listened to Bullard's austerity program, but Flint graphically recounted the landing as the when the hosts tried to do a little proselytiz­ Pilgrims waded ashore in Indian file: ing for which they were justly famous, their guests departed in a huff telling the Shakers So formidable a band of ragged Pilgrims, marching in perfect order, chanting with that their every word "was of the Devil."^^ a peculiar twang the short phrase "Praise God! Praise God!" had in it something pROM THIS POINT in their travels, dis- imposing to a people, like those of the West, -*- ruption plagued the exodus. Desertions strongly governed by feelings and impres­ became more frequent. At the village of Ma­ sions. Sensible people assured me that the son, a few miles southwest of Union Village, coming of a band of these Pilgrims into a few members succumbed to smallpox. As their houses affected them with a thrill of the Pilgrims approached Cincinnati, the alarm which they could hardly express. The untasted food before them lost its savour, alarmed city fathers, armed with knowledge while they heard these strange people call of their "affliction by the smallpox, and of upon them, standing themselves in the pos­ their extreme filthiness," hurriedly dispatched ture of statues, and uttering only the words, a committee to request the saints to bypass "Praise God, repent, fast, pray." Small chil­ the town at as "great a distance ... as con­ dren, waggish and profane as most of the venience would permit." Nevertheless, the children are, were seen to shed tears, and Ohio press had excited the curiosity of the to ask their parents, if it would not be fast­ Cincinnatians. On the Sabbath, April 12, ing enough, to leave off one meal a day.^^ thousands of citizens jammed all roads lead­ So intense was the Pilgrims' hope of inherit­ ing to the "seat of filth" and risked health ing the promised land of Bullard's millennium, and happiness for a peep at the sooty saints. that the rigorous discipline, intense privation, This spectacle led one of the local wits to and constant penances could be borne for a caption an account of the Mummyjums with time. But some measure of chiliastic fulfill­ a quotation from Shakespeare's A Midsummer ment must follow expectation or else disillu­ Night's Dream, "My Oberon! What visions sionment and disintegration would rend the have I seen! Me thought 1 was enamoured movement. Wiser prophets such as Mother of an ass!"^'' Ann Lee and the Mormon seer Joseph Smith In the "Queen City" the Prophet successful­ understood this well. But so inchoate were ly negotiated the sale of their wagons and Bullard's ideas of the coming kingdom that teams and purchased a flatboat for the water- his perfect society could never materialize. passage down the Ohio. The Pilgrims' destina­ As he prolonged the search for the promised tion was still unknown, even to the Prophet, land, famine, sickness, and disillusionment produced desertion and disruption. The cha­ rismatic spell Bullard had cast over his fol­ lowers was breaking. ™ Records of the Church at Union Village, Ohio, The Prophet also lacked common sense. in Five Books, A-E, Book A, Volume I, entries for February 19, March 10-12, 1818, Shaker Manuscripts, Western Reserve Historical Society. "A Ch[urc]h Journal of current Events by Wal­ lace and Sharp, entry for April 6, 1818; Hunt to Sweny, August 20, 1874; Fanny Ball to the Brethren '^ Fanny Ball to the Brethren and Sisters at New and Sisters at New Lebanon, April 30, 1820; Western Lebanon, April 30, 1820. Spy (Cincinnati), April 15, 18, 1818. ""Flint, Recollections, 277-278.

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Any western yeoman would have told him to et was under extreme pressure to find the ascend to the high and healthy regions of Promised Land. Evacuating camp, he landed Cape Girardeau, Missouri, where his band his band on the west bank of the Mississippi could acclimate themselves before descending opposite Pilgrim Island at the nearly deserted in the summer to the sickly country, but settlement of Little Prairie. Here the Lord Bullard found "such calculations of worldly purportedly commanded Bullard to build his wisdom . . . foreign to their objects." Then church, but the solitary resident and owner too, "suffering was a part of their plan." So of the "Promised Land" interdicted the Al­ the descent continued.'"' mighty's plans. At last the Pilgrims were Thirty-one miles below New Madrid, the convinced that the Prophet's powers had failed tattered band landed at Pilgrim Island, which him. With each saint taking his turn for derived its name from their coming. Here three successive days and nights they sent in a "wilderness inhabited by nothing but up continuously the vociferous cry of "Oh wild beasts or savages," the dreaded maladies My God, why hast thou forsaken me."''^ of the westward movement, wood fever and The voyage ended one mile below the the ague, struck with a fury. Emaciated b)' mouth of the Arkansas River, where their hunger and feverish from filth and the climate, flatboat struck a sand bar. The surviving many of them left their bones here. In a band of fifteen Pilgrims waded ashore on macabre revelation Bullard was commanded the west bank. Whether the Lord had spoken to leave the dead lying unburied on the beach; or the saints were too exhausted to go on, a year later Flint observed their bones bleach­ the search for the promised land had appar­ ing on the island. With worsening conditions, ently ended. The Land of Canaan was a the Prophet's autocratic rule became intoler­ most forbidding place—"fit only for the abode able, and during the summer of 1818 some of alligators"—situated on a narrow ridge of his most valued members deserted, includ­ of land in back of which was a dismal swamp. ing the Ball brothers and several members of Unable to get either "corn, pumpkins or milk" their families.'" the saints abandoned their camp, and moved While on the island Bullard also had trou­ inland some sixty miles to Port Arkansas, ble with the Gentiles. After receiving word the seat of government for the newly created that starvation was imposed on the children Arkansas Territory. Here Flint found them as a discipline, the irate sheriff of New in the fall of 1819. The once mighty host had Madrid County arrived with a pirogue of pro­ been reduced to six persons—the Prophet, visions, but to feed the "greedy innocents" his wife, another woman, and two children. he had to keep the leaders off with his sword. All were unwell, the Prophet so ill that Flint On another occasion a boat crew taking the had to glean what information he could from saints at their word of having no regard for his wife.*'' The frontier post, moreover, must the things of this world robbed them of have smacked too much of a Philistine civili­ their money, while still another account re­ zation, for they soon returned to their original ported that a barge crew from Nashville fell station overlooking the Mississippi. Here the in with the Mummyjums and, detesting the renowned naturalist and scientific investiga­ autocratic conduct of the Prophet and his tor, Thomas Nuttall, then concluding his Ar­ seconds, gave them all "a sound drubbing kansas travels, noted their presence in Jan­ with a pliant cotton wood switch."'*^ uary, 1820, and learned that an unmitigated Faced with increasing desertions, the Proph­ disaster had fallen upon the Prophet—a few days earlier he had been seized by a boat's

'"Ibid., 279. " Wayne Sentinel, May 26, 1826; Fanny Ball to *" Fanny Ball to the Brethren and Sisters at New the Brethren and Sisters at New Lebanon, April 30, Lebanon, April 30, 1820; Wayne Sentinel, May 26, 1820; Flint, Recollections, 278; Thompson, History 1826. This later account claims that at Little Prairie of Vermont, II: 204. one of the band absconded with all the Pilgrims' cash. '^ Flint, Recollections, 279; Wayne Sentinel, April "Ibid.; Hunt to Sweny, August 20, 1874; Flint, 26, 1826. Recollections, 275.

298 HAM: THE PROPHET AND THE MUMMYJUMS crew and "forcibly shaved, washed, and esting women (presumably one was the Proph­ dressed."'"^ et's wife) dressed in rags and sitting in a hut Bullard's experiment had disintegrated in made of cane reed, bark, and boards. The exodus. It was estimated that nearly a half of visitor offered to pay their passage to Cin­ the Pilgrims perished during the migration. cinnati if they desired to return to their native The Shakers' benevolence had not been in New England, but the women were steadfast vain, for ten saints, including several mem­ in their faith in the Prophet's revelations. bers of the Ball families, had earlier made Having at long last found the Promised Land, their way back to the Union Village com­ they told Hunt "nothing on earth would in­ munity, where they found religious fulfill­ duce them to leave it.'""^ ment and material plentitude. Even so, a The Pilgrims were a minor religious aber­ remnant had remained faithful to the end, ration. Nevertheless this curious and un­ lingering out their lives in famine and wretch­ known search for the perfect society helps to edness.*^ explain the prevalence and source of religious The last recorded contact with the Pil­ ultraism in their period. Further, it helps grims was in 1824. On a trip to New Orleans, explain why many distraught revivalists, in Colonel John Hunt of Warren County, Ohio, their search for a life free from sin and their stopped to see the last remnants of the sect. belief in the nearness of the millennium, fell He found two young, intelligent, and inter- prey to any prophet who might promise mes­ sianic fulfillment. It also documents de Tocqueville's observation that "religious in­ " Thomas Nuttall, Journal of Travels into the Arkansa Territory During the year 1819, edited by sanity is very common in the United States."'"' Reuben Gold Thwaites (Cleveland, 1905), 294-295, "Flint, Recollections, 279-280; Fanny Ball to the Brethren and Sisters at New Lebanon, April 30, 1820; Records Kept by Order of the Church, New " Hunt to Sweny, August 20, 1874. The following Lebanon, New York, 52. The fate of the Prophet is year, 1825, Hunt again stopped at the mouth of the unknown. Later accounts, such as those in the Arkansas and White rivers and asked about the Western Balance, Thompson's History of Vermont, fate of the two women. He was told that one had and John Hunt, all claim Bullard died at New died and the other had left for New Orleans in Madrid but both Flint and the Ball letter disprove an attempt to return to New England. their statements. ••"Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 342.

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299 FRENCH COLONIAL ATTITUDES AND THE EXPLORATION OF JOLLIET AND MARQUETTE

By CORNELIUS J. JAENEN

ly/TARQUETTE-JOLLIET Tercentennial ob- tional histories impose boundary lines in 1673 -'-'-•- servances call for a delineation of which came into existence centuries later. French government policies towards explora­ The state's economic policies for America tion and evangelization in the seventeenth were crystallized into what has since been century, for it is only in the context of the role called mercantilism—an economic thought French imperial and colonial administrators that had been burgeoning for a half-dozen assigned to explorers, economic exploiters, generations and bore fruit in Colbert "not and evangelists that the drama of 1673 is fully because he was a thinker who saw more deep­ comprehensible. It should not be overlooked ly into its problems or reasoned better from that this was the Great Age of Louis XIV, the its premises, but because he was a man of period of Colbert's triumphs in the Ministry action, vested with power, who accepted the of the Marine which had responsibility for mercantilist concepts as the only natural colonies, and the exciting governorship of and logical way of attaining the end which Count Frontenac when events seemed to move he sought—a powerful and wealthy France, from crisis to crisis. Perhaps, equally im­ united under a glorious monarch." Power portant for New France was the fact that it was considered an end in itself, so economic marked the termination of that superhuman and religious life were mobilized for political effort to build a stable and diversified econ­ purposes. The Canadian colony would feel omy which has been attributed almost entire­ the effects of the new drive for expanding ly to the untiring efforts of Jean Talon, In- manufacturing, the emphasis on the marine tendant of justice, police, and finances in New and its related industries, the monopolistic France. approach to commercial investment, the con­ French colonial history must not be read cept of colonies as sources of raw materials backwards from American independence, and markets for metropolitan goods. thereby distorting New France's role to that This framework encouraged a paternalistic of a hindrance and block to westward expan­ attitude among crown officials. Talon's or­ sion. Nor must it be read backwards from ders in 1665 indicated clearly the role the the British conquest of Canada. New France first Intendant was expected to assume: embraced a whole continent from Placentia, Newfoundland, to the posts in the Rockies, The King considering all his Canadian sub­ from the Hudson's Bay and Labrador to jects, from the highest to the lowest, in the Louisiana, and must be seen by us in our in­ light almost of his own children, and wish­ terpretations of its life and times in that con­ ing to satisfy the obligation he is under to make them sensible, equally with those in text. The Indians with whom Du Lhut traded, the heart of France, of the mildness and Cadillac's soldiers dallied, and Father Henne­ happiness of his reign, Sieur Talon will pin traveled were neither Canadian nor Amer­ study solely to solace them in all things, and ican, and we should not now in telling our na­ to encourage them to industry and com-

300 JAENEN: JOLLIET AND MARQUETTE

merce which alone can attract abundance If Your Majesty can manage to reduce into the country, and render families of easy all his people to these four sorts of occupa­ circumstance. And inasmuch as nothing tions (agriculture, trade, war, seafaring), can contribute better thereunto than enter­ one can say that it can be master of the ing into the details of their everyday affairs world, while striving at the same time to and of their households, it will not be in­ diminish quietly and imperceptibly the re­ appropriate if, after getting established in ligious of both sexes, who produce only use­ office, he visit all of the settlements, one by less people in this world, and very often one, to understand their true state and devils for the next world. . . .^ afterwards make provision for the needs that will have been noted as performing the The monarchy, however, had a sacred char­ duty of a good master over a house­ acter as well as a politico-military character. hold ' The King was anointed at his coronation with the same ceremonial as the episcopacy, and Jolliet and Marquette's careers in the Great possessed the miraculous power of healing as Lakes-Mississippi region illustrate well the a sign of his sacred office. In these circum­ two-power orientation of French juridical stances, to have suggested the separation of thought. In New France, as in Old France, spiritual and temporal, church and state, there was a strong movement, which we shall would have been tantamount to suggesting that call royal Gallicanism, to keep the spiritual the state be deprived of its conscience and the jurisdiction within closely defined bounds and monarchy of its sacred character. definitely subservient to the state. The In- tendants were warned to curb the power of the nPHE PRIMARY DUTY of the religious, clergy in the colony, which according to royal -*- such as Father Marquette, was minister­ officials, had assumed too dominant a role in ing to the "spiritual needs" of the colony. The the early days of colonization. Colbert warned state co-operated with the institutional church the Intendant Duchesneau: by assuring that sufficient personnel in terms As it is a delicate and important matter of missionaries, secular priests, chaplains, you must read carefully books which deal nursing sisters, teaching sisters, and lay help­ with the subject, and also the ordinances of ers were permitted to immigrate to New the realm, and serve me notice of all you France. It was the state which gave permission believe is done to the prejudice of the sec­ for the new religious foundations, the opening ular power, in order that I may render of new mission fields, the exit visas of the re­ account thereof to His Majesty. . . .^ ligious, and regulated all religious professions. There was no thought here of separation of This regulation of spiritual matters also pro­ church and state—the state was religious, to vided protection and often assistance in the be sure, and co-operation was enjoined be­ form of ocean passages, freight allowances, tween the two powers with the stipulation, in and subsidies. Galilean minds, that the church be the hand­ Two specific responsibilities of the church maiden of the state. Colbert personally had can scarcely be separated from its spiritual little time for the religious and accepted them mission. One was the responsibility for what in his scheme of things for utilitarian reasons. might be called public welfare and the other He once expressed himself unequivocally on for the field of education. Although the the subject: church had a virtual monopoly in operating hospitals, schools, and charitable institutions it did so as an agency accountable to the royal administration. NOTE: In slightly different form this paper was de­ livered at the Society's annual meeting at Stevens Another aspect of the spiritual obligation Point on June 16, 1973. of missionaries such as Father Marquette was ' Memorandum to Talon, March 27, 1665, in Rap­ port de I'Archiviste de la Province de Quebec pour • Colbert to Duchesneau, April 15, 1676, in Archives 1930-31 (Quebec, 1931), 9. For a study of mercan­ des Colonies, Series B, Vol. II, Pt. II, pp. 605-606, tilism and the colonies see Cornelius J. Jaenen, "Le MG 1, Public Archives of Canada (hereafter cited as Colbertisme," in Revue d'Histoire de I'Amerique P.A.C.). Francaise, XVIII: 64-84, 252-266 (juin, septembre, •'P. Clement (ed.), Lettres, Instructions et Me- 1964). moires de Colbert (Paris, 1865), 11: 209.

301 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 that they were expected to be models of good The missionaries in the pursuit of their behavior and examples of piety and charity to evangelical labors came into contact with new the population. In the somewhat relaxed and tribes and bands. In the eyes of the state uninhibited atmosphere that prevailed in New officials they were advancing exploration and France during the saying of mass, and espe­ extending the French sphere of influence. The cially during the sermons, the ecclesiastical strongest testimonials to that fact came from leaders found it necessary to remind their the English and Dutch who deplored the ef­ clergy what the state expected of them. Seven­ teenth-century churches were public places for fectiveness of the Jesuit missionaries in ex­ a highly gregarious, sometimes undisciplined tending the kingdom of France. population which loved the pomp, ceremony, Besides extending the French sphere of in­ display, and ritual of the liturgy, but which fluence on the North American continent, the generally took little account of what could be missionaries were cast in the role of diplo­ described as solemnity. The Sulpician clergy mats and Indian negotiators. Cultural ambas­ were reminded that they should show more re­ sadors very soon became political negotiators. spect by walking two and two and not in hur­ All the formal alliances with Indian "nations" ried groups when going to church, that they required preliminary contacts with the mis­ ought not to wear wooden shoes or white sionaries and even the formalities of parleys stockings to divine service, that cuffs should and gift-giving usually called for the presence be worn when hearing mass, and especially of several of the religious. Whenever French that they should avoid the immodest posture policies required exposition or some incident in church of which the inhabitants of Mon­ needed to be explained, the clergy were sent treal had accused them. They were even in­ to the Indian cantons as mediators. structed to carry a handkerchief at the belt In their contacts with the aboriginal in­ and not to blow their noses with their fingers, habitants the religious were assigned the spe­ especially while at the altar and handling the cial task of acting as assimilators and civiliz- Host. Also to be avoided was the carrying of ers. They were expected to influence the In­ brandy on their persons during processions dians, in part through the experience of re­ and visitations: "And if the procession is ligious conversion, to become sedentary, to somewhat long and you require some refresh­ adopt French customs and habits, and so be­ ment you may have a few servants carry some come "francisized." Colbert's populationist bread and wine as this would not set a bad thesis required a demographic growth for the example to the laity as does the carrying of increase of French power and prestige; the brandy for several reasons.'"* paucity of increase by immigration could be Precedence, dignity, and prestige were mat­ compensated for by assimilation of native peo­ ters of consequence. Louis XIV considered ples and their integration into a European- all matters of precedence and protocol intrin­ type agricultural society. The earliest coloni­ sically important: "They are gravely mistak­ zation schemes included obligations imposed en who believe that these matters are mere on the commercial exploiters to support reli­ questions of etiquette," he said in his mem­ gious communities which would spearhead the oirs, and he maintained that royal policy assimilation and integration of Indians into should take into account that his subjects, not French life. Very slow progress brought more understanding fully the affairs of state and insistent orders from the Court and the Min­ of the Court, usually judged by external ap­ istry of the Marine. Intendant Bouteroue was pearances and it was "according to rank and instructed to encourage the religious to more precedence that they set their respect and sub- zealous action, although, or perhaps because, it was now recognized that the Indians them­ selves resisted assimilation:

It is necessary to act slowly to make them ' Correspondence de M. Tronson, March 17, 1676, change, and to employ all the temporal Saint-Sulpice, I: 7, A/7-1, MG 17, P.A.C. ° Memoires de Louis XIV ecrits par lui-meme authority to attract the said savages among (Paris, 1923), 96-99. the French, which can be done through

302 JAENEN: JOLLIET AND MARQUETTE

marriages and through the education of later generations of Frenchmen, especially the their children.^ generation which holds our attention here, Indeed, it was Frenchmen who tended to adopt this theory emphasized the possibility that the the Indian way of life. As for the children of Great Lakes which were the source of the St. colonial alliances between Frenchmen and In­ Lawrence might also have an outlet to the dian women, they represented no gains for western ocean. The pursuit of this geographi­ French culture. cal hypothesis provides us with the links in the chain from Champlain, the early RecoUets, Another function which imperial and colo­ the first "upper country" coureurs de bois, nial administrators saw the religious fulfilling Jean Nicolet, Radisson and Groseilliers, Ad- in New France was that of what would now rien Jolliet, Nicolas Perrot, Sulpician mis­ be called consultants and advisors to govern­ sionary-explorers, and finally Louis Jolliet ment. This was above and beyond the role of and Father Jacques Marquette. teachers and tutors to military and naval per­ sonnel. The religious were esteemed as men and women of learning whose journals, cor­ nPHERE IS much that was remarkable about respondence, and special reports provided -^ the career of Louis Jolliet. Of very hum­ useful information to administrators, policy ble birth—the precise date or place of his makers, and military commanders. Their birth in New France is not indicated on his scientific observations including important baptismal certificate in the parish church of collections and maps were greatly valued— Quebec—he nevertheless received a remark­ probably more highly regarded than their ably good education for his time, his social ethnographic contributions which are now status, and his location in what was little treasured. Their contribution as consultants, more than an isolated overseas commercial advisors, translators, reporters, and instruc­ counter in the mid-seventeenth century. At tors was invaluable. nineteen he was already a church organist The Jolliet-Marquette explorations must not and at twenty-one he brilliantly defended a be dissociated from the context of the exten­ thesis in philosophy, entirely in Latin, before sion of geographical knowledge. The Great a very remarkable jury. On the panel were Lakes appeared first on a marine chart of Mgr. de Laval, bishop of Petraea and Vicar 1569 made by Gerard Mercator, and based on Apostolic of New France, M. de Prouville de Jacques Cartier's narrative. Across the larg­ Tracy, Lieutenant-General in the Americas, est of the four lakes was inscribed: "This M. Remy de Courcelles, Governor of New sea is of fresh water; the Canadians do not France, and M. Jean Talon, Intendant of the know its bounds, according to the report of royal province and pays d'election of New the people of Saguenay."'^ France. Jolliet acquitted himself well, when The following year, another map showing M. Talon argued brilliantly in impeccable these lakes indicated the interior freshwater Latin. sea as an arm of the Arctic Ocean, probably The next year he left the seminary of secular to accommodate Sir Humphrey Gilbert's priests at Quebec, having decided he had no theory of a Northwest Passage through North religious vocation, and three months later, in America to China. Maps of both America October, 1667, having borrowed 587 livres and Africa at the time depicted large interior from the bishop, he went to spend a year in reservoirs of water from which rivers flowed France, mostly in La Rochelle and Paris. in several directions towards the oceans. To When he returned to Canada, he was with Saint-Lusson at that impressive meeting of June 4th, 1671, at the village and Jesuit mis­ sion station of Ste. Marie du Sault where four­ " Instructions to Bouteroue, April, 1668, in Archives teen Indian "nations" gathered. The inter­ des Colonies, Series B, I: 83, MG 1, P.A.C. A good preter, Nicolas Perrot, in the name of the example of Colbert's directives is Colbert to Laval, March 7, 1668, in Archives du Seminaire de Quebec, King of France began in one of the aboriginal Letters N, No. 27. tongues the reading of a prise de possession of " Louise Phelps Kellogg, The French Regime in those lands discovered, and yet to be dis- Wisconsin and the Northwest (New York, 1968), 36.

303 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 covered, extending to the northern ocean, to All this was very much in line with French the western ocean, and to the southern sea. imperial policy, of course. Mercantilists were A huge wooden cross was raised "to produce bullionists who equated wealth with precious there the fruits of Christianity," and next to metals, and who in their static view of world it a cedar pole arboring the arms of France— power and wealth assumed that the amount of twin symbols of the two pyramids of power in wealth to be shared remained constant so an French society, the traditional Galilean au­ aggressive policy calculated to reduce the thoritarian hierarchical church and the his­ wealth and power of one's rivals necessarily toric divine-right absolutist monarchy. The strengthened one's own position. This im­ raising was followed by loud cries of "vive le perialism was expansionist, aggressive towards Roy," and three spadesful of turf were turned competitors and assimilationist towards sub­ in token of the subjugation of the vast hinter­ ject peoples. land to its new masters. The French present Furthermore, as early as 1660 the Jesuit then sang aloud the Vexilla Regis to the de­ Relations had stated, basing their evidence en­ light of the gawking savages. Then Father tirely on Indian reports, that there existed Claude Allouez, who was not only fluent but to the west a "beautiful river, large, wide and also eloquent in several native languages, de­ deep, comparable to our St. Lawrence." As livered the main address praising the power of far as the French could ascertain this mighty Louis XIV, "captain of the greatest captains." river flowed either into the Gulf of Mexico or Daumont de Saint-Lusson had the difficult the Vermilion Sea near California. Ten years task of following such an eloquent speaker but later Father Claude Dablon, who had with he managed to put across his points "in a war­ Father Allouez made a tour of Lake Superior like and eloquent fashion." That evening a and provided the details for an excellent map huge bonfire—a feu de joie—was lit, gifts of the area, wrote up an excellent description were ceremoniously exchanged, and the of this mighty south-flowing river. The Sul­ Frenchmen sang a hymn of praise to God to pician priests Dollier de Casson and Galinee thank Him for having made of these numerous in 1669 set out with La Salle and explored the Indian tribes "the subjects of such a great and Lake Ontario and Erie regions leaving also a powerful monarch." Incidentally, the French description of the "great river" which they crown paid for none of the expenses incurred called Ohio in Iroquois and Mississippi in for these ceremonies.^ Ottawa, both meaning "belle Riviere." The The background of this activity must now Intendant Talon was greatly interested in this be recalled. It was the first Intendant's re­ mysterious river in terms of the political, mili­ action to English expansion into Hudson Bay tary, and economic consequences that could in 1670. The activities of La Salle, Galinee, flow from its exploration and exploitation. Dollier de Casson, Adrien Jolliet, and Jacques Before returning to a new posting and pro­ Marquette were also played against the same motion on the continent in 1672, Talon ob­ backdrop. Saint-Lusson (whom young Louis tained the consent of Governor Frontenac to Jolliet evidently accompanied to Ste. Marie send Louis Jolliet to discover into which sea du Sault) had been commissioned by the In­ this "belle riviere" flowed, whether the Gulf tendant Talon to assay the copper mine on of Mexico or the Vermilion Sea. Louis Jolliet Lake Superior and to attempt to find a north­ was not one to refuse so great an adventure: west passageway to the north, while La Salle he was being given official sanction to solve was instructed to head for the southern sea. the riddle that puzzled so many colonials and colonial experts.

Frontenac reported on this event to Col­ * Pierre Margry (ed.), Decouvertes et etablisse- bert: "He [Talon] also considered it expedi­ ments des Francais dans I'ouest et dans le sud de ent for the good of the service to send the I'Amerique septentrionale, 1614-1674 (Paris, 1876- 1886), I: 99; Emma H. Blair (ed.). The Indian Sieur Jolliet to discover the sea of the South Tribes of the Upper Mississippi Valley and the Re­ by way of the country of the Mashoutins and gion of the Great Lakes (Cleveland, 1911-1912), I: the great river which they call Michissipi 210-220; Talon to Louis XIV, November 2, 1671, in RAPQ, 1930-31, p. 158. which is thought to empty into the sea of

304 JAENEN: JOLLIET AND MARQUETTE

California. He [Jolliet] is well suited for this They are always young men in the prime sort of discovery. . . ."" of life, for old age cannot endure the hard­ All Talon had granted, in fact, was a conge ships of this occupation. Some are of good social standing, others are merely habitants or trading license permitting Jolliet to or­ or sons of habitants; others, finally, have ganize a trading partnership. Financing the no occupations and are called volunteers. expedition was Jolliet's responsibility—the The profit motive is common to all men. Crown invested not one denier in the enter­ Some take their own merchandise to the prise—and he would have to find partners and savage and others borrow it from mer­ furnish the canoes, victuals, and trade goods. chants; some are salaried employees and Eventually, on October 1, 1672, he was ready others form partnerships with the mer­ to sign a contract with seven partners, among chants . . . [they] embark at Quebec or them his younger brother: Montreal to go three hundred, four hun­ dred, and sometimes five hundred leagues The said Louis Jolliet promises and binds to search for beaver among Indians whom himself to furnish at his expense and cost they have frequently never visited. . . . all the merchandise, appropriate and suit­ Since little time is required to carry out able goods to carry on the said trade, and as this trade, the life of the coureurs de bois much as they can take along with them; is spent in idleness and dissolute living. similarily suitable victuals to the said They sleep, smoke, drink brandy whatever Sieurs Chavigny, Zacharie Jolliet, Plattier, its cost, gamble, debauch the wives and Moreau, Largilier and Tiberge . . . and daughters of the Indians. They commit when returning from the said voyage all a thousand contemptible deeds. Gambling, . . . pelts that may be had will be shared drinking, and women often consume all as follows: half of all the said pelts will be their capital and the profits of their voy­ divided into seven shares, a share each, and ages. They live in complete independence the other half will be for the said Sieur and account to no one for their actions. Jolliet. . . ."> They acknowledge no superior, no judge, no law, no police, no subordination. . . ." Actually, the following day Jolliet entered into a further contract with Francois Chavig­ tpATHER JACQUES MARQUETTE now ny and his younger brother, Zacharie, as both -*- comes into the picture. Who was he? contributed money to the adventure over and Like so many of his Jesuit confreres, he was above the services to which the other partners highborn, extremely intelligent, and well edu­ bound themselves. By December 8 they ar­ cated. According to his own statements he rived at the mission of St. Ignace at Michili- had aspired to being a foreign missionary mackinac where Jolliet gave Father Jacques from a very young age. While a student at Marquette a letter, carefully wrapped in oil­ Reims, Marquette had Thierry Beschefer for skin, from his Superior in Quebec instruct­ a teacher—the same Beschefer who was at that ing him to accompany this expedition to the time preparing to come to Canada (which sea of the South. he did in 1663) in his own words "ignited by It was the canoe-men, of course, who opened the flames which crowned Father Brebeuf and up this region to the trade and missions cen­ Lalemant with a glorious death." During his tered on Quebec and who maintained the line novitiate at Nancy he did menial kitchen and of communication with the military, commer­ garden chores, worked in a hospital, and un­ cial, social, and religious capital. There is derwent long fasts and periods of self-exam­ no better account of these pivotal personages ination as part of his apprenticeship in obedi­ than the historical memoir prepared by Denis ence and perseverance. His opportunity to be Riverin for the Minister of the Marine: relieved of teaching philosophy came in 1665; for eight years he had pleaded with his su­ periors to be sent to a foreign mission field. In 1665 French regular troops were being " Frontenac to Colbert, November 2, 1672, in RAPQ, 1926-27, p. 18, citing Archives des Colonies, Series CllA, vol. Ill, fol. 2430. ^"Archives Judiciaires de Quebec, Greffe Rageot, " Archives des Colonies, Series CllA, Voh 22, ff. No. 939, October 1, 1672. 362-364, MG 1, P.A.C.

305 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973

Although Marquette's earliest desire had been to serve in the Oriental missions, he had by this time focused his attention on New France, and he was eager to comply with his superiors' wishes and be on his way to La Rochelle to catch shipping for Quebec. Within seven years after his arrival in New France he spoke fluently no less than six In­ dian languages. He was delighted with the instructions that Jolliet brought him from Quebec because for some time he had wanted to visit the Illinois in their country, for he found them friendlier and less aggressive than the Hurons and Ottawas. How had he become interested in the Illinois? It seems that in 1667 the Ottawa had captured some Iroquois warriors and one of the latter's Shawnee slaves. This slave was liberated, but before returning to his southern home he implanted in Father Marquette's mind "marvelous no­ tions of the South Sea, from which his village was distant only five days—near a great river which, coming from the Illinois, discharged its waters into the sea." Then, during the winter of 1669, when Marquette was stationed at La Pointe du Saint Esprit on Lake Superior (Chequamegon Bay) among the Kiskakon Ottawa, a convert gave him an Illinois slave Society's Iconographic Collections as a recompense for having nursed him back Putative portrait of Father Marquette by an unknown to health. This Illinois slave taught Marquette artist, discovered in Montreal in 1897—too late to the rudiments of their language and told him be of use to the Wisconsin selection committee which chose for Statuary Hall Gaetano Trentanove's purely much about the geography of his home area. imaginary figure with flowing locks and well-kempt Marquette was left with the optimistic im­ beard. pression that the Illinois were a docile and dispatched to New France to deal with the surprisingly moral people, that they were Iroquois menace, and the Jesuits were send­ sedentary agriculturalists for the most part, ing more missionaries to the colony to evan­ and that the region abounded in game and gelize the western tribes and even the Iroquois. fruit and was blessed with a mild climate. The Jesuit general in Rome wrote to the Marquette was quite excited to learn that the Provincial of Champagne: Shawnee came to visit the Illinois wearing glass beads—a sign of contact with Europeans The Canadian mission is in desperate need or their middlemen. Marquette could scarcely of workers. I earnestly call your attention suppress his excitement: to this, as I do to all of the French provin­ cials, that each may see whom he may have If the savages who promise to make me in his province who is fitted to go there. a canoe do not break their v/ord to me, we Among others there is Master Marquette shall explore this river as far as we can, who can be sent at the first opportunity if with a Frenchman and this young man who he is still of the same mind as that which was given me, who knows some of those he made abundantly clear to me.'^ languages and has a facility for learning the others. We shall visit the nations dwelling '"' Gilbert G. Garraghan, "Some Hitherto Unpub­ there, in order to open the passage to such lished Marquettiana," in Mid-America, XVIII: 18 (1935) ; Joseph P. Donnelly, Jacques Marljuette, S.J., of our Fathers as have been waiting this 1637-1675 (Chicago, 1968), 61-62. good fortune for so long a time. This dis-

306 JAENEN: JOLLIET AND MARQUETTE

covery will give us full knowledge either of Louis Jolliet, Jacques Largilier, and Father the South Sea or of the Western Sea.'^ Marquette have been identified for certain—• left for the Mississippi. The precise route Back at Sault Ste. Marie in the spring of which they followed is uncertain but the best 1670 Marquette's interest in the South was reconstruction from the various sources, in aroused still further by several visitors to the absence of Jolliet's journal, has it that they the mission post. The Sulpician missionaries, followed the north shore of Lake Michigan Rene de Brehant de Galinee and Francois to Green Bay, to the mission station of St. Dollier de Casson, told of the Intendant's plan Francois Xavier (De Pere), which had been to send Sieur de La Salle to discover the Ohio, abandoned the previous year by most of the which according to Iroquois information led natives "because this year there are neither to the river of the South. They also told of acorns nor ducks." On the way they received meeting Adrien Jolliet on Lake Ontario, who encouraging intelligence from the Folles had been sent out by the Intendant Talon to Avoines (Menominees) who informed them investigate the feasibility of transporting cop­ that the area they were bound for was in­ per from the mine discovered by Allouez three habited by people "who never show mercy to years earlier. Then there were Nicolas Perrot strangers, but break their heads without and some traders who returned from Green cause," and that the great river was full of Bay with information about the water routes "horrible monsters which devoured men and southwards towards the great river. Finally, canoes together."''' Then by way of the Fox Father Claude Allouez returned from winter­ River they went on to the village of the Mas- ing in the same region with information about coutens (Berlin), which was about as far as the tribes and water routes of the Fox River French knowledge of the interior extended at basin. That was how the challenge that Mar­ that time. Here in 1672, Father Allouez had quette came to accept was gradually defined. erected a crude chapel, had preached to large But Marquette was not immediately free to crowds, and had elicited a favorable response, set out in pursuit of the southern sea; he spent judging by the fact that when he erected a the better part of two years in charge at the twenty-two-foot cross the Miamis decorated new mission station of St. Ignace, during it with "clusters of Indian corn, girdles and which period he also took his "last vows" in red garters" as a mark of veneration. Jolliet the Jesuit order. Then in 1672 Louis Jolliet did not hesitate to call on the elders to as­ and his partners had come with orders for semble the people so that he might present Marquette to accompany them. himself as the ambassador of the French Gov­ That winter of 1672-1673 Louis Jolliet and ernor and Marquette as the ambassador of Jacques Marquette spent much time question­ God. ing the Indians who came in large numbers Guides took them thirty leagues to the Wis­ to the Sault region, and in making a map consin River and new territories for the lilies incorporating details provided about villages, and the cross. Marquette wrote: "Thus we left landmarks, streams, etc. As for the fur trad­ the waters flowing to Quebec, 4 or 500 leagues ing activities, it is reasonable to assume that from here to float to those that would thence­ Zacharie Jolliet and Chauvigny took good forth take us through strange lands. Before care that their interests would be protected. embarking thereon, we began all together a On May 17, 1673, seven men—of whom new devotion . . . and after mutually encour­ aging one another, we entered our canoes."" This journey fitted well into Marquette's personal ambitions. It also answered to the directives of his religious order which in dis­ ^'R. G. Thwaites (ed.). The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (Cleveland, 1896-1901), LIV: cussing Jesuit efforts commented: 189-191. The Recit was published in Melchisedech Thevenot, Recueil de Voyages (Paris, 1681). Authen­ ticity of Marquette's journal was first questioned by Francis Borgia Steck in 1927. See his Essays Relat­ ing to the Jolliet-Marquette Expedition, 1673 (2 vols., "Thwaites (ed.), Jesuit Relations, LIX: 95-97. privately printed, Quincy, Illinois, 1953). ''Ibid., 107.

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It has no bounds than Those assigned to to a village of Peoria Illinois. After a fearful it by his Zeal, which is ever discovering moment of first encounter, during which they and Teaching new nations: while, on The could have been killed as readily as welcomed, other Hand, Father Marquette has gone they were led to the dignified, but naked, to discover other more remote tribes as elders. They smoked the calumet of peace and Far as the South Sea, and. On the other. Father Albanel has departed a second time then Marquette made his well-prepared ad­ to Seek Those whom he had already dis­ dress: covered at the North Sea. Thus The South and the north will hear Of Their Creator, I spoke to them by four presents that I and The Gospel will spread to the Two gave them. By the first, I told them that extremities of This America—Where the we were journeying peacefully to visit the great multitude of nations will lack instruc­ nations dwelling on the river as far as the tion solely through dearth of persons who sea. By the second I announced to them cross The seas to come to Instruct Them.'^ that God, who had created them, had pity on them ... By the third, I said that the Exactly three hundred years ago on the great captain of the French informed them that he it was who restored peace every­ night of June 15, 1673, around their campfire where; and that he had subdued the Iro­ on the banks of the Wisconsin, Jolliet, Mar­ quois. Finally, by the fourth, we begged quette, and their five companions were dis­ them to give us all the information that cussing their success to date, their hopes, and they had about the sea, and about the na­ perhaps their fears. Two days later they tions through whom we must pass to reach reached the mouth of the Wisconsin, and it'8 Jolliet knew that although he had discovered the mighty Mississippi which had intrigued They passed two giant rock paintings of and challenged colonials for at least thirteen hideous monsters just before the confluence years they were still far from achieving their of the muddy, rushing Missouri, then later chief objective—the determination of the loca­ passed the mouth of the Ohio and so went tion of the river's mouth. Another source says on to what may have been the mouth of the that it was exactly three hundred years ago Arkansas. The scenery grew more exotic but that they reached the confluence of the Wis­ the natives were less friendly. Signs of na­ consin and the Mississippi: ". . . after going tive hostility, reports that they were only fifty 40 leagues to the southwest, they found them­ leagues from the sea (actually they were about selves, on the 15th of June, at 42 and one-half 700 miles away yet), and fear of falling into degrees of latitude, and successfully entered Spanish hands decided them to go no farther. that famous river called by the Savages Mis­ Dablon's account says: sissippi—as one might say, the "Great River," Then the Father and sieur Jolliet delib­ because it is, in fact, the most important of all erated as to what they should do—that the rivers in this country."'^ is, if it were advisable to go on. They felt As they traveled down the Mississippi they certain that, if they advanced farther, they found no sign of human habitation until June would fling themselves into the hands of the Spaniards of Florida, and would ex­ 25, when they noticed a well-trodden path to pose the French who accompanied them to the right going up from the river bank. Jol­ the manifest danger of losing their lives. liet and Marquette together left their com­ Moreover they would lose the results of panions and walked up this path which led their voyage, and could not give any in­ formation regarding it, if they were de­ tained as prisoners—as they probably would be, if they fell into the hands of Europeans."'^ '"Dablon's report is found in ibid., LXI: 19-87. The effectiveness of the missionary extension of the French sphere of influence is recorded in La Salle to Frontenac, November 9, 1680, in R. Thomassy (ed.), De La Salle et des Relations inedites de la '^Ibid., LIX: 119-121. Decouverte du Mississippi (Paris, 1854), 62. " Compare the citation from Dablon's report, ibid., "Thwaites (ed.), Jesuit Relations, LVIII: 95; cf. LXI: 19-87, with Marquette's own account found in LIX: 107. ibid., LIX: 159.

308 JAENEN: JOLLIET AND MARQUETTE

On Monday, July 17, 1673, the prows of the milion sea,^—which would have given at two canoes were turned northwards once the same time access to the sea of Japan more. and of China ... we must not despair of succeeding in that other discovery of the On the return journey Marquette sent a western sea. . . .^' letter with the inhabitants of a Chickasaw village for the Europeans to the east with The Jesuits added a fourth remark concerning whom they traded. This letter did in fact water navigation from Montreal to the Gulf of eventually reach Virginia.^" They returned Mexico and a fifth remark concerning the by way of the Illinois, which gave Marquette splendid agricultural prospects of the Missis­ an opportunity to visit the village of Kaskas- sippi valley. As for a full account of the ex­ kia, where he hoped to return to establish pedition they explained: a mission station. By mid-October the party We cannot this year give all the informa­ was back at St. Francois Xavier mission where tion that might be expected regarding so Marquette had to rest as the journey had important a discovery, since sieur Jolliet, severely taxed his poor health. Jolliet was who was bringing to us the account of it, satisfied that the Mississippi emptied into the with a very exact chart of these new coun­ Gulf of Mexico and not into the western sea. tries, lost his papers in the wreck which be­ The winter of 1673-1674 Jolliet spent mak­ fell him. . . . However, you will find herein what we have been able to put together after ing a copy of his journal and his map. To­ hearing him converse. . . .^^ wards the end of May, 1674, he left for Quebec; unfortunately at Sault Saint Louis, Indeed, it was from hearing him converse towards the end of June, his canoe capsized that the historical records had to be confec­ and his three companions were drowned and tioned. all his papers and maps were lost. Jolliet Marquette never fully regained his health. barely escaped with his life "after having been He did fulfill his ambition to return to preach four hours in the water." To add to the his­ to the Illinois but fell so deathly ill that torical loss, the copy left at the Jesuit mission Jacques Largillier and Pierre Porterest tried of Ste. Marie du Sault was destroyed in a to get him back to St. Ignace before his fever fire. and bloody flux (most likely typhoid) car­ ried him off. They tried to bring him as W/HAT WAS THE value of this expedi- rapidly as possible along the east shore of ''^ tion? The Jesuits gave the following Lake Michigan, but to their great sorrow he assessment while still hoping to receive a copy died while still in his thirty-eighth year in the of Jolliet's journal: midst of the forests and "bereft of all human succor" as he had always prayed he might. The first is, that it opens to us a great And what became of Jolliet? When back field for the preaching of the Faith, and gives us entrance to very numerous peo­ in Quebec, he married nineteen-year-old ples. . . . The second remark concerns the Claire-Francoise Byssot, daughter of one of terminus of this discovery. The Father and the colony's most enterprising settlers active sieur Jolliet have no doubt that it is towards in the seal fishery and the Tadoussac fur the Gulf of Mexico, that is, Florida. . . . trade, and also the founder of the colony's The third remark is that, as it would have first tannery. Jolliet asked the Ministry of been highly desirable that the terminus of the Marine for permission to establish himself that discovery should prove to be the Ver- with twenty men in the Illinois country which had so impressed him. In an attempt to gain Colbert's favor, for it was known he opposed overexpansion into the hinterland, the mighty '^"This letter is found in Clarence W. Alvord, "An Unrecognized Father Marquette Letter," in American Historical Review, XXV: 676 (1920). Most recent research on the subject presents a different view: Raphael N. Hamilton, "An Unrecognized Father ^'Thwaites (ed.), Jesuit Relations, LVIII: 101- Marquette Letter?" in the Wisconsin Magazine of 103. History, 55: 24-30 (Autumn, 1971). •''Ibid., LVHI: 93.

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Mississippi had been named the Colbert and prices. Two years later Governor Frontenac the entire valley La Colbertie. Nevertheless, invited him to participate in the deliberations Colbert's reply, dated April 23, 1677, was in which have sometimes been called the Brandy the negative: "It is necessary to multiply the Parliament. The brandy traffic was an in­ number of settlers before thinking about other soluble problem. The church had tried with­ lands."23 out success to curb it because it was conscious The metropolitan government viewed con­ of its traditional guardianship of public or­ tinental settlement as overextending a fragile der and good morals. In the end, the decision line of settlement; first the St. Lawrence ri­ adopted by Louis XIV, who was informed of parian colony would have to be more firmly the opinions of each of the consultants, was established. In 1665 Colbert, in efforts to in­ basically the one suggested by Jolliet—non- crease France's population, had introduced restriction of brandy trafficking within the tax reductions for married youths, in 1667 settled areas and towns but prohibition in the had granted special allowances for large fami­ upper Indian country.^^ lies, and in 1669 had extended these provi­ By the end of the century we find Jolliet sions to New France. The Minister warned teaching at the Jesuit college in Quebec dur­ Intendant Bouteroue in Canada that he had ing the winter months and spending his sum­ not done his duty unless he saw 200 more mers on his properties on the islands of An- families established each year in New France, ticosti and Mingan. while adding that there was "an overly great Jolliet and Marquette together suitably rep­ number of religious and nuns" in the colony, resent the pursuit of economic exploitation that boys should all be married by eighteen and evangelization which were so potent in years of age and girls by fifteen years of extending abroad the fame of France and the age.^* It was this populationist view, coupled Catholic Church, bringing new tribes into with a conviction that settlement should be re­ contact with the French and into the French stricted to the St. Lawrence lowlands, that sphere of influence. They also suitably, I be­ prompted the refusal of Jolliet's request. lieve, represent the co-operation between Meanwhile, Jolliet had become a partner in Canadian and Frenchman in this colonial ex­ the profitable trade at Sept Isles and rapidly pansion and development. Jolliet was a true made a name and a small fortune for himself son of Canada whose fame spread eventually through this lower St. Lawrence trade. His to England, Holland, Germany, Italy, and interest in the Illinois country lapsed. The Spain. Marquette brought credit to his native fortune he made he lost during the English France and to his religious order, exemplify­ raids of the 1690's, but he managed to re­ ing the virtues which endeared him to his establish himself. Something of Jolliet's sta­ confreres, the French voyageurs, and his be­ ture in the colony is demonstrated by his loved Illinois and Ottawa tribesmen. Indeed being summoned as a delegate to two im­ the Kiskakon Ottawa lovingly gathered up his portant consultative assemblies. In October, bones in his lonely grave on the eastern shores 1676, the Intendant Jacques Duchesneau asked of Lake Michigan and brought them after him to give his advice in the fixing of beaver their fashion to St. Ignace for burial in the chapel.

^Margry (ed.), Decouvertes, I: 324, 329-336. ^' Instructions to Bouteroue, April 5, 1668, in Cle­ " Andre Vachon, "Louis Jolliet," in Dictionnaire ment (ed.), Lettres, Instructions et Memoires de Biographique du Canada (Quebec and Toronto, Colbert, vol. Ill, pt. II, pp. 408-409, 412. 1966), I: 404-410.

310 HARRY ELMER BARNES

By JUSTUS D. DOENECKE

"DEVISIONIST of two world wars, his- the teacher, Barnes the historian and Barnes ^ *- torian of social thought, chronicler of the atheist, Barnes the academician and Western culture, historiographer, criminolo­ Barnes the gadfly and crusader, Barnes the gist, commentator on the nation's social prob­ lecturer and Barnes the theorist, Barnes the lems—Harry Elmer Barnes was all of these reviewer and Barnes the debater, Barnes the and more. Author of over thirty books, well revisionist and Barnes the criminologist and over a hundred essays, and 600 book reviews penologist."^ and articles, Barnes was one of the most pro­ In the 1920's and 1930's Barnes found few lific writers in all of the social sciences. As intellectual doors closed. Publishers of the one critic grudgingly noted, "Mr. Barnes caliber of Knopf, Prentice-Hall, Century, writes history so fast I cannot keep up with Viking, Random House, and Bobbs-Merrill him."' Such texts as A History of Western vied for his manuscripts. Part of an intellect­ Civilization (1935), World Politics in Modern ual circle that included Heywood Broun, H. Civilization (1930), and An Intellectual and L. Mencken, George Jean Nathan, and Sin­ Cultural History of the Western World (1937) clair Lewis, Barnes was one of the most popu­ were read by scores of undergraduates, and lar lecturers and debaters of his time. A were even occasionally reviewed on the front fellow in seven learned societies in this coun­ page of the New York Times Sunday book try and abroad, and a member of twenty section. Many scholars endorsed his Genesis others, Barnes was as at home in the pages of the World War (1926), while liberal news­ of the American IMercury as in the Encyclo­ paper readers followed Barnes' daily columns paedia of the Social Sciences. Tributes to in the Scripps-Howard press. By 1954 Barnes Barnes were legion: John Dewey, James had accumulated ninety-four lines in Who's Harvey Robinson, Preserved Smith, and Max Who in America. A commentator has written: Lerner all found him one of the ablest ex­ "There is Barnes the encyclopedist and Barnes ponents of the New History. The historian the journalist, Barnes the scholar and Barnes Carl Becker called him a "learned crusader" while M. F. Ashley-Montagu, the anthropolo­ gist, said, "Harry Elmer Barnes must be one of the most productive makers of good books NOTE: This paper was read before a session of the in our time."^ Conference on Peace Research in History at the an­ nual meeting of the Organization of American His­ torians, Washington, B.C., April 6, 1972. In mimeo­ graph form it was also distributed to the dues-paying members of the Conference. ^Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer Barnes, Ixxxi. ' Ray H. Abrams, "Student of Social Problems," ' For Becker, see John C. Duvall, "The Learned in Arthur Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer Barnes: Crusader," in Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer Barnes, Learned Crusader (Ralph Myles, Colorado Springs, 544; and for Ashley-Montagu, see Marguerite J. 1968), 446. Fisher, "An Overall Preview," in ibid., 34.

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Barnes adopted many causes which even lain's Freeman, Russell Kirk's Modern Age, today would be welcomed by reformers. He the London Peace News, and Murray Roth- opposed prohibition and censorship, assailed bard and Leonard Liggio's Left and Right — capital punishment, pushed for prison and all outside the mainstream of American liberal court reform, and wanted liberalization of thought. When he died in 1968, obituaries in­ divorce laws, abolition of sexual taboos, variably touched upon his stormy career. The planned parenthood, compulsory health in­ New York Times carried only a single sub- surance, revision of drug legislation, and far headline, "Had Strong Opinions." The Amer­ greater equality for women and blacks. (In­ ican Historical Review found his World War deed, Hugh Hefner has found him an early II revisionism "oversimplified and polemical," exponent of Hefner's Playboy philosophy!) but admitted that "he raised important ques­ Barnes served for several years on the execu­ tions and critical issues." Barton J. Bernstein tive committee of the American Civil Liberties of Stanford, associated with a school of in­ Union and his newspaper articles attacking terpretation critical of New and Fair Deal anti-Semitism in Germany and Poland were diplomacy, referred to Barnes' "abrasive and distributed by Rabbi Stephen S. Wise. His polemical nature," but found his career raised affiliation with such groups as the Freethink­ "important questions about the historical pro­ ers of America and the World Congress fession's . . . treatment of those who clashed Against War (1933) gave him top billing in with the prevailing faith." However, Murray Elizabeth Dilling's Red Network, A "Who's Rothbard, an economist and historian active Who" and Handbook of Radicalism for in finding common ground between World Patriots. Never a partisan of free-market War II noninterventionists and New Left war economic theory, Barnes maintained an al­ critics, called Barnes "the Last of the Ro­ legiance to Sweden's Middle Way, an economy mans." Unlike other liberal scholars and intel­ which modified its capitalism with large lectuals, Barnes could never accept "the mili­ doses of state ownership and co-operatives. tarism, the witch-hunts, the imperialism, the Yet, although Barnes retained much of his military-industrial economy, the 'totalitarian older liberalism after 1940, he became almost liberalism' as he called it, that now character­ a pariah among his fellow historians. The ized America."* only academic posts he held after 1930 were visiting professorships in sociology. Efforts TDARNES had his own suspicions concern- were made to prevent his speaking at several •*-' ing the reasons for his own fate and institutions, sometimes successfully, some­ that of World War II revisionism in the post­ times not. His critiques of those historians war era. First, the nation never really had who defended New Deal foreign policy were time to cool off. Almost immediately after privately printed, and his one revisionist an­ Japan's surrender, America became involved thology. Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace in the Cold War, where stress was placed upon (1953), was published by the Caxton Press, her continuing "responsibility" to defend the an Idaho firm specializing in works on the "free world." Second, the intellectual atmo­ American frontier and headed by a conserva­ sphere was inhospitable. Both the academy tive isolationist, James H. Gibson. Of all the and journalism were dominated by "the man major journals in the social sciences, only in the gray flannel suit," rather than by such the Annals of the American Academy of men as Mencken, Nathan, and H. G. Wells. Political and Social Science, edited by his "After 1945," Barnes wrote, "we ran into old friend and fellow criminologist, Thorstin a period of intellectual conformity perhaps Sellin, permitted him to review books on his­ tory and politics after 1945. His essays blast­ ing the historical establishment were no longer 'New York Times, August 28, 1968; obituary, acceptable to the Nation and New Republic; American Historical Review, LXXIV:1179 (Febru­ ary, 1969) ; Barton J, Bernstein, review of Arthur rather, they found a forum in journals as Goddard (ed.) Learned Crusader, in ibid., LXXV: diverse as William F. Buckley's National Re­ 968 (February, 1970) ; Murray Rothbard, "Harry view, A. J. Muste's Liberation, John Chamber­ Elmer Barnes: RIP," in Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought, IV:3, 5 (1968).

312 DOENECKE: HARRY ELMER BARNES

unsurpassed since the supreme power and never again fall prey to a futile crusade. Be­ unity of the Catholic church at the height of ginning in the late 1940's he made continuous the Middle Ages." Third, the very radicals efforts to establish that Franklin Roosevelt and liberals who in the 1920's had encouraged was immediately as well as ultimately respons­ revisionists like Barnes to "expose" the diplo­ ible for the Pearl Harbor attack. Then, in macy of World War I, and who often reveled the mid-1950's, he labored to confirm earlier in his charges, were interventionist leaders suspicions that the Allies, rather than Adolf by 1941. Their hatred of Hitler and Musso­ Hitler, were basically responsible for the lini, said Barnes, was so great that they were European struggle. Then, in the 1960's, impervious to arguments which tended to Barnes assumed an additional task: to prove diminish fascist war guilt. On the other hand, that Germany never pursued a "final solu­ erstwhile allies from the days of America tion" towards Europe's Jews. In his zeal for First soon became Cold Warriors, having these pursuits, Barnes neglected major treat­ reaped economic benefits from the anti-com­ ment of the Cold War. World War II, he felt, munist crusade which made them impervious was the great trauma of our epoch, the prism to serious questioning of American interven­ through which he saw the meaning of an tion.^ age. There might be additional reasons, how­ To Barnes, the attack on Pearl Harbor was ever, why access to the historical forum was the key event of the past half century, the closed to the tall, gray-haired, bespectacled great historical watershed separating Ameri­ scholar, and these reasons might involve more can sanity from madness. For practical pur­ than his continued opposition to World War poses, it was our nation's point of no return. II. True, Barnes had been a speaker for the As one Barnes associate put it: "The Pearl America First Committee, a vice-chairman of Harbor affair, in his scheme of things, is the Keep America Out of War Congress, and the most fateful event of Twentieth Century one of the editors of the antiwar newsletter Uncensored. But William Henry Chamberlin, who had embraced many of Barnes' views, had gone so far as to endorse the Munich conference in 1938 and yet for years after­ wards had written columns for both the Wall Street Journal and the New Leader. William L. Neumann, a conscientious objector during World War II, repeatedly stated that Roose­ velt deceived an unwilling public, but Neu­ mann contributed to the leading historical journals and found the Johns Hopkins Uni­ versity Press and Harper and Row quite happy to publish his work. Clearly more was at stake, and this involves the Barnesian brand of World War II revisionism. Based first at Cooperstown, New York, and then after 1955 at Malibu, California, Barnes centered the last twenty years of his life around World War II. He always maintained that if his fellow countrymen knew the real story of the nation's involvement, they would

''Harry Elmer Barnes, "Revisionism: A Key for Peace," in Rampart Journal of Individualist Thought, Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer Barnes 11:34^39 (Spring, 1966). Quotation on page 36. Barnes on a rabbit hunt in Utah, 1956.

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American history, the pry that opened the C. Short in the dark. They were not informed Pandora's box of the present form of 'inter­ that the United States had cracked the Japa­ nationalism.' "^ nese "purple" code. Nor did they know that Far from being an isolated episode. Pearl the Japanese consul general in Honolulu, Harbor could be one of the decisive battles Nagoa Kita, had sent back home "Bomb of all humanity, with civilization itself at Plot" messages diagramming the entire area stake. Because of it, and America's entry of the installations at Pearl Harbor. So-called into World War II, the world was confronted "war warnings" to the Hawaiian commanders with atomic weapons, Communist domination were ambivalent, and after the attack vital of Central Europe and China, and decades evidence was destroyed. Marshall, Stimson, of Cold War, interspersed with hot war in and Admiral Kelly Turner, naval war plans Korea and Vietnam. With America becoming officer, lifted incriminating material from the permanently militarized, and with urban prob­ files.^ lems reaching the point of disintegration, the "chickens of the interventionist liberals"— to use a Barnes phrase—were surely "coming home to roost." The precedent of Pearl •' H. E. Barnes to M. Rothbard, November 11, 1959, Harbor alone was ominous; in.a nuclear age, in Mr. Rothbard's personal possession. Revisionist treatments less accusatory than Barnes' include similar duplicity by world leaders could mean George Morgenstern, Pearl Harbor: The Story of global annihilation.'' the Secret War (1947), Frederick L. Sanborn, De­ sign for War (1951), William L. Neumann, America Barnes refused to be put off by accusations Encounters Japan (1963), and even Charles C. Tan- of a "new devil theory of war" or being sill, Back Door to War (1952). Aided by Commander "conspiracy-minded," and presented his ver­ Charles H. Hiles of the United States Navy, Barnes personally interviewed Admiral Kimmel, General sion of the Pearl Harbor creed to all who Short, Rear Admiral Robert A. Theobald, who was would listen, be they readers of the London destroyer commander of the Pacific fleet, and Com­ Peace News or the Chicago Tribune. Going mander Joseph J. Rochefort, who was communica­ tions intelligence officer. He also corresponded ex­ far beyond most other Pearl Harbor revision­ tensively with such authors as Ladislas Farago, who ists, Barnes accused Roosevelt and General wrote The Broken Seal (1967), and Gordon Prange, Marshall of being forewarned by British in­ who had written the script for the film Tora, Tora, Torn. telligence three days before the attack that ° Barnes' brand of revisionism might well be con­ the Japanese would soon hit the Hawaiian trasted with that of William L. Neumann. Neumann base. All other Washington officials, as well had published a pamphlet. The Genesis of Pearl Harbor (Pacifist Research Bureau, Philadelphia, as all military commanders in the Pacific, 1945), which claimed that America's dogmatic de­ had expected the Japanese to strike in the mands in 1941 prevented any Asian solution short of South Seas. Writing a friend in 1959, Barnes war. For this Neumann was attacked on the radio by William L. Shirer of CBS for presenting Japanese said: "We now know that FDR was aware of propaganda. After the war, Barnes aided Neumann even the details of the attack—time, place, in finding financial assistance for a full-scale study of American-Japanese relations. The book was pub­ order of attack on the American ships, etc., lished under the title, America Encounters Japan: by December 2nd or 3rd, and gloated over it From Perry to MacArthur (The Johns Hopkins Uni­ to a member of his family. Unfortunately, versity Press, Baltimore, 1963). Neumann had sev­ eral public exchanges with Barnes. In response to we cannot cite the source for this until God a Barnes piece in the London Peace News, Neumann snatches Eleanor."* first stressed several themes with which he and Barnes were in hearty agreement: the Pacific war Roosevelt, according to Barnes, desiring resulted from rival Japanese and American imperial­ full-scale participation in the war against isms; Roosevelt had followed a policy of "calculated Germany, deliberately kept Rear Admiral Hus­ public deception" to ensnare the nation in both the Pacific and Atlantic wars; and it was not in the band E. Kimmel and Major General Walter national interest to impose force upon Japan. Neu­ mann went on, however, to stress Roosevelt's freezing of Japanese assets and his trade embargo which in­ cluded the vital resource of petroleum. Neumann also noted Roosevelt's messianism, which involved a dangerous paternalism in Asia and Anglo-American ° James J. Martin, "History and Social Intelli­ dominance in Europe. Neumann also argued that the gence," in Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer Barnes, 250. Pacific commanders did have sufficient warning to ' Harry Elmer Barnes, "The Final Story of Pearl guard against attack. Unlike Barnes, Neumann saw Harbor," in Left and Right, 1V:9-11 (1968). Pearl Harbor as purely the result of military bungl-

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"pUT BARNES, by hobby an expert hunter gious faith. His books after the war denied -'-' and sportsman, soon sought bigger game. that the Nazis had committed atrocities, at­ In the mid-1950's he began corresponding tacked the German resistance, and called for a with a young historian at Carthage College nationalist upsurge against Bolshevism.'" For (then in Illinois), David Leslie Hoggan. Hog- a budding historian intent upon proving one gan had been a conscientious objector during of the most provocative theses of five hundred World War II, and after the war was one of years of historical scholarship, such sponsor­ William L. Langer's doctoral students at ship was not an auspicious beginning. Harvard. His dissertation, completed in 1948, Throwing caution to the winds, Hoggan was entitled, "The Breakdown of German-Pol­ argued that Hitler did not want war in 1939. ish Relations in 1939: The Conflict Between Rather, war was imposed upon him by the the German New Order and the Polish Idea of British—Lord Halifax in particular—who Central Eastern Europe." After serving on urged the Poles to resist the Fiihrer's emi­ the staff of the Amerika Institut in Munich, nently reasonable demands. Germany, said Hoggan—then on the faculty of the Univer­ Hoggan, never wanted Polish territory, only sity of California at Berkeley—told Barnes called for the return of the German-populated about his dissertation. Barnes, finally seeing port of Danzig and a railroad and motor route his one opportunity to nail British foreign through the corridor, and was willing to policy as mendacious and warlike, encouraged guarantee Poland's boundaries. According to the young scholar to delve farther into the one account, Hoggan claimed that had Hitler issue. Barnes read four drafts of the revised been left alone after the fall of Poland, Europe Hoggan manuscript, secured a total of $25,000 would have seen a glorious peace "in the in reseach funds, attempted to secure publish­ spirit of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony."" ers for him, and fostered his research in Barnes, now Hoggan's mentor, claimed that Germany and at the Hoover Institution at Hoggan had made "1939 revisionism" strong­ Stanford. In dissertation form the thesis ap­ er than that of 1914. The Imposed War was, peared to be a standard technical monograph, Barnes claimed, even a greater classic than perhaps dull to the uninitiated; yet in book Sidney Bradshaw Fay's Origins of the World form, it was so radical that all previous re­ War (2 vols., 1928-1930). When Barnes re­ visionist works seemed in retrospect like mild vised his History of Historical Writing in deviations from FDR's campaign tracts. 1962, Hoggan was the only World War II In 1961 Hoggan's 896-page tome came out historian mentioned, as he had written the in German, under a title which, translated, "only comprehensive work" on its causes, would read The Imposed War: The Origins and when Hoggan's book was severely at­ and Originators of the Second World War. tacked in the American Historical Review, It was printed in Tiibingen under the auspices Barnes rushed to its defense.'^ He wrote in of an organ with the innocent looking title, the Deutsche Hochschulelehrer-Zeitung. The journal and publishing firm were headed by Dr. Herbert Grabert, and the sponsoring agen­ '° For a discussion of Grabert, see Kurt Tauber, cy was called the Association of Dismissed Beyond Eagle and Swastika: German Nationalism University Teachers. Grabert had been jailed Since 1945 (Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, and dismissed from his teaching post at Wiirz- Conn., 1967), 514-516, 533, 559-560. " The Hoggan thesis is covered in Der Spiegel, berg University because, during the Nazi peri­ June 12, 1962; Newsweek, May 18, 1964, pp. 82-83; od, he called for a revival of the Nordic reli- and H. E. Barnes, Revisionism and Brainwashing: A Survey of the War-Guilt Question in Germany After Two World Wars (privately printed, 1962), 5. " Gerhard L. Weinberg of the University of Michi­ gan accused Hoggan of taking all of Hitler's public statements at face value, of deprecating or ignoring ing, as well as an ethnocentrism which refused to Hitler's secret statements, reversing sequences of acknowledge that "the little yellow men of Japan" events, and occasionally becoming involved in total were capable of such bold maneuvers. See H. E. fabrication. See American Historical Review, Barnes, "What Happened at Pearl Harbor," in Peace LXVIII: 104-105 (October, 1962). In the next issue, News, December 7, 1962; W. L. Neumann, "Roose­ Hogan offered rebuttals on all these points, and velt's Way Into the War," in ibid., December 14, 1962. Barnes joined the fray, commenting on Hoggan's im-

315 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 a pamphlet: "It is unlikely that there has fend Grabert as a "devout Lutheran since been any vested interest in dogma, opinion boyhood."''* Yet he personally was deeply and politics since the death and resurrection disturbed by some of the critiques of Hog­ of Jesus Christ equal in intensity to that built gan,'^ as well as by a lecture tour made by up around the allegation that Hitler was sole­ Hoggan in the spring of 1964. Here the six- ly responsible for the outbreak of war in foot-four Oregonian, whose build was that 1939. ... To question this is not unlike of a lumberjack and whose visage (in the challenging the basic Catholic dogmas in the words of Der Spiegel) combined "the melan­ period of Pope Innocent III."" choly eyes of Montgomery Clift" with the Barnes claimed that Hoggan was what he "easy going movements of Gary Grant," was had claimed to be—a noninterventionist pro­ honored by various ultra-rightist groups.'® gressive in the tradition of Robert M. La While Barnes had endorsed various other Follette, Sr.—and even went so far as to de­ ultra-nationalist works,''^ he did not yet see

3, 4, 5, 11, 1964. For descriptions of the varied pressive academic credentials. See ibid., LXVIII:914^ nationalist groups welcoming Hoggan, see Tauber, 917 (April, 1963). In this issue Weinberg also of­ Beyond Eagle and Swastika, 656, 681-683. fered a rejoinder to Hoggan, maintaining that one " Among the extreme nationalist works endorsed could not take Hitler's peace statements at face value by Barnes were Ernst von Salomon's apologetic and that Grabert had issued a neo-pagan manifesto Fragebogen (Questionnaire), printed in 1955; Hans during the Nazi period. (Hoggan had said Grabert Grimm, Warum? Woher? aber Wohin? (1954), was a "devout Lutheran.") See ibid., LXIX:303-308 which shows an elitist admiration for so-called (October, 1963) for further comments from Hoggan "early" Nazism while opposing its "later Bolshevik and Barnes, and for a controversy between Barnes mass aspects"; the French fascist and Stendhal ex­ and William L. Langer of Harvard and Raymond J. pert Maurice Bardeche's Der Weg nach Vorn, a col­ Sontag of the University of California over Hoggan's lection of previous works in which he claims that past teaching experience and the nature of his origi­ anti-fascism is only a concealed form of Communism; nal doctoral dissertation. For the praise of Hoggan, Rene d'Argile (ed.), Les Origines de la Guerre, see Harry Elmer Barnes, A History of Historical 1939-1945 (1958), a symposium blasting Jews, Free­ Writing (2nd rev. ed., Dover, New York, 1962), 264. masons, Communists, and Allied "warmongers"; " Barnes, Revisionism and Brainwashing, 36. Annelies von Ribbentrop's attack on the Nuremberg "/6W., 33, 48. verdict upon her husband (1962) ; SS apologist " In particular, Barnes was quite affected by a Erich Kernmayr, Von Versailles zu Adolf Hitler thirty-point critique of The Imposed War made by (1961), which presents Hitler as the only feasible Professor Hermann Graml in the Vierteljahreshefte alternative to a Communist take-over; Hugo C. Back- fur Zeitgeschichte (August, 1963), the publication haus (pseudonym for Dr. Grabert, Hoegan's pub­ of the Institute for Contemporary History at Munich. lisher) Volk ohne Fuehrung (1955), which maintains The Graml critique was introduced by the editor, that National Socialism was no more dictatorial than Helmut Krausnick. Hoggan's reply in the Deutsche a "bank or an industry" and protests against any Wochen-Zeitung (or German Weekly), an ultra- German "guilt complex"; Helmut Suendermann, nationalist organ, did not satisfy some of his own Alter Feind—Was Nun? (1956), an essay by Hitler's supporters. deputy Reich press chief claiming that Hitler was " While Hermann Hocherl, West Germany's Minis­ devoted to peace and denying that the German people ter of the Interior, claimed that rightists might be had any part in exterminating the Jews. Barnes also using the Hoggan visit to build up a "dangerous endorsed Arthur Ehrhardt's Nation Europe, a journal historical legend," Hoggan was being clandestinely which supposedly was encouraging "the discovery and given a |2,500 prize designed in his honor—the publication of the historical truth relative to the Leopold von Ranke Award. The donor was a group causes of the Second World War." This publication, entitled the Society for the Promotion of Historical edited by a former grammar school teacher whose Research, a group of Diisseldorf industrialists which odyssey included the Free Corps, the SA, and the included a former SS general and the proud owner SS, was extreme enough to have a Hitler memorial of a gold swastika. Another organization, the Society issue in May, 1955. For Barnes' endorsement of the for Free Journalism, composed of former Nazis and above mentioned books, see Revisionism and Brain­ Sudeten refugees, gave Hoggan the Ulrich von Hutten washing, 1-2, 12. For his endorsement of other ex­ award of $1,250. The presentation was performed treme nationalist works, see "Revisionism: A Key secretly aboard a pleasure boat on the Neckar River to Peace," 23-24. Barnes also endorsed much of outside Heidelberg, for ceremonies would have un­ A. J. P. Taylor's Origins of the Second World War doubtedly been disrupted by foes on shore. There (1962), for the Oxford don supposedly penetrated was more to come, for Hoggan was also feted by a the "historical blackout." His critique of Taylor Munich group, the German Cultural Work in the differed from most: Taylor would not go in the European Spirit. This body was a volkishe gathering direction of Hoggan and acknowledge British "war headed by one Herbert Biihme, a former senator in guilt". While Taylor appreciated Barnes' lengthy the Nazi Academy of Letters who used to read his and often praiseworthy reviews, he wrote Barnes, "I poetry before enraptured members of the Hitler still detest Hitler and rejoice at World War II." See Youth and the SA. For coverage of Hoggan's trip, A. J. P. Taylor to Harry Elmer Barnes, September see Der Spiegel, XVIlI:28-48 (May 13, 1964) ; News­ 14, 1961, in the Papers of Harry Elmer Barnes, Uni­ week, May 18, 1964; and the New York Times, May versity of Wyoming.

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Hitler as the reincarnation of Jane Addams Britain by refusing to approve the saturation or a posthumous candidate for the Nobel bombing of civilians, and had backed the Peace Prize, and made many efforts to have undeserving Japanese when they attacked Hoggan revise the manuscript for English- Pearl Harbor. Compare German leniency, said language publication. Hoggan never did; in­ Barnes, with Allied demands of unconditional stead he spent his time, as well as the money surrender, terror bombing, the expulsion of Barnes had raised, to offer such volumes as several million German refugees from their France's Resistance Against the Second World traditional homelands, and the handing over War (1964) and The Myth of the New His­ of Central Europe to Russia.'^ tory. The first volume, printed in German and also published by Dr. Grabert, sought to OUT THE perniciousness of World War II prove that only British wiles brought France -•-' could not be completely shown until Ger­ into war against Germany; the second was man atrocities were discredited. And here simply a meandering account. Although Barnes discovered a fellow scholar who denied Barnes lined up an isolationist, right-wing that the Nazis had any extermination policies. American publisher, Devin-Adair, to present This was a Frenchman, Paul Rassinier, me­ the Imposed War under the new title. When dieval historian and geographer at the College Peaceful Revisionism Failed: The Origins of of Belfort. At first glance, Rassinier's per­ World War II, he never succeeded in securing sonal credentials concerning the subject ap­ an English-language edition.'* peared impressive. A pacifist and a socialist Barnes' defense of German policy was not member of the Chamber of Deputies, Rassinier limited to the Hoggan thesis but involved had been imprisoned by the Nazis at Dora the claims of "very well informed persons" and Buchenwald as a result of his wartime that Hitler brought himself and Germany to resistance activities. In these camps his health ruin by "being too soft, generous, and honor­ broke down and he was seriously disabled. able rather than too tough and ruthless." Yet in 1950 he wrote a book whose English The Fiihrer, according to Barnes' informants, title reads The Lie of Ulysses. Here was re­ had made a liberal peace offer to England visionism taken to its ultimate extent. Ras­ within four days after he invaded Danzig, had sinier said he found no documentary evidence failed to occupy immediately all of France which would show that gas chambers were and North Africa, had lost the Battle of used for extermination. They were, rather, crematoriums, used to destroy the dead and to prevent the spread of disease. Atrocities had not been committed by the SS; they were ** In an advertisement placed in the American perpetrated by Communist inmates who had Historical Review announcing its forthcoming publi­ operational charge of the camps' day-by-day cation in English, Barnes offered testimonies from various scholars who had read the text in manuscript activities. Since only Communists and their form. Comments were somewhat cautious. Ernest G. sympathizers survived, camp memoirs and Trimble, head of the department of political science exposes invariably followed the Communist at the University of Kentucky, found it "a revela­ tion" for "those who assume that in World War II line and maliciously blamed such deeds on the guilt was all on the side of Germany." Henry M. the Germans. At any rate, no more than Adams of the department of modem European his­ 500,000 Jews were murdered by anyone; the tory at the University of California at Santa Barbara said it was "a solid, well-documented narrative of figure of six million was sheer fabrication.^" diplomatic history." Charles Callan Tansill, retired Rassinier had kept up his mission with all historian from Georgetown, claimed it would pro­ mote "historical truth and a saner view of world the zeal of a crusader. According to Kurt affairs." Kurt Glaser, a political scientist from Tauber, a specialist on German postwar na­ Southern Illinois University, called it a "detailed, tionalism: "While protesting his continued thought-provoking diplomatic history" and added that "intemperate attacks have blocked intelligent discus­ Resistance loyalty and staunch anti-Nazism, sion and prevented the necessary constructive criti­ cism of his book." See American Historical Review, LXIX:xiii (July, 1964). Glaser has published a modified form of the Hoggan argument in "World War II and the War Guilt Question," in Modern Age, ' Barnes, Revisionism and Brainwashing, 33. XV:57-69 (Winter, 1971). ' Tauber, Beyond Eagle and Swastika, 621-623.

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Rassinier was soon the most sought-after Yet, having been stung by the Hoggan deba­ speaker on the Nazi and ultranationalist cir­ cle, Barnes wrote in 1967, "Few persons have cuits in Germany."^' Rassinier soon produced ever heard of Rassinier and he has not yet other works: Ulysses Betrayed by his Fellows damaged Revisionism."^^ (1960); The True Eichmann Trial (1962); Barnes' intellectual journey is reminiscent and The Curate (1965), the latter a rejoinder of a comment once made about Roger Wil­ to Rolf Hochhuth's Deputy. Rassinier asked liams by William Bradford, governor of Ply­ the Eichmann family to let the defense of the mouth Colony: "A man godly and zealous, captured Israeli prisoner center around his having many precious parts, but very un­ claims. However, Eichmann's lawyer did not settled in judgment."^'' And even the most see fit to adopt such a strategy. Little wonder dogmatic Marxist would have to confess that one commentator called the bespectacled, owl- Barnes exhibited a most peculiar form of faced professor "a swimmer against all cur- "false consciousness." Yet the key to Barnes rents."22 may be not so much in any glorification of If one believed in shock treatment, Ras­ National Socialism as in a continual effort sinier was a much bigger find than Hoggan, to discredit the morality of World War II. and Barnes made continual efforts, beginning He made the comment in 1962 that "Nothing in 1962, to secure an American publisher for that I have ever written or ever shall write him. Barnes paid demographers to check his is even remotely designed to rehabilitate statistics, and translators to put his convo­ Hitler. I do hope that it may in some modest luted, abstruse writing into readable prose. degree help to rehabilitate historical truth and integrity."^^ Surely different avenues would have been Ubid., 622. far more fruitful. At home, explorations of the Nisei deportations and mass sedition trials. State Department apathy to the plight of Europe's Jews, American atrocities in the Pacific so vividly described in the recently

^^ Ernest Zaugg, "The Nazi Whitewash," in the Nation, CLXXXXV:14H5 (July 14, 1962). Zaugg said that as Rassinier had been trained as a medieval scholar, he was a victim of "documentitis." In his effort to deny all genocide by claiming that there was no documentary proof, the French scholar had permitted himself to become "a whitewasher of the Nazis." According to Zaugg, Rassinier denied "al­ most every vestige of the Nazi atrocities in such a radical manner that one is constrained to wonder whether he is naive." Rassinier's reply, not printed by the Nation, repeated the claim that no one had ever produced an order calling for extermination, cited the denial of the Munich Institute for Con­ temporary History that death camps existed in Great­ er Germany, and asserted that the Auschwitz camps— only used for eleven months—would have been un­ able to execute infinitely huge numbers of people. Horrible living conditions, guerrilla warfare on the eastern front. Allied saturation bombings, these, not deliberate genocide, were responsible for the death of Europe's Jews. Paul Rassinier to the Nation, October 1, 1962, in the Barnes Papers. ^ H. E. Barnes to Herbert C. Roseman, August 27, 1967, in the Barnes Papers. Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer Barnes ^* William Bradford, "History of Plymouth Planta­ tion" in Perry Miller and Thomas Johnson (eds.). Paul Rassinier, the French "swimmer against all The Puritans (New York, 1963), 111. currents." "•'' Barnes, Revisionism and Brainwashing, 26.

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published Lindbergh diaries, the crudely ra­ seeking a veto on the new UN Security Coun­ cist nature of United States war propaganda, cil. Third, it was the Soviet Union, far more the "hymn of hate" conducted by the War than the Western states, who paid for the war Writer's Board, the possibility of what Pro­ with their blood: "The Germans always kept fessor Gar Alperovitz claims was "atomic di­ the bulk of their forces on the Eastern Front. plomacy"—all could have had telling effect. We contacted the weaker side of a near corpse So too, in terms of events overseas, he might and at that nearly got our teeth kicked in have examined the anti-Bolshevik roots of about last Christmas." Fourth, the United early Allied appeasement, comparative studies States had no right to complain about Stalin's of mass bombing and of anti-Semitism in support of the Chinese Communists, since Germanic and Slavic nations. Allied indiffer­ America had backed the Koumintang regime ence if not hostility towards the liberation a hundredfold. And fifth, where were protests of non-Western colonies, and the possibility of against British colonialism? "A great hulla- universal aggrandizement on the part of all balloo has been raised because Stalin arrested the Allied belligerents. Barnes was no doubt sixteen Polish leaders. It is estimated that aware of much of this: indeed, he vigorously the British are currently imprisoning fifty protested against the Nisei internments and thousand Indian leaders." Also, any lying the sedition trials and made telling points done by Stalin in regard to Eastern Europe concerning Allied bombing and the delayed was in no way comparable to Churchill's Japanese surrender. But the thrust of his in­ "whopper"—"Give us the tools . . ." which vestigations was different. Rather than simply cost the world two million casualties and half trying to establish the responsibility of all the a trillion dollars.^^ belligerents, he tried to establish the relative Barnes occasionally made forays into Cold innocence of the one power universally judged War policy, noting the loss of civil liberties to have been the most guilty. With only and the militarization of the nation. When Hoggan and Rassinier as his "experts," his the Truman Doctrine was announced in ground was indeed shaky. March, 1947, he wrote a pamphlet. Shall the United States Become the New Byzantine IVTEEDLESS to say, Barnes' revisionism Empire? The Cold War, he claimed, was -'- ^ markedly differs from that of the so- fostered by Truman and his assistant, Clark called "New Left" school. But, incredible as Clifford, to secure re-election and regain it may seem in the light of Barnes' postwar permanent prosperity.^' In an address given activities, Barnes had many of the makings in September, 1947, Barnes found Cold War of a Cold War revisionist. In the 1930's he roots in the triumph of financial over indus­ had edited a series on American imperialism, trial capitalism. With the coming of giant which stressed the economic roots of what holding companies and the growth of power­ some scholars today call America's "non- ful Eastern investment houses, management colonial empire." More to the point, in July, became divorced from ownership and the eco­ 1945, Barnes told readers of Morris Rubin's nomic system became so intricate that pros­ The Progressive that Allied protests over re­ perity could only be stimulated through con- cent Russian conquests were bland hypocrisy. First, "if we insist upon the necessity of having puppet governments in Buenos Aires and Chungking then we can hardly condemn ^ The Progressive, July 30, 1945. He received some surprising praise for this piece, including a Deacon Stalin for wishing puppet governments tribute from P.M.'s editor. Max Lerner, then hoping in Bucharest, Sofia, Belgrade, Budapest, to preserve the wartime alliance. But among the Vienna, Prague and Warsaw which are verit­ Progressive's staff not all were enthusiastic. The pacifist Milton Mayer had commented on an earlier ably under his nose." In fact, Russia in 1945 Barnes article; "The evil Balkanization of Europe deserved the Turkish Straits far more than will never be remedied by injustice." Ibid., May 28, Britain had ever deserved Gibraltar. Second, 1945. Editor Morris Rubin wrote, "Two enslave­ ments will no more make for freedom than two Russia, aware that Britain had planned her wrongs make a right." Ibid., July 30, 1945. destruction from 1935 to 1939, was wise in '''' Murray N. Rothbard, "Cold War Revisionist," in Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer Barnes, 327.

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denied having anything ideologically in com­ mon with such editors as William F. Buckley, L. Brent Bozell, James Burnham, and Frank Meyer. A friend of ex-president Herbert Hoover, he was far closer to Hoover's own isolationism than to the "liberation" ideology propounded by the Hoover Institution on War, Peace, and Revolution. He was appalled by the Goldwater presidential candidacy in 1964 and strongly opposed the Vietnam War. Yet Barnes' Cold War critiques remain relatively muted. For every C. Wright Mills he endorsed there were ten authors in his bibliography who took the strident Cold War stance of James Byrnes, Arthur Bliss Lane, Frazier Hunt, Freda Utley, and Albert G. Wedemeyer. His denunciations of a militar­ ized state and loyalty hunts were vague; his indictments of what he saw as Rooseveltian and Churchillian duplicity were graphic. Most World War II revisionists whom Barnes pro­ moted took a strong anti-Soviet position, and Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer Barnes some even found in fascism Europe's salva­ Barnes, photographed in Malibu, California, in 1954. tion against Communism.^" Despite Barnes' suspicions of the Cold War, there was com­ tinual war preparation.^* His Select Bibliogra­ paratively little in his own writing to which phy of Revisionist Books includes such they would take exception. Just as the oratory staunch opponents of the Cold War as Arthur Ekirch and C. Wright Mills.^" From 1945 on Barnes personally identified with those World War II isolationists who =» Charles C. Tansill's Back Door to War (1952) wanted to avoid further strife: Lawrence finds Moscow plotting for American intervention. William Henry Chamberlin's America's Second Cru­ Dennis, sedition defendant and editor of the sade (1950) calls for "world-wide co-operation of Appeal to Reason; sociologist George A. anti-Communist nations" to contain the Soviets. An­ Lundberg; columnist Felix Morley; editor thony Kubek's How the Far East Was Lost (1963) finds the roots of Communist China among Washing­ Caret Garrett; and industrialist Ernest Weir. ton's appeasement-minded statesmen. Some authors Barnes was dismayed when former isolation­ go farther. Luigi Villari, Italian Foreign Policy ists, such as General Robert E. Wood of the Under Mussolini (1956), eulogizes II Duce for re­ straining Russian expansion in Europe, while his America First Committee, and the publicist Liberation of Italy (1959) lashes out against Com­ John T. Flynn, took militant Cold War posi­ munist partisans. Sisley Huddleston's France: The tions. Although he would contribute Pearl Tragic Years, 1939-1947 (1955) contrasts Vichyite "peace" with the "brutality" of the "communist Harbor articles to the National Review, he liberation." Charles Bewley's Hermann Goering and the Third Reich (1962) asserts that "National So­ cialism, whatever its defects, saved first Germany and later Spain from becoming bulwarks of Com­ munism." Rassinier accused perpetrators of death camp "legends" of playing "the game of the Reds" ^' Press release, Oneida-Herkimer Bankers' Associa­ and helping "lead the Slavs to the gates of Ham­ tion, September 21, 1947, in the Barnes Papers. burg." He asked, "Do these irresponsible publicists ™ In his Select Bibliography of Revisionist Books want the Cossack horses drinking from the Rhine Dealing with the Two World Wars (privately printed, and the Russian tanks parading in the Sahara?" 1958), Barnes cited Arthur Ekirch's Civilian and the Rassinier to the Nation, in the Barnes Papers. Hog­ Military (1956) and C. Wright Mills, The Power gan, according to Newsweek, made the comment, Elite (1956). I. F. Stone's Hidden History of the "Every Allied soldier, without knowing it, fought for Korean War (1952) was also recommended, although the expansion of Bolshevism. . . . Never have so Barnes warned that "the author's ideological bias many sacrifices been made for so ignoble a cause." must always be kept in mind." Newsweek, May 18, 1964, 82-83.

320 DOENECKE: HARRY ELMER BARNES of John C. Calhoun could reinforce the the American Defense Society during the secessionists while he himself pledged person­ Great War, Barnes refused to be burned a al fealty to the Union, just as Robert A. Taft second time. Tales of Dachau and Belsen encouraged McCarthyism with his rhetoric of only served to remind him of the Bryce Re­ State Department treason while professing port and rumors of the bayoneting of Belgian allegiance to Constitutional government, so babies. The machinations of Lord Halifax Harry Elmer Barnes' arguments could bolster and Colonel Beck, plotting against a relative­ many militant Cold Warriors while he him­ ly innocent Hitler, were merely another act self personally opposed the growth of a mili­ in the drama once played by Isvolski and tarized corporate state. Poincare against Kaiser Wilhelm II. And Part of the reason for Barnes' Cold War Barnes could not help compare adversely the quiescence undoubtedly lies in his financial attacks Hoggan received from leading Ger­ constituency. Potential contributors who man historians with the red carpet extended liked his major arguments against FDR prob­ during his own visits to the Reich in 1926 ably would not be enamored of books at­ and 1927, where, instead of finding lecture tempting to justify various Soviet claims; halls closed and being faced by hostile pickets, nor would the publishers who fostered his he was feted by academicians, welcomed by brand of revisionism.^' German and Austrian diplomats, and received But the root probably lies deeper. Barnes in Holland by the exiled Kaiser and Crown had once been close to America's radicals Prince.''''' but had fought bitterly with the American Then one should note that temperamentally Communist party in 1938, when he was sud­ as well as ideologically, Barnes always re­ denly ousted as principal speaker in an Amer­ mained an outsider. While at times he had ican League for Peace and Democracy meet­ easy access to the world of letters, it would ing. In his prepared text Barnes opposed any be difficult to imagine him on the board of crusade led by either the British or the the Ford Foundation or of the Carnegie En­ Soviets and said there should be no war dowment. One Henry Louis Mencken or against what later became known as the Axis.^^ Lawrence Dennis, to Barnes, would have been From then on Barnes never let readers forget worth ten James T. Shotwells, Max Lerners, Litvinov's pleas for an anti-German alliance or McGeorge Bundys. There was no truer at America's expense. believer in the adage of Thomas a Kempis, "Fawn not upon the great."^'' TTOW TO EXPLAIN Barnesian revision- A third factor involves his penchant for -*--•• ism? One might first note that Barnes the sensational. From the time he abandoned won his reputation as a World War I re­ his mother's fundamentalism (while always visionist. Having written "patriotic" pamph­ retaining a love of gospel hymns) Barnes was lets for the National Security League, the a naysayer. Despite his frequent denials, he National Board for Historical Service, and must have thrived on controversy.^'' Barnes

"^ Barnes' chief backer, John W. Blodgett, Jr., was •" Barnes, Revisionism and Brainwashing, 10-27. a conservative lumber merchant from Oregon who "' 1 am indebted to James J. Martin, "History and had been active in America First. Others who en­ Social Intelligence," in Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer dorsed Barnes' projects—Herbert Hoover, General Barnes, 250, for the reference to Thomas a Kempis. Wood of Sears, Hughston McBain of Montgomery One wonders how much Barnes, who grew up on a Ward, diplomat Clarence B. Hewes, Colonel Charles rural farm outside Auburn, New York, was always A. Lindbergh, Colonel Robert R. McCormick of the influenced by strong rural and anti-establishment Chicago Tribune, Ernest Weir of Republic Steel— leanings. were all active in America First and all were extreme •'^Ernest Sutherland Bates commented in 1939: conservatives on domestic policy. For the listing of "Harry Elmer Barnes has at least one of the elements names, see J. W. Blodgett, Jr., to Herbert Hoover, of greatness. His very name arouses violent emotions May 22, 1958, in the Papers of Herbert Hoover, or repulsion; he has a host of devoted admirers, and Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, Iowa. meets with the most bitter criticism; the one atti­ '" "News Behind the News," in Common Sense, tude that seems impossible to maintain toward him VII:7 (September, 1938). is one of indifference."

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Goddard (ed.), Harry Elmer Barnes In 1927 Barnes (wearing glasses) was feted by such aristocratic revisionist groups as this one in Berlin. would debate reform rabbis about the exist­ "How Shall They Hear Without a Preacher?" ence of God, prohibitionists about demon Barnes' career, in some ways, was a secular rum, critics of Russia about the issue of re­ sermon. He grew up in an age which fostered ligious freedom in the Soviet Union. His the notion that "ideas" were "weapons" and career, both in the academy and out, was in which the New History proclaimed that marked by feuds and frequent departures.^^ learning must have social utility as well as And all his life he felt the sting of "betrayal": objectivity. But given his temperament, he betrayal by old-time America Firsters who would always aim at jolting his readers. lost interest in promoting his brand of re­ Imagine, for example, how enthusiasts of visionism; by erstwhile supporters who never Barnes' pro-Russian view felt when several completed projects for which he had obtained issues later he hailed Marshal Petain as the financing; by fellow revisionists who would savior of France !^^ In a sense the medium not accept his version of Pearl Harbor. Those was always the message. The more icono- differing with him were opportunistic self- seekers who betrayed the "quest for truth and justice" to secure status and wealth. Words like "treachery" and "defamation" continual­ ^ Barnes could not control being fired from the ly spilled from his typewriter. There is hardly Scripps-Howard press during the interventionist con­ a person with whom he was professionally troversy of 1940. However, one might well argue associated whom he did not, at one time or that during the fight over Barnes' Progressive article damning Lord Vansittart as "Britain's top war crim­ another, attack bitterly. Often they would inal," Barnes did little to smooth rumpled feathers. make up in person, but the disruption and See 0. G. Villard to Harry Elmer Barnes, November uncertainties did little to foster scholarly 14, 1945, in the Papers of Oswald Garrison Villard, Houghton Library, Harvard University. The article, production. published in the Progressive on September 17, 1945, Had Barnes been a Bible reader there is resulted in his firing. " "France's New Dreyfus Case in Reverse," in the no doubt that his watchword would have been Progressive, August 20, 27, 1945.

322 DOENECKE: HARRY ELMER BARNES clastic the accusation, the more attention it Barnes' comments on Nazi policy find no re­ should attract. And any available vehicle spected successors, such topics as Allied bomb­ would have to serve. Allies among such ex­ ing and the roots of Western appeasement treme rightists as Willis Carlo of the Ameri­ are now being systematically reviewed.^^ (The can Mercury and Austin J. App of the Federa­ Rassiniers of the world remain "swimmers tion of Americans of German Descent might against all currents"!) be unfortunate, but to Barnes they were Barnes' later career offers lessons to both necessary. The ultimate issues of war and "court historians" and revisionists. Court peace, after all, could not limit one's backers historians can well learn that continued efforts to a timid academic establishment. Life was to justify all aspects of a regime—including no Sunday school picnic. duplicity in foreign policy—will someday be Barnes' strident tone, his slurs upon the bound to backfire. Discrediting critics by motives of his opponents, his indiscriminate such epithets as "isolationist" in the 1940's choice of spokesmen, his crusading ardor and 1950's or "Marxist" in the 1960's does concerning Pearl Harbor events (as distin­ litde to raise the caliber of dialogue. Barnes guished from a long-term look at Japanese- was forced into an unenviable position. With American rivalries), the Danzig crisis, and leading publishing houses, foundation grants, the "final solution" sidetracked World War and professional journals closed off, he either II revisionism, and for about twenty years had to remain silent or use whatever forum Big Three diplomacy had few effective in­ he could find. Seeing old allies fall by the tellectual critics. Because Barnes acted as wayside or even take the lead in attacking clearinghouse and fund raiser for many of a him, he became embittered and his judgment far more conservative bent, their cause ipso more extreme. And as the newer breed of facto became his. Deviations from his brand American revisionists had not yet come along of revisionism were assailed with all the pas­ with its stress upon economic and ideological sion of a Luther confronting a host of Thomas roots, the choice was either Barnes' brand Munzers. By the same token, Barnes' method­ of revisionism or none. ological dualism—his focus upon the be­ But today's revisionists, too, can learn from havior of the historical actors at the expense Barnes' odyssey. If aspersions are cast upon of the social context—led him to be ignored the professional integrity as well as the schol­ by a later generation of revisionists. arship of government defenders, and if all Barnes fought a lonely battle against offi­ so-called "establishment" historians are por­ cial history when few would take up the trayed as mere apologists of counterrevolu­ cudgels. If his particulars were often ques­ tion or of imperialism, rational discourse be­ tionable, some of his assaults were greatly comes impossible. Camps either talk within needed. Thanks to Barnes, William L. Neu­ the fold or not at all. mann, and Paul Schroeder, never again— One cannot leave the Barnes story without unless one is an avid reader of Herman a sense of sadness. For if we, whatever our Wouk's The Winds of War—can one view the orientation, exclude others from the dialogue Pacific conflict as a simplistic response to as Barnes was excluded from 1941 on, his fate Japanese "aggression." His terms "court his­ may well be our own. torians" and "historical blackout" seem far less exaggerated in the days of the Pentagon Papers, the controversy over access to the Roosevelt manuscripts at Hyde Park, and new "" See B. H. LiddelbHart, History of the Second revelations from the British archives concern­ World War (Putnam, New York, 1970) ; Martin ing Churchill's diplomacy. And what was Gilbert, The Roots of Appeasement (New American Roosevelt's exploitation of the Greer incident Library, New York, 1966) ; Esmonde M. Robertson, (ed.). The Origins of the Second World War (St. if not a rehearsal for the Tonkin Gulf? While Martins, New York, 1971).

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To THE EDITOR: During the past weekend while visiting my uncle, Henry Buffalo, in the Red Cliff reserva­ tion area, I had a chance to view two issues Communications of the Magazine containing installments of Benjamin G. Armstrong's "Life Among the Chippewa." I am very interested in these materials and would like to receive copies of these issues.

To THE EDITOR: ANN M. BROCHU Superior 1 have read and enjoyed all four sections of Benjamin G. Armstrong's "Life Among the Chippewa," but was a bit perplexed by an editorial comment (footnote 14, page 149) in (Note: Henry Buffalo, executive director the final installment in the Winter, 1972- of the Red Cliff Housing Authority, is a 1973, issue, to the effect that the great lin­ great-great-grandson of Buffalo, the great guist. Father Frederic Baraga, does not list Chippewa chief, who adopted Benjamin a word for "thunder." He most certainly does, Armstrong as his son and who figures prom­ in his A Dictionary of the Otchipwe Language inently in Armstrong's series of remini­ (Montreal, 1878; reprinted by Ross & Haines, scences. Henry Buffalo recently visited the Minneapolis, 1966.) In Part II, page 37, he Society to discuss his researches into the gives animiki: thunder, thunderbolt. Thunder life of his great-great-grandfather. Ms. and thunderbird were significant in Chippewa Brochu is also active in Indian affairs, being history. See also Dictionary of the Ojibway the director of the Superior Indian Organi­ Indian Language (International Colportage zation, Inc.) Mission, Toronto, 1912), part 1, page 99, which defines thunder as ahnemeke, or "im­ aginary birds flying in the clouds." A "first cousin" dialect (some say it's too close to be called a separate dialect) is the Cree. In To THE EDITOR: Ven R. Faries (ed.), A Dictionary of the Cree I find in my notes of travels an interesting Language (Church of England, Toronto, account which ties in with Benjamin Arm­ 1938), page 202, "thunder" appears as oni- strong's "Reminiscences of Life Among the miske'wuk. Chippewa: Part IV," published in the Maga­ zine of History (Winter, 1972-1973), espe­ DONALD CHAPUT cially the incident related on pages 146-148. Los Angeles I camped at a spot near Echo Lodge on September 5, 1925 (48 years ago). The lodiie was owned by Ben A. Holcomb at Lake Namekagon (his mailing address was Grand- view) . In talking to Holcomb about the his­ (Mr. Chaput, formerly editor of Michigan tory of the area and the Indian people, he History and now Senior Curator of History told me the lake got its name from Chief at the Los Angeles County Museum of Namekagon. He and his daughter lived dur­ Natural History, is entirely right. Father ing the summer on Namekagon Island, which Baraga's dictionary does list "thunder" in is just opposite Echo Lodge. Holcomb told both its English and Chippewa versions. me that he had heard that the Chief would However, the English-Chippewa section, on often walk to Ashland (about 30 miles) and which the non-Chippewa speaking editor appear with pieces of silver to trade for food was forced to rely, was, in both its 1878 or items he needed. The Chief never told any­ and 1966 editions, so badly proofed that one the source or mine where he found the the alphabetization is wildly out of order. silver, and he and his daughter both died Thus, the word "thunder" appears on page with the secret. 261 instead of 264 where it properly be­ longs, a fault which probably embarrassed PHIL SANDER Father Baraga as much as it has the editor.) Kenosha

324 REVIEWS

STATE AND REGIONAL ware or pewter, card wool or spin yarn pre­ cisely as people were doing in the home and in small shops in Wisconsin in the same The Manufacturing Frontier: Pioneer Indus­ period covered by our author. Miss Walsh try in Antebellum Wisconsin, 1830-1860. By is interested in capital investment, or fre­ MARGARET WALSH. (State Historical Society quently the absence of capital, and with the of Wisconsin, Madison, 1972. Pp. xvi, 263. aggregate of production, and Old Sturbridge Maps, tables, appendix, bibliography, index. does not help in this way. She gives special $8.95.) consideration to six counties: Jefferson, in the wheat belt (but why not Rock, the chief Over the course of the last eight decades wheat county?) ; Grant, in the lead district; Frederick Jackson Turner and his followers Racine, the center of farm implement manu­ produced studies of the settlers' frontier, the facture; Milwaukee, which early attracted fur traders' frontier, the army on the frontier, able entrepreneurs with some capital for de­ the urban frontier, the cattlemen's frontier, velopment in finance and manufacturing; the miners' frontier, the explorers' frontier, Winnebago, first in the processing of lumber; the speculator, the doctor, the landlord, the and Eau Claire, hardly out of swaddling editor, and other types on the frontier, and cloths. Of major interest is the amount of now we have the The Manufacturing Frontier. value added to the processing of lumber, Personally 1 prefer the subtitle. Pioneer In­ wheat, leather, wool, and minerals, to the dustry in Antebellum Wisconsin, 1830-1860, manufacture of farm implements and wagons as it gives a more exact idea of the contents and the production of iron goods and paper. of the book. It was awarded the D. C. Everest To make the data, particularly that of value Prize in Wisconsin Economic History, and is added of the six counties more meaningful, I another in a line of distinguished monographs. had to put them together for comparative pur­ It is essentially an economic study done under poses. Having done that I wanted to see the Eric F. Lampard and bears all the earmarks data for all the counties or for the state as a of the economists, including some of their whole. The latter is given for 1860, since it favorite phrases such as "constraints of capi­ could be summarized from the published vol­ tal scarcity." There is great dependence on ume of that year, but it has not been extracted census data extracted from the manuscript from the manuscript census schedules of 1850. schedules and made meaningful by putting Miss Walsh explains in the appendix how it through the computer. she has transmuted the raw data in the census We need to know more about the begin­ schedules to produce the statistics on value ning of manufacturing industries in their in­ added. fancy, and this book provides much useful I would have liked more information on information. I wonder, however, whether one the development of the farm implement in­ might better start with a few days in Old dustry and more detail on the spectacular Sturbridge watching trained people make tin­ development of Milwaukee in the fifties, per-

325 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 haps even with some comparison with that of puter-spawned study of the hidden sentiments Chicago, and think that to include Eau Claire of Pittsburgh Germans. because it was destined to become of first Taking the articles chronologically, as importance is scarcely worth while. The sta­ Luebke presents them, they also illustrate the tistics are here and they add much to our un­ growth of insistence that local returns be derstanding of economic growth in Wiscon­ examined systematically in order to determine sin, but what did the development of these the degree to which statements of contempo­ usually very small industries mean to the pio­ rary observers, of ethnic group "leaders," neer settlers getting their operations under and of the two parties accurately reflected, way? What was the impact of these develop­ much less explained, actual voting behavior. ments upon the towns and cities? Could not The opening essay, Donald Smith's "The In­ the detail have been associated somewhat with fluence of the Foreign Born of the Northwest the account of small town life that has been in the Election of 1860" (1932), represents so well described by Lewis Atherton. I would the position established by William E. Dodd have liked some attention to the question that in 1911 against which virtually all of the has troubled every writer on the lumber in­ succeeding studies were framed. C. E. Wil­ dustry, whether the profit from the manufac­ son's study of Iowa's Germans (1940) agrees ture of lumber was equal to or greater than on the import of the conventional political the profit speculators made from stumpage. description there, but adds a scattering of But this is all unfair to Miss Walsh. She set local statistics which represent a coda of dis­ out to do a study of pioneer industry with trust. In 1941 Joseph Schafer looked at Wis­ emphasis upon the value added by the proces­ consin's German population, the state elec­ sing or manufacturing of goods, and she has tion results, and at representative smaller accomplished what she planned and done it units. He argued that the Germans could not well. have provided the winning margin there, that most of them seemed to have voted for Dong- PAUL W. GATES las, and that similar population calculations Cornell University suggested they could not have provided the winning margin elsewhere in the Midwest, save possibly in Illinois. The following year Jay Monaghan quickly presented Illinois re­ Ethnic Voters and the Election of Lincoln. turns for Chicago and the area just east of Edited by FREDERICK C. LUEBKE. (Univer­ St. Louis to suggest that the Germans in urban sity of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1971. Pp. centers did carry the state for Lincoln, and xxxii, 226. Introduction. $9.75.) that negative findings elsewhere might be attributed to rural isolation leading to political immobility. Andres Dorpalen's sweeping sur­ Professor Luebke of the University of Ne­ vey (1942) of Germans in various places in braska, author of Immigrants and Politics: the nation shows that the immigrants' be­ The Germans of Nebraska, 1880-1900 (1969), havior reflected a localized sense of survival has assembled eleven pieces which contribute and economic aspiration rather than positive to a fuller understanding of the political responses to ideas of abolition, anti-Southern- behavior of the mid-nineteenth-century ethnic ism, and liberty a la 1848. Moreover he pre­ voter, particularly the Germans in tbe Mid­ sents some statistics that indicate that Ger­ west. His introduction traces the transforma­ man shifts to the Republicans were not out tion in historians' concern from the Germans' of proportion to similar shifts by the rest of role in Lincoln's narrow victory to the pre­ the population in each area. Hildegard Binder cise determinants of their varied political af­ Johnson's more ambitious sampling (1947) filiation. Of the eleven essays, seven deal of ten German counties (through representa­ with from one to six years of German political tive townships) shows that German voting attachment in a midwestern state (Iowa, two; behavior, both in terms of turnout and of Illinois, two; and Minnesota, Wisconsin, and party following, varied greatly. Her suggested Michigan, one each). The remainder vary answer, one mentioned in passing by Schafer, from nationwide speculations about the cir­ was that Germans divided along a religious cumstances of Germans, to an argument for spectrum. the key role of the whole immigrant vote in the Midwest, to the political history of a very The more recent studies offer even more small Dutch community in Iowa, to the com­ conclusive evidence along this line. George

326 BOOK REVIEWS

Daniels asserts (1962) that half the Germans Discovering Wisconsin. By POLLY BRODY in Iowa lived in those counties in which he [TEMKIN]. (Wisconsin House Ltd., Madison, found German townships delivering the high­ 1973. Pp. xii, 396. Maps, illustrations, list est Democratic majorities, while natives domi­ of public hunting, fishing, campsite, snow­ nated those townships heavily in the Republi­ mobile and ski facilities, index. $7.95.) can fold. Robert Swierenga's findings (1965) about the Pella, Iowa, Dutch community Strangers to Wisconsin may find this book focus on the popular refusal to follow the a useful introduction to the state. Mrs. Tem­ religious (and civic) leader into the Republi­ kin arbitrarily divides it into nine regions, can camp in 1860. Paul Kleppner, author of then devotes a few pages to each county, men­ a recent book dealing with Ohio, Michigan, tioning its principal communities, industries, and Wisconsin, Cross of Culture: A Social historical sites and markers, and recreational Analysis of Midwestern Politics, 1850-1900 attractions. In occasional lyric bursts—"the (1970), appears in this volume as the analyst most idyllic, magnificent scene of marsh grass (1966) of Pittsburgh's Germans. Kleppner greening in the mirror-still hushness of the is the first, and only, contributor to use the bayou" (280)—she also imparts her notions Pearsonian coefficient of correlation as a of Wisconsin's flavor. The whole is intended measure of association between variables. He as a successor to the Wisconsin Writers' Pro­ demonstrates dramatically, if too breathtak- gram guide of 1941, which is both out of ingly for the uninitiated or skeptical, that print and out of date. the city-wide statistical projections suggesting a Republican majority among Germans ob­ While the volume may have a certain use­ scure evidence that could be unearthed fulness as the only available comprehensive through correlation of German precincts' Wisconsin guidebook, it has serious flaws. votes to German church affiliation. The Most serious among them is a mass of factual Catholics scarcely budged, the Lutherans error. Mrs. Temkin, for example, misplaces moved glacially, other Germans there and La Follette's birthplace—it was in western elsewhere could not have altered the clear Dane County, not eastern (48) ; she leaps to implication of a city-wide Democratic ma­ the conclusion that French explorers mis­ jority. counted the number of islands in the Apostles —they didn't, they merely gave religious Ronald Formisano's careful and compre­ names to discoveries (265) ; and she ascribes hensive study (1971) of Michigan ethnic tepees to Wisconsin's Indians—they lived voters throughout the decade shows, with mostly in a variety of wigwams (220). somewhat less flamboyant statistical tech­ niques, much the same result for that state's Grammatical, typographical, and rhetorical Germans. James Berquist's detailed and errors, too, abound. For example: "The high­ thoughtful investigation (1971) of Illinois' est mounds was destroyed" (27) ; "Monroe Germans would seem to substantiate Mona- . . , the Swiss Cheese Capitol" (41) ; and the ghan's contention and offer a plausible ex­ "fightin' muskie" (277) and the "musky" planation of the sole probable Republican (280). Alliterations appear everywhere: victory among the Midwest's Germans. Illi­ "'wild' Wolf River" (221) ; "Coulee Country nois' Republicans seem to have been more is completely unspoiled by commercializa­ successful in warding off a reputation for tion" (171). nativism. Typographically and pictorially the book The volume does not do everything. It also disappoints. The illustrations are small, lacks maps for clarity, an index, a bibliogra­ unimaginative publicity shots. The typefaces phy of other works on the subject, and crit­ and design are unattractive. A modern guide­ ical footnotes by the editor (the headnotes book ideally should combine Arizona High­ mirror the introduction). These objections ways' glamour with lively scholarship. are the counsel of perfection. Perhaps my The bulk of the historical information is feeling that the introduction might have been factual. Most of it—about 21,000 words out more incisive in dealing with the strengths of a total text of 130,000 words—is taken and weaknesses (areas worth further study) from State Historical Society markers. For in this field is not. anecdotes Mrs. Temkin draws heavily on Robert E. Card—father of Wisconsin House, MERRILL HOUGH Ltd.—and his fund of lore and lingo. (See University of Wisconsin—Madison the Winneconne episode, 119-121.)

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Mrs. Temkin usually sticks to a Pollyanna inasmuch as they assess for the reader several frame of reference, with large white houses works on Strang that are out of print today. dotting spacious green lawns (49) and less The fairly well-written narrative contains a prosperous folks happily making ends meet few new items, including the Strang ancestry by scampering over Mississippi bluffs catch­ and a list of the inhabitants of Beaver Island, ing rattlesnakes (228). But she departs from both being of interest chiefly to local his­ it occasionally, as in sympathetic discussions torians and genealogists. Two thirds of the of the Menominee Indians' reservation plight narrative deals with events on Beaver Island, and of the unrewarding labor of farming the after Strang had established himself as a cutover. religious leader, with only brief commentary The book also adds an entry to the list of on Strang's formative years, viz., his move Wisconsin place names. The name, the from New York to southern Wisconsin in Ocooch Mountains, applies to the hills on 1836, his introduction to Mormonism and his either side of the Kickapoo River. Lexico­ baptism at Nauvoo, Illinois, by Joseph Smith graphical references to the Ocooches (rhymes himself in 1844. Throughout, the work is with two pooches) are elusive. But the name liberally sprinkled with quotations from the does appear on promotional roadsigns in the writings of Strang and Milo Quaife, and with Kickapoo Valley. The reader will be frus­ words of unqualified praise for Strang from trated, however, if he looks to Mrs. Temkin Fitzpatrick. for information about the derivation, which, The book's chief weaknesses are: it is in­ according to La Farge sources, is a recent credibly pretentious; it is more nearly a adaptation of an unspecified Indian word. panegyric than a work of solid, objective Thirty-two years was too long a gap be­ scholarship; and the author claims to have tween Wisconsin guidebooks. Discovering utilized extensive new sources while at the Wisconsin's shortcomings should suggest to same time failing completely to identify the official state agencies that they co-operate to new items of information or to present the produce a definitive work, subject to frequent evidence or documentation in their behalf. revision. The book has no footnotes, and the reader is forced to attempt to identify the new in­ formation himself. In short, Fitzpatrick's vin­ JOHN 0. HOLZHUETER dication of Strang simply doesn't come off, State Historical Society of Wisconsin consisting as it does almost entirely in claims about the man's honesty and assertions as to how badly maligned he has been. Despite his contentions to the contrary, Fitzpatrick also exhibits a strong anti-Utah Mormon bias that The King Strang Story. A Vindication of appears regularly throughout the book and James J. Strang, The Beaver Island Mormon increases in intensity with each appearance. King. By DOYLE C. FITZPATRICK. (National Finally, while being intensely critical of those Heritage, Lansing, Michigan, 1970. Pp. xxviii, who have maligned and neglected Strang, the 289. Illustrations, maps, index. $7.95.) author is equally uncritical in his willingness to accept Strang's writings at face value. Fitzpatrick obviously knows more about In addition to the information provided for James J. Strang than any man living. He local historians and genealogists, the book spent seven years researching this book. How­ has one overriding virtue. While falling short ever, this attempt to cast Strang in a favora­ of being the major new contribution that its ble light, to "vindicate" him in the light author intended, it should call attention to shed by sources never before utilized is dis­ Strang and help to reawaken interest in the appointing. history of Mormonism in Michigan and Wis­ Following the same organizational pattern consin. The movement set in motion by Strang as the two chief Strang biographers to date, has its adherents even today. Much research Henry E. Legler and Milo Quaife, Fitzpatrick's remains to be done on the Kirtland-Nauvoo work is more favorable to Strang, and con­ period of Mormon history, especially with sists of eighty pages of reviews of the writings regard to the rise and fall of splinter groups, of others on Strang, ninety-one pages of mis­ of which James Jesse Strang was but one cellaneous lists and biographies of related example. Until additional scholars materialize, persons, and 114 pages of unbalanced narra­ the reader is advised to balance this account tive. The reviews are the volume's bright spot. with that of Milo Quaife in The Kingdom of

328 BOOK REVIEWS

St. James, which Fitzpatrick himself charac­ their use in different types of weather con­ terizes as "a gem of impartial truth." ditions. The over-all impact of the book is marred, DENNIS ROWLEY however, by several flaws. In accounts of far- New Mexico State University flung wars and battles, good maps are vital. The book is deficient in this respect. The end-papers are maps of the northern and southern theaters but are really too small to GENERAL HISTORY be adequate. The individual battle maps in the text were taken from two good oldei The War of 1812. By JOHN K. MAHON. (Uni­ studies, but are often of little help because versity of Florida Press, Gainesville, 1972. Pp. of their small scale or omission of part of the xii, 476. Illustrations, notes, maps, bibliogra­ field of action. More significant than carto­ phy, index. $12.50.) graphic problems are the unanswered ques­ tions Mahon raises in his narrative. In his It has been a number of years since an his­ description of the 1813 battles in northern torian has attempted a complete, in-depth study Ohio, Mahon notes that General William H. of the War of 1812. John K. Mahon has come Harrison rejected Ohio Governor Return J. very close to reaching this goal. His narrative Meigs' offer of Ohio troops. Instead General is based upon extensive research in primary Harrison used Kentucky militia. Mahon and secondary sources from Canada and makes no attempt to explain this strange be­ Great Britain as well as the United States. havior. The impact of the war on the per­ There are, however, a number of weaknesses sistent problems of military reform, finance, which detract from the over-all impact of control of the military, and presidential-con­ the book. gressional relations are sketchily described The book is arranged into seven sections but not explained. In general, the book could which cover the war from its origins, through have benefited from more analysis on the the various campaigns in the North and South impact of the war on American society, gov­ and on the high seas, to the negotiations and ernment, political parties, and the military. the peace treaty which ended it. The largest This book is a good narrative account of part of the book is a history of the military the second war for American independence. and naval aspects of the conflict. Mahon con­ It is an improvement on the earlier histories siders an event or campaign from the per­ of the war. Yet for the historian who wanted spectives of both sides. In his account of the an in-depth study of the war and its effects actions which led to the surrender of Detroit on the American military and society, this is in 1812, for example, Mahon lays bare the not the book he was waiting for. decision-making processes which led to the American defeat. The battle narratives are MARVIN E. FLETCHER well done and easy to follow. But in addition Ohio University to the traditional topics, Mahon describes a number of long neglected aspects of the war. One of the most interesting is the role of blacks. As during the Revolutionary War, The Making of Black Revolutionaries: A the presence of the British in the Chesapeake Personal Account. By JAMES FORMAN. (The Bay region prompted an exodus of slaves MacMillan Company, New York, 1972. Pp. xv, from the plantations. The British were never 568. Postscript, index. $12.50.) sure how to handle this situation, as Mahon points out, and wavered between policies of The Making of Black Revolutionaries is an returning the blacks to their former masters, important documentary autobiography by enlisting them in regiments, or fomenting James Forman, one of the foremost black large-scale insurrections. Another good fea­ leaders in the struggle for black freedom ture of the book is the large number of well- and civil rights. In this moving and dramatic placed illustrations. In addition to the usual book, Forman vividly describes his encounters, quantity of portraits of the leaders involved, and those of other blacks, with racism as Mahon's book includes several brief essays manifested in American social, economic, po­ based upon pictures. For example, using a litical, and educational institutions. He sup­ drawing of the frigate President, Mahon lo­ plements his account of his experiences and cated and named all of the sails and described ideas with excerpts from his own unpublished

329 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 diary and notes and with documents of other toward disillusionment with the movement; participants in the movement. but before the end, he moves to a heightened For half its length, this is a confident work, position of militancy and promises that he secure in form and tone. It opens with a will continue to fight for the liberation of all success story. As a youngster growing up in nonwhite peoples. Chicago and northern Mississippi, Forman The book has some shortcomings. For ex­ endured hard times and bad breaks. Follow­ ample, Forman's attempts to establish the rele­ ing a stint in the army, he attended the Uni­ vance of colonization theories to the experience versity of Southern California—where he sur­ of American blacks will seem rather unso­ vived a savage beating by white policemen— phisticated to readers of Frantz Fanon. Also, graduated from Roosevelt University in Chi­ the stages through which Forman's racial and cago, and began graduate work in the African social consciousness developed are often Research and Studies Program in Boston Uni­ blurred to the point cf invisibility by the versity. Then, in 1957, came the Little Rock book's wealth of detail. crisis. Forman decided that "the time for Even so, Forman has written an extremely talking is way past. Action." During the important and useful book. The Making of next few years, he worked among the share­ Black Revolutionaries is not only the auto­ croppers in Fayette County, Tennessee, en­ biography of a leading black activist; it is gaged in nonviolent protest in Nashville, and also an invaluable chronicle of the courage was caught up in the furor surrounding Robert and determination of those engaged in the Williams, the NAACP chairman in Monroe, struggle for black freedom. North Carolina. All the while, Forman labored ceaselessly at self-development and demon­ L. MOODY SIMMS, JR. strated that he had guts, tenacity, aspiration, Illinois State University and charm. During his early thirties, Forman was in­ creasingly recognized by numerous blacks The Anatomy of the Confederate Congress: as a man of strength and conviction. He soon A Study of the Influences of Member Char­ found himself appointed executive secretary acteristics on Legislative Voting Behavior, of a new civil rights organization, the Stu­ 1861-1865. By THOMAS B. ALEXANDER and dent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee RICHARD E. BERINGER. (Vanderbilt Univer­ (SNCC). What follows is the story of civil sity Press, Nashville, 1972. Pp. xi, 435. Ap­ rights activism in the early and mid-1960's: pendices, maps, notes, bibliography, index. freedom rides, sit-ins, voter education drives, $10.00.) marches, knifings, beatings, and lynchings in McComb, Albany, Greenwood, Birmingham, The Confederate Congress has long deserved Selma, Danville, and Americus. Forman's more attention than historians have been accounts of harassment, white brutality (some­ willing to grant it. The Rebel legislators times quoted from affadavits), and imprison­ wrestled with all the problems of a fledgling ment during these years are almost overwhelm­ nation and dealt, too, with the ideological con­ ing. Yet more importantly, they vividly show flict inherent in the attempt of the archaic violence begetting models of black daring South to fight a "modern" war. Strangely, and courage. however, Wilfred Buck Yearns' "ground­ Then, during the mid-1960's, ever-increasing breaking" study. The Confederate Congress, confusion descended on the civil rights move­ has not inspired much further labor since its ment. Forman's earlier poise seems somewhat publication in 1960. shaken as he details the stormy relations of With The Anatomy of the Confederate Con­ SNCC with older civil rights groups like the gress, Professors Alexander and Beringer have NAACP, CORE, the Urban League, and the entered the field and begun to fill the his­ Southern Christian Leadership Conference and torical vacuum. Their book is excellent. Like with the newly emergent Black Panther Party. most excellent books, it raises as many ques­ Forman and SNCC are swept into contradic­ tions as it answers. Both questions and an­ tions, self-justification, and self-defense as they swers display the fascinating potential which respond to the challenge of the Black Panthers the topic has long possessed. and enter into tortuous negotiations with The authors have analyzed the backgrounds Stokely Carmichael and Eldridge Cleaver. of the members and their roll-call votes on Searching for middle positions on crucial significant issues in an attempt to identify questions, Forman for a time seems headed possible motive forces at work. Alexander

330 BOOK REVIEWS and Beringer then are able to make tentative their material well; they have been willing judgments about the structure of Confederate to seek the implications which lie beyond politics. The concept is not new; Sir Louis their quantitative conclusions. B. Namier pioneered the technique some years ago and in so doing changed the course of EMORY M. THOMAS British constitutional historiography. The re­ University of Georgia search design of The Anatomy of the Con­ federate Congress is at the same time simple and sophisticated—another way of saying that Luce and His Empire. By W. A. SWANBERG. the authors have rendered their complex meth­ (Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1972. odology and quantitative jargon intelligible Pp. xiii, 529. Illustrations, notes, index. to the general reader. While the conclusions $12.50.) of this study are not exactly startling, they do offer a solid base for further investigation and W. A. Swanberg has established himself interpretation of the Confederate experience. as the biographer extraordinaire of powerful Alexander and Beringer begin with the men American publishers, but where he treated who sat in the Congress. They chart the known Hearst and Pulitzer as publishers he now data for each member and then attempt to treats Henry Robinson Luce (1898-1967) as correlate backgrounds with votes. Ultimately a propagandist. they conclude that, although no hard and fast In a massively detailed and often thought­ pattern existed, the most reliable indices to ful book, Swanberg makes his way carefully an individual legislator's votes were his for­ through a complicated web of many strong mer party affiliation, his stand on secession, and diverse personalities, not the least of and the proximity of his constituency to the whom is Clare Boothe Luce, the beautiful military battle lines. The authors confirm the divorcee for whom Luce gave up his first view that no political parties as such developed wife after only three or four meetings. Not during the Confederate experience, although getting lost in the complexities of that lady Professor Beringer in a recent article in Civil herself is a feat in itself. War History (December, 1972) asserts that Quickly but adequately, Swanberg traces a "spirit of party" existed. The pro- and anti- Luce's early years from his birth in China administration factions which emerged on spe­ as the son of Presbyterian missionaries cific issues never seem to have coalesced into through Hotchkiss and Yale. After two years lasting groups. Interestingly, wealth and slave of puttering, he teamed with Briton Hadden— ownership were seemingly not significant con­ his arch-rival through both schools—in found­ siderations in member votes; as might be ex­ ing Time in 1923 as a newsmagazine that pected, personal reasons and whims were often cadged its news from newspapers and made important. no pretense at being objective but which made From their data and their tentative conclu­ both men millionaires by the time Hadden died sions about it, Alexander and Beringer ulti­ in 1929. mately contend that a politics of "pell mell" Swanberg presents Luce as a cold man of plagued the Confederacy. "Despite the far- enormous energy who was interested in ideas, reaching efforts of Confederate leaders to not people, and in feeding readers his own create a modern nation-state," they assert, "the biased interpretation of what was happening infighting and the nature of influences pro­ in and to the world. A man given to stam­ foundly affecting much of the roll-call be­ mering, a man to whom manners were un­ havior of Confederate lawmakers after 1863 important. Luce drove himself and his subordi­ cannot easily be equated to the operations nates—all of them expendable—in an atmo­ of an assembly of revolutionary zealots" (p. sphere of jungle savagery in which only the 340). Here there is some room to quarrel. bright and adaptable could survive. The authors look at the Confederates' legisla­ While Luce the person comes through some­ tive record and see a glass half-empty. Others, what clearly, the main emphasis really is on this reviewer included, may examine the same what Swanberg sees as the propagandistic material and see a glass half-full. Thanks to nature of all the Luce publications, revolv­ Alexander and Beringer, advocates of either ing around Protestantism, anti-Communism, point of view can now state their case with American world leadership, and conservative greater precision. The Anatomy of the Con­ ascendancy. Repeatedly, he emphasizes that federate Congress is a solid piece of scholar­ the propaganda came about through con­ ship. The authors have not only presented cealment of fact, distortion of statement, or

331 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 plain fabrication, claiming that by the 1930's identified with the home and men with the Luce had "become the world's most powerful marketplace. Hence, women generally have unacknowledged political propagandist" (p. shared a collective identity as homemakers. 141) whose opinions, by the late 1940's, Chafe argues that because men's work is "would be likely to reach at least a third and awarded more prestige, a breakdown of the tra­ perhaps more of the total literate population ditional division of labor by sex is the funda­ of the country." (p. 214) In automatically mental precondition for women's equality in presupposing that the readers swallowed the American society. Accordingly, he employs Luce line whole, Swanberg comes to sweep­ two indices to measure social change: wom­ ing generalizations about the potency of Luce en's employment patterns and public percep­ propaganda that are a bit hard to accept. tions of women's role. Chafe's conception Along the way he gives the reader thought­ of women as a collectivity, then, is based on ful, sometimes probing, analyses of Luce's the notion of caste. Although he is sensitive thought, philosophy, and motivation. Much to class differences in women's historical ex­ of the derivation can be traced through to periences, he is primarily concerned with the Luce's religious convictions—and the sense social role all women, regardless of class, have that he, too, was a missionary like his par­ shared. ents—which included an unquestioned inti­ Chafe presents two major theses. First, macy with God. he argues that the suffrage amendment did not This is undoubtedly the most comprehen­ fundamentally alter woman's role. Rather than sive (and sometimes tiringly so) biography dealing with the materials of the movement of any American publisher that has yet ap­ itself to document this thesis, as William peared, but it still is largely a hatchet job O'Neill and Aileen Kraditor have done. Chafe when all is said and digested. analyzes the failure of American feminism to bring about significant changes in women's OLIVER KNIGHT lives by tracing what happened to feminism University of Texas at El Paso after suffrage became a reality. Chafe attributes the woman movement's failure to a number of factors. In the first The American Woman: Her Changing Social, place, feminist leaders were unrealistic in Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970. expecting that American women would possess By WILLIAM H. CHAFE. (Oxford University sufficient feminist consciousness to push for Press, New York, 1972. Pp. xiii, 254. Notes, further sex-related legislation after they won bibliography, index. $7.95.) the franchise. Then too, internecine struggles, particularly over the proposed Equal Rights Often historians have equated the history Amendment, seriously weakened the movement of women with the history of organized femi­ internally. Most important. Chafe points out nism and, as a result, we still know very little that the suffrage movement offered a narrow about women's lives in periods without a political solution to what was really a social strong woman movement. The American problem. The vote, and the ideological argu­ Woman begins where most works end: with ments feminists advanced in its favor, could women's entry into national electoral politics. not affect American society's division of labor. Although Professor Chafe is more concerned For that reason. Chafe maintains, woman's with popular conceptions of woman's role role remained essentially unchanged in the and with women's organizational activity than years 1920-1940. he is with women's everyday lives, his book Chafe's second major thesis is more contro­ is the best work chronicling women's experi­ versial than his first. He argues that World ence in contemporary American history. War II produced fundamental change in wom­ Any historian dealing with women has to an's role. Unlike feminism, which attempted come to terms with the problem of defining to change behavior by changing attitudes, the women as a discrete historical subject. Chafe war brought about actual behavioral changes. is aware of the problems involved in formu­ He bases this argument on the striking changes lating a viable definition of women as a col­ in women's employment patterns during the lectivity. He takes sociological role theory war years. In the years before World War II, and the anthropological conception of a divi­ most women workers were young, single, and sion of labor by sex as starting points. Men of working-class background. In addition, once and women in American society have had a woman married, she usually expected to different work to perform, with women being leave the labor force permanently. This profile

332 BOOK REVIEWS

of the typical woman worker was beginning to Langer documents in her essay on women in change before 1940—many young middle- the telephone company, often have not seen class women, for example, entered the labor themselves as independent workers but as force as clerical workers—but it was during homemakers, mothers, and consumers who World War II, with the utilization of women are working to provide a better home. Hence, as a source of labor, that married middle-class attitudes toward women workers have often women with children entered the work force been extensions of the traditional female role. in significant numbers. After the war, women Finally, Chafe stresses women's changing remained in jobs outside the home, and mar­ place in the labor force during World War II ried women continued to enter the labor force to the neglect of other social forces and eco­ at a steadily increasing rate. Thus, Chafe nomic developments which have affected argues, the division of labor by sex began women's lives in recent history. He skips to break down during the war. quickly over changing consumption patterns, Unquestionably, World War II was a water­ family relationships, and the impact of a shed in the history of American women. Yet contraceptive technology on sexual mores, the argument that the war was the most im­ stating that "shifts in manners and morals portant agent of change in American women's did not interfere with the perpetuation of a lives is debatable. Chafe bases his argument sexual division of labor. . . ." In addition, he on the assumption that employment for wom­ pays little attention to the rise of a white- en outside the home, inasmuch as it alters collar, service economy in the 1920's—a devel­ the traditional division of labor between the opment which may well have had more sig­ sexes, automatically constitutes fundamental nificance for long-term employment trends change. He raises the issue of whether any than World War II, for most women wage employment is intrinsically more satisfying earners have been white collar workers. and socially liberating than work in the home To cover every important aspect of women's and acknowledges that historically women historical experience in the twentieth century have always been concentrated in low-paying, obviously would be impossible. Within the personally unrewarding jobs. He maintains, well-stated limits of his investigation. Chafe nevertheless, that involvement in the labor has made a contribution to our knowledge of force is the most important gauge of social twentieth-century women comparable to change. Eleanor Flexner's study of women in the In addition. Chafe argues that behavioral nineteenth century: he has delineated the change produces ideological change or, in broad outlines of women's history over a other words, that attitudes change to conform long time period. The American Woman is with reality. Certainly women are accepted rich in factual information and based on a far more readily in the work force than they wealth of source materials. It remains now were before World War II. Much of Chafe's for future studies to build on the foundation evidence also seems to indicate, however, that William Chafe has provided. this acceptance of women workers has not been based on totally new attitudes toward NANCY SCHROM women's role. During the war, solutions to University of Wisconsin—Madison the problems of trying to handle what amount­ ed to two jobs—home and work—remained on an individual level. The idea of day care From the Mountain. Edited with an introduc­ facilities, for example, never gained wide­ tion by HELEN WHITE and REDDING S. SUGG, spread acceptance. Then, too, working outside JR. (Memphis State University Press, Mem­ the home apparently did not change most phis, 1972. Pp. xxvi, 374. Illustrations, notes, women's perceptions of their role. According appendices, index. $15.00.) to surveys taken after World War II, women stated that they did not work for personal satis­ From the Mountain is an anthology of faction, but out of "economic necessity." What writing which appeared between 1936 and changed, as Chafe points out, was not women's 1945 in a small magazine successively titled rationale for working, hut the definition of Pseudopodia, North Georgia Review, and economic necessity. In the early years of South Today. The magazine's editors, Lillian the century, necessity meant subsistence; by Smith and Paula Snelling, were Southern the 1950's it meant gaining the means for up­ white women who shared a concern for psy­ ward mobility and for more and better con­ choanalysis, literature, and the problems of sumer goods. Women wage earners, as Elinor their native South. Miss Smith's home and

333 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 summer camp for girls located on top of woman on America's racial scene, a position Old Screamer Mountain near the town of she would occupy until her death in 1966. Clayton, Georgia, served as headquarters for Lillian Smith's sudden fame, however, the quarterly publication. From obscure be­ spelled the end for the little magazine which ginnings and a subscription list of twenty- had begun with the unlikely name Pseudo­ seven in 1936, by 1945, when it was discon­ podia. As big-name publications began cla­ tinued. Smith and Snelling's magazine was moring for her views, editing her own jour­ reaching an audience of 10,000. nal became an unnecessary burden for Miss By collecting many of the magazine's pieces Smith. Though her and Snelling's quarterly into one volume, Helen White and Redding died, the major themes it dealt with—particu­ Sugg have performed a valuable service for larly racism and feminism—remain quite students of Southern history and literature. alive. In capturing the spirit of their maga­ The years of Smith and Snelling's journal zine and rescuing it from oblivion. From the paralleled a rising interest in the problems Mountain accomplishes its purpose. of the American South. During this time many now-classic books about the region MORTON SOSNA were published—W. J. Cash's The Mind of Institute of Southern History the South, Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind, Howard Odum's Southern Regions of the United States, and the novels of Erskine Hugh Gaine: A Colonial Printer-Editor's Caldwell, William Faulkner, and Thomas Odyssey to Loyalism. By ALFRED LAWRENCE Wolfe, to name a few. In From the Mountain LoRENZ. (Southern Illinois University Press, they are reviewed and discussed perceptively, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1972. Pp. xiv, often brilliantly. Lillian Smith and Paula 192. Notes, bibliography, index. $6.95.) Snelling's irreverence toward the "Southern way of life" gave the two women an unusually In this compact study, Alfred Lawrence clear critical perspective from which to eval­ Lorenz, associate professor of journalism in uate intellectual moods concerning the region. Marquette University, deftly traces the per­ The most remarkable feature of Pseudo- sonal odyssey of Hugh Gaine (1726-1807) podia-North Georgia Review-South Today, from an obscure childhood in Northern Ire­ however, was the forthrightness with which land and a youthful apprenticeship in Belfast, its editors denounced racial discrimination through the publication of the influential and segregation. Northern whites and blacks New-York Mercury during the tumultuous era who shared this point of view never ceased to of the American Revolution, to his last years be amazed by the fact that here was a white as a bookseller and community leader in New periodical published in the South taking such York City. A dearth of personal papers has a position. Civil rights leader A. Phillip precluded a comprehensive biography; hence Randolph, for example, likened the magazine the focus is on Gaine's thirty-year career as to "the flash of a white diamond upon the publisher-printer of the Mercury with particu­ sands." If for no other reason than its ad­ lar attention paid to the crucial period 1764- mittedly heretical and isolated outlook, this 1776. now-forgotten quarterly demands attention. Lorenz offers us much more than what The magazine also served as an early out­ surely will long remain the standard life of let for the writing of Lillian Smith. In 1944 Gaine—no mean contribution in itself. Per­ Miss Smith finally published Strange Fruit, sonally and professionally, Gaine reflected a serious and candid novel about the tragic important characteristics of his age. His rags- consequences of an interracial love affair to-riches success story constitutes a case study in a deep South town. To the surprise of its of the socioeconomic mobility of early Amer­ author, the book became a runaway best­ ica. Arriving in the colonies in 1744 amid a seller. It ultimately sold over three million great wave of migration from Ireland, the copies and was translated into many lan­ energetic and opportunistic Gaine rose in only guages: overnight it turned a relatively ob­ seven years from journeyman printer to scure magazine editor into a celebrity. Judged founder and owner of the Mercury; on the obscene in Massachusetts (the novel used eve of the Revolution he ranked as one of the certain Anglo-Saxon expressions twenty-five most prosperous and prestigious newspaper­ years before they became fashionable) and men in America, besides having acquired later produced on Broadway, Strange Fruit over 6,000 acres of prime real estate near made Lillian Smith an important spokes­ Albany and a half-interest in a paper mill on

334 BOOK REVIEWS

Long Island. Gaine's career also affords in­ to state that when printed in Newark in Sep­ sights into the nature of colonial newspaper tember-October, 1776, Gaine's Mercury be­ enterprise, ranging from the mundane pe­ came the fourth newspaper in New Jersey cuniary and procedural dimensions of the (there were none in the colonial period) and business to the larger questions of the de­ incorrect to assert that no other paper was mands upon and responsibilities of the pro­ published in the state until 1791 (there were fession during times of civil strife and war­ five major papers published there in the fare. Finally, through Gaine we can glean a 1780's). Despite such critical comments, better understanding of the crisis of loyalty which in no way detract from the substance posed by the Revolution. While many Ameri­ of the work, this most recent volume in the cans either agonized over the proper decision New Horizons in Journalism series is a wel­ or adopted a resolute position, Hugh Gaine come addition to the literature of both early was more concerned with principal than prin­ American journalism and the American ciple. Ambitious, somewhat avaricious, and Revolution. essentially apolitical, he trimmed before the prevailing winds of public opinion. Solidly LARRY R. GERLACH aligned with the Whigs during the Stamp Act University of Utah and Townshend duties crises, he moved per­ ceptively toward conservatism after 1770 be­ cause of the excessive violence of the radicals The Rise and Fall of the People's Century: and the diminished threat to his purse. But Henry A. Wallace and American Liberalism, with the bloodshed at Lexington in April, 1775, he once again championed the cause of 1941-1948. By NORMAN D. MARKOWITZ. (The Free Press, New York, 1973. Pp. xi, rebellion, only to defect in November, 1776, 369. Illustrations, notes, bibliography. $8.95.) to the British for the duration of the war. For Gaine, and countless men like him, the Revolution was not primarily a matter of Henry Agard Wallace has fascinated Amer­ empire or independence but of survival. ica ever since the fiasco of his 1948 campaign for the Presidency. Norman Markowitz' book For all its merit the book remains largely is the latest attempt to explain Wallace's ap­ unsatisfying simply because there is insuffi­ peal and failure. The work contains two cient material from which to fashion an inti­ broad themes. One depicts Wallace as the mate portrait of Hugh Gaine. Gaine moves wartime leader of American liberals who were through the pages a shadowy figure, a silent trapped because they temporarily accepted subject. To compensate, Lorenz has adopted capitalist society on the assumption that ad­ a life-and-times approach in which the times, vancing technology would somehow cause unavoidably I think, overshadow the man; in capitalists to de-emphasize profits and be­ many ways this is more a biography of the come generally uncapitalistic. Markowitz newspaper than the publisher. Lorenz too argues that even tentatively accepting cap­ readily lets the Mercury speak for Gaine, italism forced the liberals to operate within which is especially risky since he consciously a framework of political economy defined avoided the role of editorialist, usually opened largely by capitalist leadership, and that for the paper to all views, and generally published capitalists to change their basic nature was popular views for reasons other than personal highly unlikely. The trap, in Markowitz' view, conviction. Similarly, the persistent interposi­ "displayed the poverty and ultimate empti­ tion of lengthy excerpts from Philip Freneau's ness" of the liberals. Markowitz' second epic poem, "Hugh Gaine's Life," adds little to theme portrays Wallace's plans for worldwide the presentation and detracts greatly from social reform as "fundamentally different" the flow of the narrative. Although Lorenz from those of such capitalist spokesmen as has made good use of printed source materials, the publisher Henry R. Luce, who advocated he has not effectively mined the manuscripts a vigorous expansion of the activities of of leading New Yorkers to flesh out Gaine's America's private corporations. Markowitz historical skeleton and place his activities in describes the protagonists of those alterna­ broader perspective. Students of the Revolu­ tives as struggling, albeit unequally, through­ tion will take exception to various portions of out the 1940's for leadership of America and the author's analysis of Revolutionary New thereby the United Nations and the world. York, but they will find only a few minor Particular disputes over policy toward Russia errors of fact. For example, it is misleading and the treatment to be accorded American

335 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 communists resulted in Wallace's dismissal preneurs to flourish and grow. from the Cabinet and his defeat at the polls. Whether or not Wallace's ideas would have The study is fairly well researched. Two altered "fundamentally" the society Luce gaps, though, do appear: the author's neglect stood astride, however, Wallace certainly of the records of the Reconstruction Finance thought the differences worth the costs of a Corporation, the public lending empire (which struggle; and those costs to him were sub­ Wallace coveted) of his enemy Jesse Holman stantial. Norman Markowitz has ably re­ Jones; and of the records of the Bureau of counted both the passion and pathos of that Agricultural Economics, the agency from man's ordeal. which Wallace's agricultural planners tried early to guide the course of United Nations' JAMES M. MCHALE programs through its first organ, the Food University of Wisconsin—Green Bay and Agriculture Organization. The writing, after the first two chapters, is also fairly good. Some ideological jargon—"philosoph­ The Radical Left and American Foreign Poli­ ical transubstantiation," "isolationist-nation­ cy. By ROBERT TUCKER. (The Johns Hopkins alist Right"—jolts the reader intermittently, Press, Baltimore, The Washington Center of but even most of that eventually comes to be Foreign Policy Research, 1971. Pp. ix, 156. decently defined. Notes, no index. $2.95.) The reader's major difficulty rests in recon­ In recent years a radically different group ciling the two major themes. Accepting Mark­ of writers has entered the debate over Ameri­ owitz' first contention, that the liberals can foreign policy during the Cold War. Rob­ planned to rely upon capitalism until it trans­ ert Tucker has written a contentious and, at figured itself, would seem to pre-empt the times, persuasive essay on the radical critique second, that liberals were "fundamentally" at of U.S. policies abroad. By contrasting "con­ odds with Luce's vision of an American Cen­ ventional" historiography with that of the tury. Markowitz notes in the later chapters radicals, he outlines the "distinctiveness" of that capitalism comes in different hues and the radical approach, which is also the basis rather stridently denounces interpretations for his criticisms, and their contributions to (largely of the so-called New Left, upon the study of policy. which his first two chapters so heavily lean) Conventional historians have argued that which lump Wallace with Luce as supporters U.S. policymakers have been "naive" and un­ of but slightly differing versions of a capital­ realistic in their approach to the world, not ist-oriented and expansionist American for­ thinking in terms of the national interest. eign policy. Markowitz thinks Wallace's pre­ On the other hand, radical historians have dilection for postwar programs of a govern­ found these policymakers to be realistic in mental and intergovernmental nature quite terms of maintaining the interests of Ameri­ dissimilar from Luce's reliance upon the can capitalism and often successful. Indeed, initiative of private corporations. The key the aggressive and "imperialistic" content of word, of course, is "fundamentally." No the Cold War policies has not been merely doubt Wallace and Luce differed on sub­ realistic, but has been derived from an "in­ stantive issues, such as the desirable amount stitutional necessity." of public control over a capitalist system. But Tucker considers the radical contention that if it is also granted that Wallace's public pro­ economic factors play a role in foreign policy grams would be circumscribed by conditions a genuine contribution to the debate. He also necessary for the prosperity of the private argues that their approach is "distinctive" but corporations, Markowitz neither demonstrates, not "new." The idea that socioeconomic struc­ nor is it easy to imagine, how even the tamed ture is the "sole determinant," or ultimate capitalism of Wallace would differ "funda­ determinant, of U.S. policy differentiates radi­ mentally" from that of Luce. Either Wallace's cals from all other historians and critics, in­ programs constituted socialism, or Wallace cluding the "moderate left." The logic of this was tied to a capitalism whose motive force, approach is often obtuse, and the evidence like Luce's, was private profit. This reviewer cited in its defense is inconclusive. More­ is unconvinced, moreover, that Wallace's es­ over, such evidence could serve to support pousal of a more humane capitalism through alternative conclusions. a world New Deal envisioned much other than fostering opportunity for small entre­ Empirical citations and the structural ar­ guments presented by some radical writers

336 BOOK REVIEWS neither prove that the U.S. depends on over­ can diplomatic interaction during the revolu­ seas raw material sources, nor that it relies tionary era, on the other hand, has received upon overseas trade and investment outlets little attention. Generally, historians have as prerequisites for the health of the American concluded that the difficulties confronting the economy. One wonders, however, how palat­ neighboring republic after 1910 stemmed from able Tucker's "autarkic" alternative would be the radical policies of the Mexican govern­ to U.S. corporations or any other group. The ment, especially as these applied to the hold­ author also finds the assertions that U.S.­ ings of foreigners. Soviet enmity and the origins of the Cold Smith has analyzed the economic programs War arose out of U.S. insistence on an "open of three revolutionary governments, controlled door" in Eastern Europe for investment and successively by Venustiano Carranza, Alvaro defense of West European economic inter­ Obregon, and Plutarco Elias Calles. Several ests, to be unconvincing. Furthermore, he points become clear during the course of asks, why are statements attributed to promi­ Smith's discussion. First, Smith shows that nent policy-makers concerning U.S. economic various groups of foreign investors, mainly "needs" more "revealing" than a document from the United States, opposed the Mexican such as the Truman Doctrine? While there is government's attempts to control their own some merit in this last point, the problem is nation's economy. The nearly one billion not unique to the study of the Cold War by dollars invested in Mexico by citizens of the radical historians or critics. United States gave these individuals and their Selection of evidence, particularly quota­ corporations a vital stake in the outcome of tions, is a problem endemic to all students of that political-social upheaval which began oc­ foreign affairs and, indeed, to all historical curring in Mexico after 1910. The United writers. That writers often do select evidence States government also became enmeshed in to fit preconceived notions should be a sur­ Mexican affairs as it moved naturally to back prise to no one. One glaring deficiency in the interests of the American financial com­ Tucker's essay, however, is his mishandling munity. Mexicans, then, had to reckon with of a major component of the radical argu­ the United States from the beginning of the ment: who makes, displays a consistent inter­ revolution. est in, and influences U.S. foreign policy, past and present? His references here are Next, Smith deals with the "interests." vague or constricted. Full consideration of American companies operating in the south­ this issue has an important impact on the ern republic desired to negate or at least understanding of "defense," perhaps beyond minimize the effects that the revolution might the mechanics of enemy identification and have on their own advantageous tax positions, geopolitics. built up during the period when Porfirio Diaz Tucker's book provides a useful paradigm made generous concessions to attract foreign for those who wish to attack the radical cri­ capital into Mexico. The entire problem even­ tique and some important considerations for tually centered around a provision in the its supporters. This makes his essay "must" Constitution of 1917. Briefly, Article 27 of reading for those interested in the subject. that document maintained that the Mexican nation could never alienate its sovereign own­ RICHARD L. ROE ership of the subsoil through the sale of University of Wisconsin—Madison property to private parties. Mexico could, under certain conditions involving questions such as land usage, even nationalize the hold­ The United States and Revolutionary Nation­ ings of individuals or corporations after in­ alism in Mexico, 1916-1932. By ROBERT demnifying the users. This article frightened FREEMAN SMITH. (University of Chicago investors, especially those connected with the Press, Chicago, 1972. Pp. vii, 288. Notes, extensive American oil and mining operations bibliography, index. $12.00.) in the southern nation. The fear engendered Professor Robert F. Smith's book is a by Article 27, Smith points out, far outran much-needed work. Previous studies of the the conservative economic programs actually United States' role in the Mexican Revolu­ put into effect by the Mexican revolutionaries. tion have concentrated on the spectacular. The nearly hysterical anti-Mexicanism of such Such episodes as the occupation of Vera Cruz companies as Doheny, Texaco, American, or the Pershing expedition have attracted Gulf, Sinclair, and Standard, Smith calls the several commentators. Long-term U.S.-Mexi­ "Article 27 Syndrome." Indeed, no American

337 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 property was confiscated, but Mexicans never capital in Mexico to offset partially the in­ relinquished the claim that they could do so. fluence of Americans, also have a direct This claim formed the basis for a sixteen- bearing on Smith's introductory remarks. year diplomatic wrangle between the United Robert F. Smith has made a valuable con­ States and Mexico. Article 27 formed the tribution to the history of American-Mexican very core of the concept of economic national­ relations during the revolutionary era. By ism which Secretary of Hacienda Albert Pani ignoring the dramatic as well as by avoiding and his "national development" group first concentration on personalities, he offers his espoused in 1917, but which had roots in the readers a detailed analysis of events which programs of the late Diaz period. Some Amer­ long have been confusing to students of the ican investors and their political allies afflict­ period. In short, Smith's work is excellent. ed by the "Article 27 Syndrome" compared Mexico's leaders to the Bolsheviks, some go­ RICHARD ZEITLIN ing so far as recommending direct military University of Wisconsin—Madison intervention. Most U.S. officials, however, desired to avoid military confrontations and France in America. By WILLIAM J. ECCLES. pursued instead a policy of dollar diplomacy. (Harper and Row, New York, 1972. Pp. xii, American capital, in the guise of State De­ 297. Illustrations, notes, annotated bibliogra­ partment arranged loans, would hopefully con­ phy, maps, index. $8.95.) vince Mexicans to soften their hard stand. Thomas Lament of the House of Morgan and William Eccles, in France in America, has Frank Fletcher of the State Department contributed new insights on the former French emerge finally as the leaders of that wing of empire in America. His study re-examines the the American political and financial commun­ rise and fall of this empire, and summarizes ity who realized just how much of a nonissue what happened to French institutions when Article 27 really was. these territories came under foreign domina­ tion. It is a well-written book which incorpo­ Through the efforts of Fletcher, Lament, rates the results of recent research. and finally Dwight Morrow, the neighboring After hesitant beginnings in the 1500's, republics signed the Bucareli Agreements in France acquired an immense domain which, 1927. This resulted in a modus vivendi which in the early 1700's, encompassed Canada, allowed Article 27 to remain on the books, Louisiana, and islands in the West Indies. and granted U.S. recognition to the Mexican The West Indian islands, the most profitable government. In return, Mexicans continued of all of France's American possessions be­ the policy of not confiscating American prop­ cause of trade, were also most vulnerable in erties. Even during the decade and a half of time of war. In a skillful manner, Eccles strained diplomatic relations, American in­ compares and contrasts the political, economic, vestments in Mexico continued to grow. It social, and other forces which shaped the de­ is true that Mexicans had gained partial con­ velopment of each of these territories. He trol of the oil industry in their own country relates the growth of the empire to the larger by government investments, but between 1910 historical context by reviewing the role of and 1924 over-all American holdings as well France with respect to colonization and poli­ as trade with Mexico increased. Realistically, tics; by discussing her conflicts with other Smith concludes. Article 27 had given an powers—especially Great Britain—and by an­ "aura of radicalism" to an essentially ortho­ alyzing the effects of colonial rivalries. With dox economic program. the conclusion of the Treaty of Paris in 1763 Smith's work suffers from one flaw. Al­ Britain emerged as a major power. France, though the author mentions the growing eco­ which in the contest against Britain had em­ nomic nationalism of the late Porfirio Diaz phasized a continental policy at the expense period, he never amplifies. Just how impor­ of its far-flung colonies, lost everything in tant and farsighted were the policies of the America except a few islands in the West late Diaz government? The experimentation Indies and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. with government purchases of railroads, for The story of Canada looms large in this instance, was an important precedent for the study. One of Eccles' main contributions is revolutionary government's approach to the to view French expansion in Canada from a petroleum industry. In addition, even some Canadian perspective. In this connection, he of the early Diaz programs, such as his suc­ makes several perceptive comments particu­ cessful attempts to involve English and French larly useful to American historians. Canadian

338 BOOK REVIEWS

settlers had a voice in self-government through 256); Louise Kellogg's The French Regime their militia captains who "were a linchpin in Wisconsin and the North-West, "although of the civil administration." The government dated has not been superseded. . . ." (p. 268). "was both responsive and responsible, and The comment that "French historians have to far from being arbitrary." In sharp contrast date shown more interest in the West Indies to existing institutions and conditions in the than in either Canada or Louisiana," (p. 258) homeland, French settlers benefited from should be balanced by that of Etienne Taille- such matters as an enlightened judiciary, mite, a French archivist who recently sur­ nominal taxes, appointments in administrative veyed some of the Canadian archives, who positions on a merit basis, and the availability made a plea for greater Canadian archival of land. Changes in the institutional frame­ co-operation. (La Gazette des Archives work, even more so than influences of the [France], no. 77, 1972, p. 120.) frontier, transformed Frenchmen into Canadi­ Because it is a long overdue re-evaluation ans. Unlike the American colonists, they saw of traditional assumptions, historians should no need to develop a nationalism or to seek not ignore this study. American historians, independence. There is no evidence to indi­ particularly those who deal with the early cate that the Roman Catholic Church, while period of Wisconsin history, will find this making substantial contributions to Canadian recent volume of the The New American development, wished to dominate the civilian Nation Series to be a valuable addition to authorities. That Canada should have been the historical literature. conquered by the British was by no means a foregone conclusion. Insufficient reinforce­ RENE C. ALLTMONT ments from France, policy differences on University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point strategy among leading colonial authorities, including the failure to use Canadian militia FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 1882-1928, effectively, were elements which contributed A History. By KENNETH S. DAVIS. (G. P. heavily toward French defeat. After the con­ Putnam's Sons, New York, 1972. Pp. 936. quest, British authorities gradually estab­ Notes and sources, acknowledgments, bibli­ lished English institutions. In order to pre­ ography, index. $15.00.) serve their cultural heritage, French-Canadians resisted the policy of assimilation by becom­ Two decades ago Frank Freidel published ing intensely nationalistic. The consequences a superb study of Franklin Roosevelt's early of British policy are still evident today. years. In two volumes, published in 1952 and 1954, he examined Roosevelt's life up to his A few remarks, perhaps indicating the election as governor of New York in 1928. author's personal predilections, detract from Now, Kenneth Davis covers approximately an otherwise balanced account. In discussing the same span of time and uses even more a raid conducted by New Englanders in 1655 pages to do so. Davis does not attempt to on Canadian soil, Eccles mentions that "the replace Freidel as Roosevelt's leading biogra­ brave work done, they sailed back to Boston" pher. Instead, the new author draws heavily (p. 30). In comparing the paucity of great on the earlier work and has a high regard Canadian statesmen with the large number of for it. "The great pioneer of Roosevelt schol­ outstanding colonial American statesmen, arship, upon whose work all subsequent Eccles makes the controversial comment that scholarship has greatly depended, is Frank the American republic has never since Freidel," Davis writes. And he suggests that matched its earlier performance. Using the when finished Freidel's work "will constitute example of the decline of superstition to indi­ as near an approach to a truly definitive cate the growing secularization of society, biography of FDR as we are likely ever to Eccles mentions that in New France, unlike achieve." in New England, no one was executed for Although related, the two books are not sorcery. The comparison is misleading be­ identical. Freidel focused sharply on Roose­ cause in this matter attitudes in New England velt and demonstrated great powers of an­ did not accurately reflect those of the other alysis, especially of politics. With painstaking colonies. care, the biographer defined the forces that The bibliographic essay, a must for anyone shaped his subject's development and showed interested in the French period, is critical and the New Dealer emerging slowly, step by step. forthright: "Parkman's works must now be Davis does not deal in the same confident regarded as period literary pieces. . . ." (p. and successful way with the stages and forces

339 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 in FDR's life. The author's greatest strength tions with Marguerite Le Hand was, appar­ lies in his descriptive powers. The most im­ ently, not available to Davis.) The book is pressive features of his book are his descrip­ worth reading, chiefly because of the author's tions of situations, scenes, moods, the appear­ talent as a writer, but Freidel's book remains ance and personality of individuals, and in­ the most distinguished account of Roosevelt's terpersonal relations. His powers are revealed early years and one that deserves a wide most clearly in the handling of such episodes readership. as the marriage of Eleanor and Franklin and Franklin's bout with polio. RICHARD S. KIRKENDALL Indiana University This is not to say that FDR does not grow and mature in these pages. The author does not define the stages and forces with pre­ Troubled Alliance: Turkish-American Prob­ cision, but he enables the reader to sense and lems in Historical Perspective, 1945—1971. feel that changes were taking place. I, for By GEORGE S. HARRIS. (American Enterprise example, now see more clearly than before Institute for Public Policy Research, Wash­ that Roosevelt became a more attractive per­ ington, D.C.; Hoover Institution on War, son in the 1920's, after his crippling illness. Revolution and Peace, Stanford, California, Davis's book does not have the sharp focus 1972. Pp. 263. Map, tables, appendices, on Roosevelt that is a major and admirable chronology, bibliography, index. $4.50.) characteristic of Freidel's work. Davis devotes Professor Harris is the first scholar to trace more space to FDR's ancestors and to the the evolution of the Turkish-American rela­ other people in his life. More important, he tionship through the entire quarter-century pays much more attention to the history of following World War II. Turkey has not the period. While reading the book, I often received the attention it deserves as a micro­ found this an annoying and seemingly un­ cosm of at least three central issues in postwar necessary feature, but by the end, I could see American foreign relations. In Turkey, astride the author's purposes. Davis's historical es­ two continents and near the gateway to a says, which are especially long when he is third, interests of the United States and its dealing with the Wilson Administration, are NATO allies collided with those of the Soviet designed to give the reader not only a sense Union. Second, the postwar connection un­ of the forces that influenced Roosevelt but derscores the strains associated with the in­ also a sense of his historical significance at tervention of a rich industrial nation attempt­ different times. ing to assist the development of a less weal­ Davis's sense of Roosevelt's changing sig­ thy, predominantly agrarian country. And, nificance supplies the justification for the finally, the nationalistic sensibilities of a decision to end the book with his acceptance proud people made them deeply suspicious of of Al Smith's plea that he run for the gov­ extending to Americans privileges that ernorship. It was, Davis concludes, a "decisive smacked of the hated capitulations of Otto­ moment when he came to the end of his years man days. of youthful plasticity and growth, of educa­ When the war ended, the United States had tion in apprenticeship, the crucial years of a good reputation among many Turks who bitter trial and testing." Prior to this time, remembered numerous humanitarian enter­ FDR "had been at best a minor figure in prises conducted over the years and admired great historical scenes dominated by other the recently demonstrated military prowess actors. . . . Now destiny beckoned him to of the United States. Harris portrays the the very center of the stage." Turks as the suitors immediately after the Writing for the general reader, Davis as­ war. In their "search for security" they sumes that his audience needs these historical sought Western, especially American, support essays. He also assumes that he need not add to fend off Soviet demands regarding the as much to our knowledge of Roosevelt as straits and the northeastern provinces of Freidel did. Davis does supply a much larger Kars and Ardahan. During 1946, the Turks discussion of Roosevelt's childhood and youth, were gratified by evidence that the United subjects for which amazing amounts of in­ States was at last engaging its power and in­ formation are available, and he does discuss fluence to counteract Soviet pressures on Iran Roosevelt's relations with Lucy Mercer, a and Turkey, even ordering American war­ story that was not available to Ereidel. (The ships to the eastern Mediterranean. The Turks more recently revealed story of FDR's rela­ were nonetheless somewhat surprised when

340 BOOK REVIEWS

Washington linked Turkey with Greece in the Turkish-American amity. crisis atmosphere attending the pronounce­ Harris's training in Middle Eastern history ment of the Truman Doctrine on March 12, and his service at the American Embassy in 1947. Turks were generally pleased and Ankara enabled him to convey a feel for the pressed hard for American assistance to build texture of Turkish social structure and poli­ their military deterrent and promote eco­ tics. He relies heavily on Turkish sources, nomic development The two countries con­ particularly newspapers, which he sees as an tinued to draw closer as containment moved important channel of communication for the into its economic phase. The Marshall Plan small urban decision-making elite. Among helped to increase Turkey's national income a population of some 36,000,000 (1970 cens­ by 45 per cent within five years, the improve­ us), there are only slightly "more than a ment being especially marked in food pro­ million living high school graduates . . . and duction. perhaps not over a quarter of a million uni­ Harris portrays the second phase of post­ versity graduates." war Turkish-American relations as a Cold Harris cautions that he has concentrated War partnership, inaugurated by Turkey's on the problems of the alliance rather than on campaign for full membership in NATO, its accomplishments. He remains optimistic which it achieved early in 1952. Even as the about the prospects for the alliance, even alliance reached its apogee during the Men- though he anticipates further American dis­ deres years of the 1950's, the expanding engagement and readjustments. Perhaps his American presence generated stress and some desire to counteract the differences troubling anti-Americanism, though most Turks re­ the alliance makes him overly sanguine in his tained a warm respect for the United States. prognosis. When the international climate altered in the This is a welcome book, strong on the 1960's, the objections surfaced. This third military co-operation, on technical and eco­ phase, designated by Harris as "Loosening nomic aid, and on the narcotics problem. the Bonds," paralleled the partial detente in Harris's theme allows for only brief mention the Cold War. Finding their northern neigh­ of the extensive cultural interplay promoted bor no longer so menacing, the Turks were by private Americans, including their founda­ increasingly taken up with divisive internal tions and universities. Undoubtedly other problems and by the imbroglio with Greece scholars will eventually pursue in depth the over Cyprus, which caught Washington be­ leads he provides. Adding to the book's utility tween its two NATO partners. Turkish na­ are a map, five appendices, a chronology, tionalists were deeply offended by President tables of economic and military aid, plates Lyndon Johnson's admonition of June 5, 1964, (including photos taken by the author), and to eschew force. "The Johnson letter," writes an extensive bibliography. Harris, "created a sharp divide in the Turkish- American relationship." JOHN A. DENOVO University of Wisconsin—Madison Many Turks were finding Americans more materialistic and less altruistic than formerly. Peace Corps volunteers became suspect as First Freedom: The Responses of Alabama's agents of American cultural imperialism. Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction. Many of the troubles stemmed directly or in­ By PETER KOLCHIN. {Contributions in Amer­ directly from the "ungainly sprawl" of Ameri­ ican History, No. 20. Greenwood Publishing can projects, chiefly the military presence— Company, Westport, Connecticut, 1972. Pp. army and air force bases, fleet visits to Turk­ xxi, 215. Notes, maps, tables, bibliograph­ ish ports, behavior of American military ical essay, index. $10.00.) personnel, and intelligence-gathering opera­ tions. A developing Leftist trend among In this concise volume Peter Kolchin exam­ Turkish youth, labor, and segments of the in­ ines the aftermath of Emancipation as it has telligentsia trumpeted charges that American infrequently been examined in the past— imperialism threatened Turkish sovereignty from the viewpoint of the black community. and that the United States designed its eco­ Excepting the work of such scholars as Willie nomic aid to retard Turkish industrialization. Lee Rose and Joel Williamson, Kolchin argues Not the least of the corrosive issues by the that "most revisionists" have been "primarily early 1970's was the narcotics problem: the concerned with how much whites did for opium poppy of Anatolia proved a curse to blacks, or what they did to them." Here the

341 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973

author focuses on "black actions and atti­ unified family pattern," Kolchin argues that tudes" in Alabama during the chaotic transi­ "whatever family instability there is among tional period from 1865 to 1870. Disclaiming twentieth-century urban blacks must be the any intention of writing a general history of result of the disruptive conditions faced by the Negro in Alabama during Reconstruction, those families in the ghetto, not the perpetu­ Kolchin examines the new black institutions ation of slave patterns." and social patterns which emerged rapidly First Freedom is a clearly written, well- after Emancipation. He argues that it was organized, and significant study based on here, not in the changes wrought by Radical solid research. The limited available black Republican rule, that the real revolution in source material has been well supplemented Reconstruction took place. by white sources, newspapers, government re­ Judging the Alabama black experience to ports, and census returns. Quantitative tech­ be typical of the "newer. Deep South cotton niques have also been skillfully utilized in states," Kolchin questions the validity of the the analysis of migration, the black family, frequently challenged Elkins thesis. For once class structure, and political behavior. It is, emancipated, the Alabama blacks refused to however, unfortunate that Kolchin chose to conform to the docile, childlike, and depen­ restrict his study to the brief period from dent Sambo stereotype. In all walks of life, 1865 to 1870. Although he argues that "vir­ they quickly demonstrated "their passionate tually all of the significant new developments attachment to freedom and their desire to of Reconstruction occurred in the immediate live as independently as possible." First Free­ postwar years," it is difficult to believe that dom examines the economic, political, social, the eventful 1870's in Alabama did not mod­ and legal aspects of that search for freedom. ify or intensify earlier black attitudes, insti­ From the book, two main patterns of black tutions, or patterns of behavior significantly behavior emerge. On the one hand, because enough to form an integral part of a study they viewed the values and behavior of whites such as this. as the values and behavior of free men, blacks attempted to act in the same way. They JOHN H. SCHROEDER quickly accepted white, middle-class values University of Wisconsin—Mihvaukee and grasped the importance of education. Thus they tended to emulate whites "whether this meant insisting on a formal marriage, Massachusetts Bay: The Crucial Decade, having women play a more subordinate role, 1640-1650. By ROBERT EMMET WALL, JR. or teaching their children to read and write." (Yale University Press, New Haven and Lon­ On the other hand, Alabama blacks asserted don, 1972. Pp. X, 292. Maps, notes, bibliogra­ their freedom and independence in a variety phy, index. $9.75.) of ways. They migrated frequently during the late 1860's, sought economic independence A little-noticed struggle for political power as agricultural laborers, and moved toward occurred in Massachusetts Bay in the years a meaningful role in educational matters. In between 1641 and 1648 when the deputies addition, Alabama freedmen refused to re­ "wished to reduce the prestige of the magis­ main passively dependent on whites in politics trates and enhance their own." In describing or religion. Most striking was the growth of this bid for greater influence by the deputies, black churches and black separatism in reli­ Robert Emmet Wall focuses on several minor gion. and seemingly unrelated incidents, including the theft of Goodwife Sherman's sow, the Although his findings generally agree with controversy over a commander for the Hing- those of Joel Williamson in his study of black ham militia, and the impeachment trial of Reconstruction in South Carolina, Kolchin John Winthrop. These stories and others all pushes his conclusions farther. Like several have significant relevance to two controversial other historians now re-evaluating the sub­ governmental practices on which the deputies' ject, Kolchin claims considerable strength and objections to the magistrates' "arbitrariness" stability for the black family: "By 1870, were centered: the Standing Council and the family structure among Alabama blacks did Negative Voice. Wall explores this relevance not appear to differ appreciably from that in considerable fascinating and rewarding among Alabama whites." Because Alabama detail. (It is worth noting, as Wall does not, freedmen were largely successful in their at­ that recent Yale Press books by T. H. Breen tempt to strengthen and "to create a more and Stephen Foster also deal with several of

342 BOOK REVIEWS

the same incidents and issues, though more tion—raised by Gorton, Vassall, and Child briefly and in different contexts.) alike—as an internal issue having as much The book is grounded on Wall's search of capacity to unite the opposition as the issue local records on population, estate inventories, of external intervention from Parliament. and church membership which enable him to (One wonders, for instance, at the absence of document the rise of a "lesser gentry" to any mention whatever of Nathaniel Ward's local office-holding prominence in the 1630's widely known 1647 antitoleration book. The and 1640's. This demographically established Simple Cobler of Aggawam, especially con­ information, laid out entirely in chapter one, sidering Wall's recognition of Ward's influ­ underlies the careful examination of both ence with the deputies and his residence in events and literary documents which follows. the pro-deputy village of Ipswich.) The in­ Thanks to Wall's statistical data, his narrative ternal danger of subversion by radicals, after ability, and his sensitivity to the details of all, was a more continuing threat in the fifties well-known writings (e.g., Winthrop's Jour­ than the fear of Parliament's intrusions and nal) , as well as more obscure ones (e.g., thus more likely to have a lasting impact. Winslow's Hypocrisie Unmasked), we do in­ Still, whether or not one is convinced by deed find new meaning in old stories. For Wall's explanation for the end of this power instance. Wall's description of John Win­ struggle, it is clear that this eminently read­ throp's impeachment proceedings and the able book is a valuable addition to knowledge famous concluding address on liberty enables for students of early American history and the reader to see this event not just as a literature alike. personal triumph by the staunch governor, but also as a resounding defeat of an ill- SARGENT BUSH, JR. conceived attempt by the deputies to embar­ The University of Wisconsin—Madison rass and compromise the magistrates as a group. After Winthrop's victory in the case. Pan-Africanism and Education: A Study of Wall insists, the deputies' bid for power never Race Philanthropy and Education in the regained potency. Throughout the book Wall's Southern States of America and East Africa. focus enables him thus to enrich our under­ By KENNETH JAMES KING. (Clarendon Press, standing of the context of key incidents in Oxford, 1971. Pp. 296. Illustrations, notes, early Massachusetts history while also im­ bibliography, maps, appendix, index. $11.95.) proving our understanding of the writings which they produced. It is frequently evident The educational and political development that this book could not have been written of colonial societies has provided scholars with without Winthrop's Journal or the Winthrop interesting comparisons between black Afri­ Papers, but it is equally true that until Wall's ca and black America. C. Vann Woodward book appeared our understanding of certain wrote of the similar development of racism details in these crucial primary texts was less in politics and the exclusion of blacks from clear than it now becomes. positions of authority in both South Africa and the southern United States in The Strange The work, however, is not consistently con­ Career of Jim Crow. Reviewing the "complex vincing. In discussing the appeals of Massa­ interrelationships between Africans, American chusetts court decisions which Samuel Gorton, Negroes and their white sponsors in educa­ William Vassall, and Robert Child made to tion," Kenneth J. King argues that Booker Parliament, Wall argues that the deputies Washington's mode of industrial education were so concerned to "present a more unified and accommodation in America's black belt front" to these (and later) threats to the strongly influenced white colonial systems of colony's right to govern itself that they "set learning. His Pan-Africanism and Education aside" forever their previous purposeful bick­ examines the development of industrial edu­ ering with the magistrates. One could accept cation and American philanthropic efforts in this judgment more comfortably were there East Africa, and suggests that the principles more concrete evidence that the deputies con­ of "self-help" reinforced racist social insti­ sciously saw the issue this way and said so. tutions. Unfortunately, Wall's proofs are less substan­ King's study is less of an examination of tial in this portion of the book than earlier. pan-africanism than an overview of the East One way in which he has probably oversimpli­ African policies of the Phelps-Stokes Fund fied his explanation is in his tendency not to and other white American paternalistic agen­ see the issue of religious and political tolera­ cies. Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones, the educational

343 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 director of the Phelps-Stokes Fund and a to the traditions of the white South." John L. sociologist, firmly believed that black Afri­ Dube, the founder of the Zulu Christian In­ cans could be uplifted morally and economic­ dustrial School of South Africa and creator ally by applying Washington's doctrines to of the militant African National Congress, the African situation. King states that "there was known as "the Booker Washington of was the powerful example of the Southern South Africa." gentleman wholly converted" to the principle If King's impressive argument suffers, it is of black industrial education in Dr. James because he neglects adequately to trace tradi­ Dillard, president of the Jeanes and Slater tional black African systems of indigenous Funds. The Phelps-Stokes Fund's African education and the total response to American Commissions of the 1920's convinced British philanthrophy. The Kikuyu farmers of Ken­ colonial administrators to finance black edu­ ya's highlands had and still maintain radically cational institutions. The Jeanes Schools of different concepts of labor and learning than Kenya and the Carnegie Corporation spent British or Americans. Africans do not have thousands of dollars "on the development of the notions of progress or self-improvement teaching materials that were adapted to the that were the foundation of industrial educa­ African mentality and environment. . . ." tion. Without the traditional western view of Pan-Africanism and Education observes land exploitation and the Calvinist work that the central purpose of industrial educa­ ethic, black Africans understood the potential tion was a means "to prevent the political militancy of Washington's philosophy, rather growth of Africans while increasing their than the dynamics of its economics. value to the economy." Two decades prior to In the mid-twentieth century, sociologist the Jeanes Schools, the British colonialists Gunnar Myrdal declared that "no effective sought to control the African missionary- industrial training was ever given to Negroes" trained elite by forcing them into industrial in the American South, except in the most institutes. Technical high schools were estab­ menial positions. Washington's industrial lished for blacks in West Africa by 1899, and education in the United States and in Africa blacks themselves—like South Africa's John helped to maintain Jim Crow. Pan-Africanism L. Dube—organized their own trade schools. and Education charts the growth of modern British anthropologists and government lead­ black education through extensive research ers "joined the antimission chorus," claiming in philanthropic institutions, missionary ar­ that "the most appropriate way of African­ chives, and universities in Europe, Africa, izing education was to make it industrial." and America. King's final observation, that Thus, when Booker Washington's particular "the Negro could" not be "immunized against form of industrial education began being politics" through industrial education, gives promulgated by American millionaires, it new meanings to our understanding of black found an anxious audience in British Africa. nationalism and pan-africanism. As in America, white colonialists used the Tuskegee doctrine to educate a black prole­ W. MANNING MARABLE tariat while keeping strict controls on black University of Maryland—College Park nationalist demands. The Politics of Jacksonian Finance. By JAMES Remarkably, this limited form of learning MCFAUL. (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, helped to foster increasing black demands for 1972. Pp. XV, 230. Notes, bibliography, index. economic and political opportunities. In "de­ $9.75.) parting from white, western standards" of education. King states, the Phelps-Stokes Because the Jacksonian financial revolu­ financed schools helped to build black "com­ tion was such a turning point in American munity consciousness." In these new schools, history, many students will welcome a book black children began to learn "the achieve­ like this. Under the Jacksonians, the Hamil- ments of their own race." Indeed, the entire tonian idea of a federal government made Tuskegee program tended to excite black strong by its debtor obligation to American radicals. Tuskegee's financial self-sufficiency citizens was annulled, and so was the debtor greatly impressed Africans, who were general­ notion of an elastic paper currency institu­ ly unaware of Washington's "very consider­ tionalized through a national bank. In the able compromises" to attain such prominence. name of "unionism," a euphemism for cultur­ Black nationalist Harry Thuku termed Wash­ al pluralism, the Jacksonians objected to cen­ ington's college "an island of black defiance tralization in practically every form. They

344 BOOK REVIEWS proposed, instead, a different set of ideas. party members?" First, the federal government was to be a Sandwiched between the introduction and solvent rather than a debtor creature of Amer­ conclusion are the book's six meaty chapters; ican citizens. This, the Jacksonians hoped, and here is where the author has narrowed would render that government relatively pow­ his important subject into an institutional erless. Second, the American monetary system and political tunnel. The thesis of chapter would be standardized but not centralized two, for example, is that the banking interest through an impersonal (i.e., nongovernment) in general did not involve itself in politics and regulator of the money system, specie. After that state banks did not support President these Jacksonian ideas were implemented dur­ Jackson's "Bank War." Chapter three: the ing the 1830's and 1840's, they became myth- Democratic party was really interested in cen­ ologized in folklore through which the Jack­ tralized banking in spite of opposition from sonians fooled contemporaries—and many hard money Jacksonians, and all of them were historians ever since—into thinking of the not interested in simply extending the "spoils 1840's and 1850's as "America's age of laissez system" to state banks. Chapter four: al­ faire." McFaul has chosen a very important though the Jacksonians were much more di­ subject indeed. vided over state bank regulation and hard Unfortunately, The Politics of Jacksonian money doctrine than their political opposition, Finance is disappointing to these as well as to they did try bank regulation through the several other considerations. For one thing, states. Chapter five: the lack of congressional its ambiguous title promises much but de­ action on banking indicates the divisions with­ livers very little. In spite of the bibliographic in the Democratic party over the regulation pretensions of the preface, the first, and the of banking, and the attempt at a national last chapters, the subject of the book is really banking policy followed from the failure to a congressional and party history of ideas regulate banking through the states. Chapter about American money and banking during six: the Treasury's role grew as a result of the administrations of Jackson and Van Buren the internal differences within the Democratic from 1828 to 1840. This severely restricts the party and indicates how the Jacksonians were scope of the book, of course; but more im­ nationalists or centralists about money—pro­ portantly, it reveals how the author has spent viding that money was specie and that gov­ too much time researching and writing and ernment regulated such specie-money; but not enough time thinking about the subject. what was increasingly apparent was the gap between the party's practice and its rhetoric. The implicit thesis of the book, for exam­ Chapter seven: the emergence of a strong ple—that political or party considerations group favoring bank regulation within the rather than business or economic conditions party forced Van Buren's administration to played the determining role in the banking adopt the Independent Treasury scheme as a and monetary policies of the Democratic par­ compromise to unite both the pro-regulation ty during the 1830's—is one of those silly and hard money wings of the party. Such a arguments that a few historians continue to research design as this is better adapted to address. The premise is wrong to begin with an article than to a book. because historians can never know the pre­ cise motivations of individuals in any given Within this limited design, McFaul con­ event. But even worse, McFaul has used a cludes that the Jacksonians developed a mone­ methodology which precludes any conclusion tary policy that opposed both the expansion that would even come close to answering his of credit and a laissez-faire relationship be­ initial query. If the author really wished to tween the federal government and society. argue motivations he should have presented However, the author does not seem to under­ to his reader fuller social data about all of stand how and why the Jacksonians began as the individuals concerned in the events that social conservatives who wanted to decentral­ he discusses. By narrowing his discussion to ize the federal government, but who then dis­ a few party leaders and by relying upon covered that they had to become centralists strings of quotations from these few partici­ in order to continue in power. Their rhetoric pants that "explain" their actions, McFaul of decentralization was not their reality. narrates old-fashioned political history at its Moreover, this discovery that the power of the best, but leaves the reader to wonder: "What federal government existed independent from does it really mean to say that party considera­ themselves and everyone else led the Jack­ tions overrode all objections of individual sonians to alter the rules of the political game.

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McFaul's misunderstanding of power politics tory of Indian-white contacts and most docu­ —and, indeed, of American society in gen­ ment selections are preceded by an explana­ eral—during the 1830's leads him lamely to tory headnote. Chapters HI and IV which conclude: "The significant event during the cover the years since 1775 are the most solid. Jacksonian era was not the triumph of laissez Particular attention is given to Andrew Jack­ faire or a protoregulatory state but the emer­ son and the removal of the Five Civilized gence and establishment of a new political Tribes. The most infamous white massacres party system." Had McFaul thought more among the Plains Indians, Sand Creek and about his topic he would have realized that Wounded Knee, are also included. Through­ this is a starting and not a concluding state­ out these chapters special attention is paid ment and should appear on page one rather to the insistence by the dominant society that than on page 211 (and in a book that deals the Indian people must give up their land and with this enormously complex topic in a mere their way of life, and conform to white stan­ 216 pages!). dards of "civilization." The alternative al­ The pity of this book is that its large de­ ways was death by sword and bullet, or ma­ sign—its paradigm—is too much shaped by terial and mental poverty. Under federal ad­ bibliographic controversy and not enough by ministration relatively few Indians could ad­ genuine work in primary sources. McFaul has just, so that even today material and mental obviously researched some of the primary poverty, and on occasion the bullet, is too materials; but it is a pity that he did not often the alternative for failure to conform discard his bibliographic blinders and under­ to white standards of "civilization." stand the subject as the participants at the This Country Was Ours is more than a time understood it, as well as how we do to­ documentary history. The final chapter is a day. Everyone knew, for example, that bank­ miscellany of materials that among other top­ ing had nothing to do with money and every­ ics contains information on Indian population thing to do with credit; it was not an issue and political organization, and reprints Pro­ in today's common terms of understanding. fessor Vogel's excellent essay on "The Indian If McFaul had learned how banking and in American History." I doubt, however, the American society operated during the 1830's, assertion in this essay that Pontiac's uprising and had fit this knowledge to party politics, and the royal proclamation in 1763 "launched the book would have been an important—and a chain of events leading to our independence" perhaps even "seminal"—work. But unless (p. 298). 1 also doubt that Benjamin Frank­ historians pay closer attention to what the lin admired the Six Nations Confederacy ex­ primary materials say, they will go on address­ cept to point out to the men assembled at ing one another's theories and simply repeat­ Albany in 1754 and later at Philadelphia in ing the same inane mistakes as others who 1775 that if "savages" could band together to came before them. meet a common problem why could not "civil­ ized" men. Franklin also was aware of the GARY L. BROWNE Swiss Confederation and the United Provinces Wayne State University of the Dutch. Despite the comprehensiveness of the his­ This Country Was Ours: A Documentary His­ tory perhaps greater emphasis should have tory of the American Indian. Edited by ViRGIL been given to Indian leadership and to Indian J. VoGEL. Foreword by Sol Tax. (Harper organizations. The oratory of a Six Nation & Row, New York. 1972. Pp. xxix, 473. diplomat from the eighteenth century, such $12.95.) as the speeches of Canassatego at the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, should have been in­ This Country Was Ours is the most im­ cluded as should have a speech by Tecumseh portant of the dozen or so documentary his­ and something by John Ross. Little attention tories of the American Indian published dur­ is given to religious leadership as expressed ing the past ten years. The basic organiza­ by Handsome Lake and Wovoka. Completely tion is chronological from prehistory to the ignored in the documentary history was the present. The history unfolds through the use role of the middle-class educated Indian in of a wide variety of materials whose narrators Indian organizations at the turn of the twen­ are Indian people as well as white civilian tieth century and the activities of the Native and government observers. Each of the chap­ American Church. On occasion the selection ters has an introduction which traces the his­ of sources for documents was handled too

346 BOOK REVIEWS casually. Reprint editions usually were used, Versailles era and the 1920's. He proves with­ even Henry Steele Commager (ed.). Docu­ out a shadow of a doubt that Dulles under­ ments of American History, 1968 edition, for stood the major trends of the twentieth cen­ the Proclamation of 1763. tury, and was prepared to adjust with them. But the selection of sources for documents The villain of the piece is Congress. Over is a technical matter and does not take away and over again the author invokes Congress from the success of the history. An additional and public opinion as the evil spirits which treat comes from a perusal of the appendices prevented a flexible Cold War policy by the which provide significant dates and events in Eisenhower Administration. The point is Indian-white relations, brief biographies of overdrawn; did Dulles never have an oppor­ famous full-blood and mixed-blood Indians, tunity to educate or lead the legislators in lists of appropriate audio-visual materials, of another direction? His explanation of the museums with Indian collections, of govern­ Secretary's position on neutralism is the weak­ ment agencies, and of Indian organizations est in these terms; his discussion of the Suez and publications. Professor Vogel concludes crisis probably the best. the volume with the best bibliography on the Although Guhin has posited a flexible American Indian that I have seen. Dulles on revolutionary questions, there is no effort to come to grips with such questions RussELL S. NELSON, JR. as the Iranian coup in 1953, the Guatemalan University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point episode of 1954, or the revolutionary impli­ cations of the war in Indochina. He makes John Foster Dulles: A Statesman and His a strong case that Dulles was not panting to Times. By MICHAEL A. GUHIN. (Columbia get involved in the last-named situation, but University Press, New York, 1972. Pp. viii, neglects clandestine aid after the Geneva con­ 404. Illustrations, notes, select bibliography, ference and the implications for later policy­ index. $12.95.) makers of those policies. Generally, the book is strongest in dealing Was there a "new" John Foster Dulles? with European problems, although there are You remember the "old" Dulles—that doc­ some surprising omissions in this area, too. trinaire Presbyterian moralist who ran the There is no discussion of Dulles's strong nation's foreign policy in the Eisenhower feeling that everyone, including the Russians, years. Well Michael Guhin says it never would be safer with Germany inside NATO. happened that way. Guhin's "new" Dulles is There is no comment on Dulles and de Gaulle, a chip off the old realist block, a tough-mind­ especially important in the post-Suez period. ed pragmatist. You know the type: cool, Perhaps these are really complaints that flexible, wary of cold war "truths," and pri­ Guhin did not write another book than the marily concerned with preventing the country one he has given us. from slipping back into narrow isolationism. Nevertheless, I found such omissions sur­ In this book Dulles is all but indistinguish­ prising in what purports to be a major re­ able from his predecessors and his successors. assessment of the Secretary as a statesman Borrowing heavily from political science within his times. After spending the bulk of concepts, Guhin talks about Dulles's "opera­ the book pragmatizing John Foster Dulles, tional code" and the operational influences Guhin finally concludes that there were, in upon him. These, he writes in his conclusion, effect, two DuUeses. The Dulles of the first "go a substantial distance toward explaining Eisenhower Administration, and a second much of Dulles' political style, his so-called Dulles who had grown in office and who re­ preaching, and his 'grass-roots' approach to turned to the flexible student of international foreign policy presentations as contrasted, for affairs of the 1920's. There is much to be example, with Acheson's more subtle style learned from this book. It won't do any and more 'elitist' approach." At times Guhin's more to say that the Secretary was a narrow lengthy explanations and clarifications come moralist, bent only on drawing the best legal perilously close to being an apologia instead brief he could for his client, the United States of sound history. Nevertheless, this is a well- of America. researched book, the first to come out of the The examples Guhin prints as appendices Dulles Papers housed at Princeton University. are well chosen to illustrate his thesis. The Guhin makes especially good use of the documents on Dulles and the 1948 Berlin pre-Secretary papers, all the way back to the crisis demonstrate that the future Secretary

347 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SUMMER, 1973 was hardly a confirmed cold warrior at that Participants in the debate reiterated a cer­ time; instead, he brought to the Truman Ad­ tain set of arguments throughout the war. ministration not the hysterical voice of the Advocates of change argued that the South shoot-first-ask-questions-later advisers who should free all slaves who contributed to the wanted to send tanks rumbling across the war effort as military laborers or, as some autobahn, but the well-modulated voice of daring persons suggested, as soldiers. Hope­ diplomatic adjustment. fully this type of arrangement would insure One could have wished that Guhin had foreign diplomatic recognition of the Con­ taken more time with this book, and elimi­ federacy and, inevitably. Confederate victory. nated some of the dissertationese in organiza­ Thus, the argument went, the benefits derived tion and style. But I'm glad to have it in my from emancipation would far outweigh any library as is. problems incuned as a result of logistical difficulties in implementing the plan or of LLOYD C. GARDNER squeamishness on the part of whites. South­ Rutgers University ern blacks could be sacrificed to the Moloch of war in place of white sons, fathers, and brothers. Qn the other hand, conservatives The Gray and the Black: The Confederate had the weight of tradition, history, slave­ Debate on Emancipation. By ROBERT F. owner resistance, the Confederate constitution, DURDEN. (Louisiana State University Press, and legislative inertia on their side. They Baton Rouge, 1972. Pp. xi, 305. Notes, his- argued that the freeing of black laborers and toriographic essay, index. $10.95.) soldiers only would be impossible; eventually the states would have to grant the same priv­ Surely the history of the attempt to estab­ ilege to the freedmen's families, at the very lish the Confederate States of America remains least. Blacks engaged in the war effort could a perfect monument to the disparity between never be trusted to refrain from deserting or the Southern people's idealism and the un­ even, in the case of black soldiers, from firing intended consequences of that idealism—a on whites in gray rather than blue uniforms. monument to, in C. Vann Woodward's phrase, The Confederate constitution precluded na­ "the irony of Southern history." In order to tional action on the issue of emancipation. insure the supremacy of the doctrine of state And finally, these defenders of the Southern rights, individualistic Southerners submitted heritage declared, slavery remained the Con­ to a massive centralization of national civil federacy's raison d'etre; internal subversion and military power; they found themselves of the institution would negate the new na­ drafted, their property confiscated, their slaves tion's purpose and idealism. impressed—all for the cause of "independ­ ence." But the supreme irony within the Even the approval of Davis, Benjamin P. Confederate experiment revealed itself in the Judah, Robert E. Lee, and other prominent wartime debate on the emancipation of the Confederates of some form of emancipation slaves. During this "fullest and freest dis­ produced few tangible results. In February, cussion of slavery in which the South as a 1865, the Confederate Congress approved the whole ever engaged" emerged a central ques­ arming of black soldiers, but refrained from tion: was the chief Confederate war aim the sanctioning emancipation. The Virginia legis­ preservation of slavery or was it the achieve­ lature enacted similar provisions in March. ment of Southern independence at any cost? Only a vague policy statement of March 23, Robert F. Durden has compiled and placed 1865, formulated by Davis and the War De­ into historical context an impressive number partment, promised what Durden calls "boot­ of documents relevant to this argument among legged freedom" for black soldiers. In late articulate Southerners (primarily newspaper March, the sight of Lieutenant Virginius editors and other journalists, legislators, Bossieux drilling black "recruits" in Rich­ members of the Executive branch, and mili­ mond heralded the death of a cause. tary officials). He traces the issue from the In his introduction Durden suggests that earliest suggestions for emancipation during the controversy over emancipation revealed the war through the reaction to the proposals "the reservoir of good will between the white of President Davis and Major General Patrick and black races in the South." This conclu­ Cleburne up to the anguished call for indi­ sion seems a bit farfetched, considering that vidual state action during the winter of 1864 a favorite argument of the emancipation ad­ and spring of 1865. vocates was "do not sacrifice every white man

348 BOOK REVIEWS

in the Confederacy in preference to taking a emancipation issue. Persons who favored the few negroes from their fondling masters." In arming of slaves argued that the promise of other words, use blacks instead of whites for freedom amounted to a powerful incentive for cannon fodder. Moreover Durden's conclu­ blacks to join the army. Conservatives count­ sion that the Confederate debate on emancipa­ ered by pointing out that modification of the tion revealed the basic similarities between slave system would endanger the life of every Northern and Southern racial attitudes is white man, woman, and child in the South; premature, at least. they assumed that blacks would relish any The documents in this book do suggest that opportunity to wreak vengeance on the white the history of the Confederate States of Amer­ population. In essence, wartime experiences ican can illuminate prewar events and atti­ revealed the shallowness of the South's com­ tudes. The wartime debate over slavery im­ mitment to its own proslavery argument. plies that secessionists were actually deeply In The Gray and the Black Durden has laid divided over the primary objectives of the the groundwork for a more detailed, extensive war against the North. Nonunionists either analysis of Confederate proposals for emanci­ submerged or failed to recognize their differ­ pation—proposals which prompted a tragic ences in 1861, and only the vicissitudes of debate that had no winning side. war revealed this fundamental disagreement. In addition, the antebellum argument that slaves were happy and content with their lot JACQUELINE J. HALSTEAD found few supporters on either side of the University of Wisconsin—Madison

BOOK REVIEWS

Alexander and Beringer, The Anatomy of the Con­ Kolchin, First Freedom: The Responses of Alabama's federate Congress: A Study of the Influences of Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction, re­ Member Characteristics on Legislative Voting Be­ viewed by John H. Schroeder 341 havior, 1861-1865, reviewed by Emory M. Lorenz, Hugh Gaine: A Colonial Printer-Editor's Thomas 330 Odyssey to Loyalism, reviewed by Larry R. Brody, Discovering Wisconsin, reviewed by John 0. Gerlach 334 Holzhueter 327 Luebke, Ethnic Voters and the Election of Lincoln, Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, reviewed by Merrill Hough 326 Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970, reviewed Mahon, The War of 1812, reviewed by Marvin E. by Nancy Schrom 332 Fletcher 329 Davis, FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 1882-1928, Markowitz, The Rise and Fall of the People's Cen­ A History, reviewed by Richard S. Kirkendall 339 tury: Henry A. Wallace and American Liberalism, Durden, The Gray and the Black: The Confederate 1941-1948, reviewed by James M. McHale 335 Debate on Emancipation, reviewed by Jacqueline McFaul, The Politics of Jacksonian Finance, reviewed J. Halstead 348 by Gary L. Browne 344 Eccles, France in America, reviewed by Rene C. Smith, The United States and Revolutionary Na­ Alltmont 338 tionalism in Mexico, 1916-1932, reviewed by Rich­ Fitzpatrick, The King Strang Story: A Vindication ard Zeitlin 337 of James Strang, The Beaver Island Mormon King, Swanberg, Luce and His Empire, reviewed by Oliver reviewed by Dennis Rowley 328 Knight 331 Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries: A Tucker, The Radical Left and American Foreign Personal Account, reviewed by L. Moody Simms, Policy, reviewed by Richard L. Roe 336 Jr 329 Vogel, This Country Was Ours: A Documentary His­ Guhin, John Foster Dulles: A Statesman and His tory of the American Indian, reviewed by Russell Times, reviewed by Lloyd C. Gardner 347 S. Nelson, Jr 346 Harris, Troubled Alliance: Turkish-American Prob­ Wall, Massachusetts Bay: The Crucial Decade, 1640- lems in Historical Perspective, 1945-1971, reviewed 1650, reviewed by Sargent Bush 342 by John A. DeNovo 340 Walsh, The Manufacturing Frontier: Pioneer In­ King, Pan-Africanism and Education: A Study of dustry in Antebellum Wisconsin, 1830-1860, re­ Race Philanthropy and Education in the Southern viewed by Paul W. Gates 325 States of America and East Africa, reviewed by W. White and Sugg, From the Mountain, reviewed by Manning Marable 343 Morton Sosna 333

349 ACCESSIONS George and Ira Gershwin autographed by George, playbills, and clippings about New Services for microfilming, xeroxing, and York productions, actors, and actresses, pre­ photostating all but certain restricted items in its manuscript collections are provided by the sented by Mrs. Charles R. Codman, Magnolia, Society. For details write Dr. Josephine L. Mass.; autographed scripts for The Informer Harper, Manuscripts Curator. (1935), Mister Roberts (1955), and The Horse Soldiers (1959), three motion pictures Manuscripts directed by John Ford, presented by John Ford, Beverly Hills, Calif.; papers, 1952- Mass Communications Collections. Materials 1969, of television documentary writer Rich­ used by the Columbia Broadcasting System in ard F. Hanser, including biographical ma­ defense of their refusal to show a congres­ terial plus scripts, production materials, cor­ sional committee "outtakes" from its con­ respondence, and other documentation of the troversial documentary, "The Selling of the television series Victory at Sea, Project XX, Pentagon," broadcast in 1971, presented by and The Wisdom Series, presented by Richard M. B. Schnapper, Washington, D.C; papers, F. Hanser, Larchmont, N.Y.; papers, 1904- 1927-1971, of Rosser Reeves, the major 1970, of Renee Harris, New York's first fe­ theoretician of hard-sell advertising, includ­ male theatrical producer, including biograph­ ing correspondence, writings, and speeches, ical materials on her and her husband Henry, materials on Dwight Eisenhower's 1952 elec­ programs, legal documents, and correspond­ tion campaign, photographs, and fragmentary ence concerning the Hudson Theatre which records of Ted Bates and Company, presented they owned, materials concerning the ship by Rosser Reeves, New York, N.Y.; papers, Titanic and its sinking, and writings by Mrs 1948-1966, of Gerry Swinehart, public rela­ Harris, presented by Ann Bernhardt and Mrs tions pioneer, including speeches, programs Frederick Burton, New York, N.Y.; papers prepared for clients, biographical information, 1938-1966, of radio and television writer^ and correspondence about Carl Byoir, pre­ producer-director Nat Hiken, including cot' sented by Carl Byoir and Associates and Mrs. respondence, scripts, production materials Gerry Swinehart via George Hammond, New and films from two TV series. You'll Never York, N.Y.; papers, 1945-1970, of Avram Get Rich and Car 54, Where Are You?, and Robert Westin, a radio and television news containing much information on the financial program producer who was executive director aspects of television production, presented by of the Public Broadcast Laboratory Division Mrs. Amber Hiken, Los Angeles, Calif.; pa­ of National Educational Television, 1967- pers, 1952-1970, of television documentary 1969, including correspondence and memo­ producer Donald B. Hyatt, including music randa, speeches, articles, and scripts, CBS scores to thirty-four programs from Project news releases, PBL Editorial Policy Board XX and thirteen films from Victory at Sea, minutes, scrapbooks, disc recordings from the two National Broadcasting Company series, radio series "The People Act," and other ma­ presented by Donald B. Hyatt, New York, terials, placed on deposit by Av Westin, New N.Y.; papers, 1952-1972, of director-pro­ York, N.Y.; papers, 1961-1971, of television ducer Norman Jewison, containing scripts documentary writer and producer Perry and production materials for one play, several Wolff, containing biographical information television productions, and many motion pic­ and materials from five television specials in­ tures, including In the Heat of the Night and cluding correspondence, rewrites, transcripts, Fiddler on the Roof, presented by Norman clippings, and films, presented by Perry Jewison, London, England, and by the Na­ Wolff, ^New York, N.Y. tional Film Board of Canada, Montreal; pa­ pers, 1952-1970, of television director Clark R. Jones, including scripts and photographs Theatre Collections. Six notebooks, 1945- for several television series and specials and 1951, recording stage director-critic Harold also for a New York production of the opera Clurman's impressions of art work, music con­ Carmen, presented by Clark R. Jones, New certs, and theatrical and motion picture pro­ York, N.Y.; papers, 1944-1950, of black­ ductions in New York and Europe, presented listed screenwriter Gordon Kahn, including by Harold Clurman, New York, N.Y.; theatri­ miscellaneous correspondence, research files cal materials, 1904-1937, gathered by col­ and a draft of his book about the Hollywood lector Charles Codman, including an holo­ Ten, and fragmentary papers from the Screen graph manuscript of a published song by

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Hand-written copy of the song, "Blue, Blue, Blue," written by George Gershwin, with words by his brother Ira, recently acquired by the Society's Archives- Manuscripts Division. Writers Guild, placed on deposit by Mrs. ly of legal documents, plus some correspond­ Gordon Kahn, Manchester, N.H.; papers, ence, clippings, and Ku Klux Klan literature, 1947-1953, of screenwriter Ring Lardner, Jr., loaned for copying by Murphy W. Bell; a concerning his trial as one of the Hollywood survey of cemeteries in Vernon County, Wis­ Ten, including articles, clippings, correspond­ consin, prepared by Mrs. Francis Clark about ence, legal documents, and publicity informa­ 1971, including a description of the location tion, presented by Ring Lardner, Jr., New and condition of each cemetery, a photograph, York, N.Y.; papers, 1953-1970, of the Mil­ and a listing of tombstone inscriptions, loaned waukee Repertory Theatre, a professional re­ for copying by Mrs. Clark, Westby; papers, pertory company begun as a community thea­ 1964-1966, of the Freedom Democratic Party, ter, including correspondence, financial rec­ Lauderdale County, Mississippi, comprising ords, operational records, and a small amount correspondence, reports, affidavits, minutes, of production materials, presented by the and a telephone log, including information on Milwaukee Repertory Theatre (partially re­ local boycotts, voter registration, the deaths stricted) ; papers, 1947-1968, of Nedrick of Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, and Young, a screenwriter blacklisted for refusing James Chaney, and other incidents, loaned to testify before the House Un-American Ac­ for copying by the Party; papers, 1965-1967, tivities Committee in 1953, including bio­ of the Freedom Democratic Party, Sunflower graphical material, screenplays for motion pic­ County, Mississippi, consisting of census and tures and television, unproduced story ideas, welfare forms, materials, pertaining to voter and material on a 1960 suit by Young and registration, and miscellaneous materials deal­ others against the major motion picture stu­ ing with civil rights and school integration, dios for damages incurred in their blacklist­ loaned for copying by the Party via Joseph ing, presented bv Mrs. Nedrick Young, Encino, Harris (restricted) ; records, 1846-1971, of Calif. the First Congregational Church, Genoa City, Wisconsin, including a constitution, doctrine Microfilms. Case files, 1958-1966, of Murphy of faith, lists of pastors, officers, members, W. Bell, a Baton Rouge, La., attorney who marriages, and baptisms, and minutes of church meetings, loaned for copying by Mrs. handled civil rights cases for the NAACP, Doris Higgins, Genoa City. CORE, and local individuals, consisting main­

351 F. GERALD HAM, the state ar­ Contributors chivist and director of the So­ ciety's Archives-Manuscripts Division, was born in Toms E. DAVID CRONON, former River, New Jersey, in 1930. president of the Society, is a * He received his B. A. from native of Minneapolis and a Wheaton College in 1952, then 1948 graduate of Oberlin Col­ did graduate work at the Uni­ lege. His master's and doctor's versity of Kentucky from which he received degrees were both earned at his M. A. in 1955 and his Ph. D. in 1962, the University of Wisconsin- both in American history. Before coming to Madison. In 1950-1951 he the Society in 1964, Mr. Ham served as an was a Fulbright scholar at the University of editorial assistant on the Journal of Southern Manchester. After teaching at Yale and the History, an archival assistant in the Univer­ University of Nebraska, he joined the history sity of Kentucky Libraries, associate curator faculty at the University of Wisconsin and of the West Virginia Collection in the West was elected chairman of the department in Virginia University Library, and also taught 1966. He has had numerous articles and re­ history at West Virginia University. Current­ views in professional journals and is the ly he is president of the Society of American author of books on Marcus Garvey and on Archivists. He is the author of two books on Josephus Daniels and editor of The Cabinet archival matters and co-author of Pleasant Diaries of Josephus Daniels. At present he is Hill and Its Shakers (Pleasant Hill, Kentucky, professor of history and director of the Insti­ 1969). In addition, Mr. Ham has contributed tute for Research in the Humanities at the articles to West Virginia History, Civil War University of Wisconsin. From February to History, American Archivist, Labor History, June of 1974 Mr. Cronon will be a Fulbright and American Libraries. He is married and lecturer on twentieth-century American his­ the father of four children. tory at the University of Moscow, a member of the first group of American scholars ever invited to teach regular courses in Soviet JUSTUS D. DOENECKE'S biographical sketch universities. appeared in the Summer, 1972, Magazine.

CORNELIUS JOHN JAENEN was JOHN 0. (JACK) HOLZHUETER born in 1927 at Cannington (pronounced Holtz-heater) re­ Manor, Saskatchewan, and re­ joined the Society staff in ceived his university training July as a member of the Edi­ ^^ ^ at the Universities of Mani- torial Division. From autumn, H^» Hlh toba, Bordeau, and Ottawa, 1970, until June, 1973, he had •m i •• In 1963 he received his Ph. D. been employed as a historical from the latter institution, researcher for the Unitarian where he is currently professor and director of Church of All Souls in New York City. Before the department of history. His teaching career, that Mr. Holzhueter worked for the Society's which began at Ashcroft High School, British Research Division, probing topics that ranged Columbia, in 1947, includes service as history from the impact of religion on Wisconsin to master. Imperial Ethiopian Government, lynchings. His interest in historical preserva­ Addis Ababa, from 1952 to 1953. Mr. Jaenen's tion was manifested in an article on the Wis­ impressive bibliography includes books and consin capitol fence of 1872, published in the articles in French and English on such wide- Magazine in the summer of 1970, and in re­ ranging subjects as Canadian ethnic, reli­ search involving such diverse figures as Frank gious, educational, and social history to Afri­ Lloyd Wright and an unknown Norwegian- can affairs. He has been a member of the American cabinetmaker who worked in the Canadian Commission for UNESCO, vice- Mt. Horeb area in the late nineteenth century. president of the Society for French Historical He has done graduate work on the University Studies, president of the Canadian Ethnic of Wisconsin—Madison campus, has a master's Studies Association, and is at present Con­ degree, and as an undergraduate was editor of sultant to the Department of the Secretary of the Daily Cardinal. He is married to Monona State on ethnic studies. He is married and Rossol, a potter and singer in New York and has nine children, three sons and six daugh­ Wisconsin. ters.

352 In the 1974 WISCONSI

ns" ,is just one of ^1 ehni photograp irmr OUT stat.

There are 16 full cv.v, «».J 6 historical pictures, tc plus weekly appointment pages.

For yourself or for gifts — $l.95|^ To promote a wider appreciation of the American heritage The Purpose with particular emphasis on the collection, advancement, of this and dissemination of knowledge of the history of Wisconsin Society shall be and of the Middle West.

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