Indigenous Use and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal in Far-west

Ripu M. Kunwar, Y. Uprety, C. Burlakoti, C.L. Chowdhary and R.W. Bussmann Research

Abstract

Ethnopharmacological knowledge is common and im- jor part of these therapies. Interest in phytomedicine is port among tribal populations but much of the information also renewed during the last decade and many medicinal is empirical at best lacking scientific validation. Despite species are being screened for pharmacological ac- widespread use of plant resources in traditional medi- tivities. The global demand of is growing cines, bioassay analysis of very few plant species have and its market is expanding at the rate of 20% annually in been conducted to investigate their medicinal properties, (Srivastava 2000, Subrat 2002). The world market and to ascertain safety and efficacy of traditional reme- for herbal remedies in 1999 was worth of U.S.$19.4 bil- dies. The present study analyses indigenous uses of me- lion (Laird & Pierce 2002). dicinal plants of far-west Nepal and compares with earlier studies, phytochemical assessments and phar- Numerous drugs have entered into the international mar- macological actions. A field study was carried out in Baita- ket through exploration of ethnopharmacology and tradi- di and Darchula districts of far-west Nepal. Group discus- tional medicine (Bussmann 2002) with extensive uses of sions, informal meetings, questionnaire surveys and field . It is estimated that 25% of prescription observations were employed for primary data collection. drugs contain active principles derived from higher plants (Tiwari & Joshi 1990). The first compound derived from Voucher specimens were collected with field notes and herbal remedies to enter the international market was codes and deposited at Tribhuvan University Central Her- ephedrine, an amphetamine like stimulant from Ephed- barium (TUCH), Kathmandu. Only 50% of species sur- ra sinica Stapf. The next was artimisinin, a potent anti- veyed shared common uses with ayurvedic medicine. malarial drug from Artemisia annua L. (Patwardhan et al. This implies that these herbal remedies are part of an 2005). Numerous other molecules have come out of the independent health care system in the Nepal Himalaya, ayurvedic experiential base, including alkaloids of Rau- which is indigenous and influenced by ayurveda. The folk volfia for hypertension, Holarrhena for amoebiasis, Mu- uses of some of the species were contradicting to those of ayurveda and phytochemical bioassays. A detailed phy- tochemical study on those species would be an important line of research. Correspondence Ripu M Kunwar, Centre for Biological Conservation, Nepal, Introduction GPO Box No: 19225, Kathmandu, NEPAL [email protected] Medicinal plants help in alleviating human suffering and Y. Uprety and C. Burlakoti, Centre for Biological Conservation, Nepal, GPO Box No: 19225, Kathmandu, NEPAL are widely used for subsistence, home remedies, and C.L. Chowdhary, Canadian Center for International Studies and trade (Kunwar et al. 2006). It is estimated that 70-80% Cooperation (CECI), Kathmandu, NEPAL of people worldwide rely on traditional herbal medicine to R.W. Bussmann, William L. Brown Center for Plant Genetic Re- meet their primary health care needs (Farnsworth & Soe- sources, Missouri Botanical Garden P.O. Box 299, St. Louis, jarto 1991). The ayurveda is an ancient traditional system MO 63166-0299, U.S.A. of medicine with remedies for health and alleviation of ill- [email protected] ness. The acceptance of the ayurveda is gearing up and Ethnobotany Research & Applications 7:005-028 (2009) use of indigenous drugs of natural/plant origin is a ma- Published: January 16, 2009 www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-005.pdf 6 Ethnobotany Research & Applications cuna pruriens (L.) DC. for Parkinson’s disease, Commi- district and Dumling, Gokule, Joljibi, Khalanga, Lali and phora as a hypolipidemic, Asclepias as cardiotonic, pso- Uku villages of Darchula district were selected as study ralens for vitiligo, curcumines for inflammation, baccoside sites. Baitadi district ranges with 29°19’–29°57’N lati- for mental retention, picrosides for hepatoprotective, dios- tude, 80°15’–80°57’E longitude and altitude 390-6936 m genin for the synthesis of steroidal hormones, guggulster- and Darchula district lies within 29°26’-30°15’N latitude, ons as hypolipidemic, piperidine as bioavailability enhanc- 80°22’-81°09’E longitude and 357-7132 m altitude. As ers, asarone as hallucinogenic, phyllanthins as anti-virals, there is varied topography and bioclimate, both the dis- withanolides and many other steroidal lactones and their tricts possess a diversity of non-timber forest products glycosides as immunomodulators (Jain 1994, Patwardhan (NTFP) and knowledge of uses (Devkota & Karmacharya 2000). As an example, the sale of drugs derived from the 2003, Pant & Pant 2004) and the products have been col- plant Taxus baccata L. was U.S.$23 billion in 2000 (Laird lected since ancient times for domestic use particularly & ten Kate 2002). for home herbal healing. Field visits for this study were carried out in May through June and December 2006 and The increasing use of traditional therapies demands more January through February 2007. The first visit lasted for scientifically sound evidence for the principles behind ther- 24 days, and two other visits were of 20 days each. apies and for effectiveness of medicines (Patwardhan et al. 2005). The therapies are often criticized due to dearth Participatory interview tools including group discussions, of research, critical evaluation, in vivo studies and valida- informal meetings, questionnaire surveys and field obser- tions (Fong 2002, Houghton 1995) to support the safety of vations were used for primary data collection. Group dis- uses. At the same time, ethnopharmacological knowledge cussions were held in Khodpe and Anarkholi of Baitadi is percolating down these days among the tribal popula- district and Khalanga and Dumling of Darchula district. tion. The present study, therefore aimed at documenting Khodpe and Dumling are rural areas of the districts where ethnopharmacological knowledge and then comparing local people collect and grow non-timber forest products. the results with earlier reports of ayurvedic medicine, phy- Anarkholi and Khalanga are collection centers where col- tochemical findings and pharmacological uses and then lectors and healers reside. Group discussions were car- developing recommendations for further use of the plants ried out using fresh plant specimens from which voucher as guided by this study. specimens were prepared and deposited with field notes in the herbarium of Tribhuvan University Central Herbri- Methods um (TUCH), Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. The study area was Baitadi and Darchula districts of far- west Nepal (Figure 1). Dashrathchand, Khodpe, Kulau, All informal meetings were held in villages while staying Pancheswor, Patan, Salena, and Sera villages of Baitadi with them. Women actively participated in informal meet-

Darchula Baitadi CHINA N

NEPAL Kathmandu INDIA

Figure 1. Study areas: Baitadi (blue) and Darchula (orange) districts of far-west Nepal.

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-005.pdf Kunwar et al. - Indigenous Use and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants 7 in Far-west Nepal ings. Schedule surveys were designed separately for dif- earlier studies and present study. Earlier studies of Nepal ferent respondents. Community forest user groups, farm- (Anonymous 1997, Baral & Kurmi 2006, IUCN 2004, Joshi ers, collectors, traditional healers (baidhya) and NTFP & Joshi 2001, Kunwar 2006, Lama et al. 2001, Manand- traders were selected for discussions, meetings and sur- har 2002, Rajbhandari 2001, Watanabe et al. 2005) were veys. Elderly people, forest guards, nursery caretakers, taken as major sources of earlier information. Compara- indigenous people and women representing the major tive analysis was made only for the selected plant species ethnic groups, castes and occupations were prioritized that contained all the requisite information of the ayurve- for selection. Respondents were requested to furnish for da, phytochemical findings, earlier observations and pres- each plant: vernacular names, folk use and mode of prep- ent survey. The observations of the present survey were aration. compared to earlier observations and common uses of the ayurveda. The common uses of the ayurveda for the Primary data collection was facilitated by ten local assis- present analysis were drawn from Anonymous (1995), tants. The information was further validated by common Bajracharya (1979), Dash & Gupta (1994), Dey (1998), response. The information from at least three or more re- Longman (1994), Joshi 2006, and Sapkota and Adhikari spondents was considered as common response. (2001).

Species collection, identification, Results enumeration and analysis Among the respondents, 76% were male and 24% were Voucher specimens were collected with field notes and female. Brahmin and chettri were dominant ethnic groups codes. Specimen collection was made following Cunning- of the sites and they represented about 80% of the sam- ham (2001) and identified up to species level. Most of the ple respondents. Of the rest, about 20% were from other species were identified in field and the remaining unidenti- ethnic groups and schedule castes. A total of 48% were fied species were identified in Kathmandu with comparing adults, 40% were elder and 12% were young. The respon- deposited specimens in TUCH. Voucher specimens were dents’ age group ranged from 25-78 but most of the re- housed at TUCH. spondents were from 40-65 age group.

Species for enumeration in the present study were se- The present study yielded ethnomedicinal information on lected based on data/information availability. The criteria 135 plant species. Non-timber forest products collectors for selection were information of ayurvedic uses, chemical and traditional healers were knowledgeable on ethnome- constituents, phytochemical screening, observations from dine and ethnopharmacology respectively.

Table 1. Forty-eight plants used in Baitadi and Darchula districts of far-west Nepal (new results noted in light blue) that are also used in ayurvedic medicine and have information about their pharmacology, chemical constituents, and prior folk uses in Nepal. Each species identification is followed by the number of the voucher specimen thathas been deposited in TUCH and an evaluation of resemblance between medicinal systems: * = Species’ use resembled ayurveda; ! = Species’s use resembled pharmacological bioassays; ‡ = Species’ use resembled all categories (uses in other folk medicine, ayurveda and pharmacological bioassays); E = English, L = Local Nepali dialect, N = Nepali, S = Sanskrit. Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) *!Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae; BKU 098 Bipya kuro Prickly chaff flower (E). Whole plant is used A plant extract is antimycobacterial (L), apamarga, A leaf paste is taken for in leprosy, bronchitis, (Newton et al. 2002). Dry leaves are dattiwan (N), insect and snake bites expectorant, asthma, employed against asthma (Singh apamarga, (Manandhar 2002). Seed cough, skin diseases, 1995). Ethanol extract of plant kharamanjari powder acts as brain sinusitis, headache, colic, roots possesses anti-inflammatory, (S). The root tonic. Root extract is boils and piles. Plant anti-implantation and abortifacient juice is used for used in dysentery and has emetic properties. activity (Vasudeva & Sharma 2006). cough, common menstrual disorders. Plant In Chinese traditional Plant extract shows activity against cold, diarrhoea is used as a diuretic, medicine, hot water Bacillus bacteria (Risal 1994). Seed and dysentery. purgative, and astringent extract of the plant is is cardiotonic and diuretic. Oleanolic (Baral & Kurmi 2006). used to alleviate arthritic acid shows anti-inflammatory pain (Bajracharya activity (Singh et al. 1992). 1979, Dash & Gupta 1994, Joshi 2006).

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Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) *!Acorus calamus L. Araceae; BKU 176*! Sutak, charila Sweet flag, sweet sage (E). Plant is used for Oil possesses antimycobacterial (L), bojho Fresh rhizome promotes bronchitis, cough, activity (Chopra et al. 1957). (N), wacha, memory longevity and dyspepsia, dysentery, and Antifungal, antibacterial and ugragandha (S). good voice (Watanabe leprosy. It is also used insecticidal properties from Rhizome juice is et al. 2005). It is a nerve as a brain tonic, emetic, ethanolic extract of stem and anthelmintic and tonic, emetic, stomachic antispasmodic, antipyretic, rhizomes (Devkota et al. 1999, pesticidal. The and used in dyspepsia, carminative and for Shinwari & Khan 2000). juice is given for calculi and epilepsy gastritis, toothache, liver stomachache (Baral & Kurmi 2006). and kidney disorders and trunk pain. It and cancer (Bajracharya is considered to 1979, Dash & Gupta increase memory 1994, Dey 1998). longevity. ‡Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Rutaceae; BBU 097 Bael, gudu (N), Bengal quince, holy fruit Fruit are used in cough. Alcoholic extract of fruit is bilba, shreephal, tree, stone apple (E). Fruit and bark are anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, malur (S). Leaves are a febrifuge useful as an antipyretic, analgesic (Arul et al. 1999) and Fruit juice and laxative (IUCN antihistamine, antidiabetic, antimycobacterial (Newton et al. is useful in 2004). Unripe fruit is antidysenteric and 2002). Methanolic fruit extract digestion. astringent, digestive, and antidiarrheal (Anonymous is used to treat dementia and Root bark has stomachic. Fruit is useful in 1995, Bajracharya 1979, increase memory (Vinutha et al. antipyretic diarrhoea and dysentery. Dash & Gupta 1994). 2007). Aqueous fruit and seed properties. A extract reduces blood glucose decoction of level (Kamalakkannan & Prince plant leaves 2004, Kesari et al. 2006). Regular and fruit is used administration of seed extract in dysentery, normalizes lipid profile (Kesari et diarrhoea, al. 2006). According to Veerappan respiratory tract et al. (2007), extracts of Bael leaf infections and have a high margin of drug safety. heart ailments. Alkaloid leaf extract and stem bark exhibit hypoglycemic (Saxena & Vikram 2004), antidiarrheal (Shoba & Thomas 2001), antibacterial (Rani & Khullar 2004) and antiviral (Badam et al. 2002) effects. Plant extract endows anti-cancer property (Lotufo et al. 2005). Fresh extracts have stimulant effect on heart and circulatory systems (Arul et al. 1999). Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae; BKU 033 Chhatiwan (N), Devils tree, dita bark Stem bark has effective Picrinine is used as depressant of saptaparna (S). tree (E). Bark juice is property against central nervous system. Stem bark The infusion considered to increase ulcers, liver complaints, is hypotensive and anticancerous of stem bark lactation (Rajbhandari dyspepsia and diarrhea (Chandel et al. 1996). relieves fever 2001). Milky juice is and dysentery. It is also and headache. applied to ulcer (IUCN used as an astringent, Milk is used in 2004). Bark has astringent, antidiarrheal and febrifuge asthma disease. antipyretic, stomachic (Bajracharya 1979, Dash properties and it is useful & Gupta 1994, Sapkota in asthma, diarrhoea, & Adhikari 2001). and dysentery (Baral & Kurmi 2006).

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Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) ‡Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liliaceae; BBU 065 Jhirjhirine (L), Asparagus (E). Root is Asparagus roots are Root extract increases mammary kurilo, satawari tonic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, used in tuberculosis, gland in post-partum period (N), abhiru, carminative, appetizer measles, diarrhoea, (Sabnis et al. 1968) and acts as a satmuli (S). and antispasmodic. epilepsy and liver lactogogue (Sharma et al. 1996a). Roots are used It is useful in mental problems and considered Dysmenorrhoea and premenstrual for milking cattle, disorders, dyspepsia and as a galactogogue, syndrome were found to be symptom fermenting and diarrhoea (Baral & Kurmi aphrodisiac, diuretic, free after usage of root extract local brewing. 2006). Tender shoots antispasmodic, and (Nevrekar et al. 2002). Root extract are tonic and useful in nerve tonic. It is also is cardioprotective (Khanna et al. dysentery and rheumatism considered to prevent 1991). Plant extract is: antitumor (Rajbhandari 2001). ageing, impart immunity, (Kamat et al. 2000), antifungal, improve mental functions anti-ulcer (Sairam et al. 2003), and add vigor and vitality immunostimulatory (Dhuley 1997), to the body (Anonymous and diuretic (Balansand & Rayband 1995, Bajracharya 1987). The crude saponins from 1979, Dey 1998). the shoots are useful in dyspepsia (CSIR 1992). Ethanol plant extract is found to be an alpha- amylase digestive enzyme inhibitor (Manandhar 1999). Extracts of plant rhizomes reduce blood sugar levels (Manandhar & Adhikary 1988) and cholesterol (Visavidaya & Narasimhacharya 2005). ‡Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC. Berberidaceae; DKU 034 Kirmada (L), Barberry (E). Root Roots, stems and fruit Berberine effectively treats chutro, rasanjan decoction is used in are used in conjunctivitis, genital infections (Vermani & (N), daruharidra, fever (IUCN 2004). Root inflammation, diabetes, Garg 2002) and has been shown darwi (S). bark is useful in skin dysentery, jaundice, skin to bind to DNA and inhibit its Root and stem diseases, diarrhoea, diseases and fever. They cleavage (Krey & Hahn 1969). Its bark paste is jaundice and eye problems are astringent, antipyretic, use, as an extract in eye drops used to treat eye (Baral & Kurmi 2006). antidiarrheal and for conjunctivitis is widespread. diseases and stomachic (Anonymous It is effective as an antipyretic, control worms. 1995, Dash & Gupta anaesthetic, and antihypertensive 1994, Joshi 2006). (Sabir & Bhide 1971). ‡Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.f. Saxifragaceae; DKU 124 Silphode (L), Rock foil (E). Rhizomes Piles, diarrhoea, Methanolic aqueous extract with pakhanved, are bitter, aphrodisiac, dysentery, cancer, urinary its trypsin shows considerable dhungephool astringent, carminative calculi, heart problems antiviral activity against influenza (N), asmahan, and diuretic (Baral & Kurmi and liver disorders are virus (Rajbhandari et al. 2001). asyavedak, 2006, IUCN 2004). Whole treated with rhizomes. pashanveda (S). plants and rootstocks Rhizome extract is Rhizome and are used in diarrhoea, considered as antipyretic, root are used dysentery and liver and antidiarrheal, diuretic and in diarrhoea, blood disorders in amchi expectorant (Bajracharya dysentery, system (Lama et al. 2001). 1979, Dash & Gupta gallstone and 1994, Dey 1998). gastritis.

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Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) Bombax ceiba L. Malvaceae; BBU 105 Simal (N), moca, Silk cotton tree (E). Gum Flowers are astringent and Shamimin shows a hypoglycemic salmali (S). or resin from bark is cooling. Young root juice is effect but it has lethal effect at Flowers and useful in blood disorders stimulant and tonic (Dash higher doses (Saleem et al. seeds are used (Rajbhandary 2001). & Gupta 1994, Joshi 1999). Seeds are cardiostimulant in dysentery. It is an aphrodisiac, 2006, Longman 1994). (Chandel et al. 1996). Roots, bark and astringent and tonic. Root seeds are emetic bark is emetic, tonic and and stimulant. used in constipation. Flowers are useful in snake bite and seeds are taken for gonorrhoea (Baral & Kurmi 2006). Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T. Aiton Apocynaceae; BBU 054 Aak (N), ark, Giant milkweed, crown Useful in leprosy, asthma, The latex exhibits toxic irritation, alarka (S). plant (E). Latex as well as cough, indigestion, piles inflammation and allergic reactions Latex is useful other parts have emetic, and fistula. Flowers have (Garg 1979, Tomar et al. 1970) in arthritis, purgative and anthelmintic the strongest anticancer but it does not act as an antidote inflammation properties and are used for properties. Milk is for scorpion stings (Uawonggul and keeping swelling and boils. Flowers purgative and leaves are et al. 2006). The flowers possess out thorns from are used in asthma and used in gout (Bajracharya nematocidal activity (Iqbal et al. wounds. It is inflammation (Baral & 1979, Dash & Gupta 2005), analgesic (Pathak & Argal also applied on Kurmi 2006). Leaf buds 1994, Joshi 2006). 2007) and antimycobacterial wasp stings. are used for skin diseases (Grange & Davey 1990) activities. (Anonymous 1997). Cardenolide calotropin shows anticancer properties. Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G.Don Pinaceae; DKU 027 Dyar, debdar Himalayan cedar (E). Leaves and cones are Cone extracts show (N), devadaru, Wood is diuretic and useful useful in bronchitis and antimycobacterial activity suradaru (S). to disintegrate kidney tubercular gland diseases. (Digrak et al. 1999). Himachalol from stones (Anonymous 1997). Heart wood and oil have is a chief antispasmodic wood is externally It is astringent and used diuretic, carminative, anti- agent (Kar et al. 1975). used for scabies. in fevers, diarrhoea and inflammatory, analgesic dysentery (Anonymous and antipyretic properties. 1995). Wood paste is Oil is useful in piles and applied on the forehead snake bite (Anonymous for relief from headaches 1995, Bajracharya 1979, (Manandhar 2002). Dash & Gupta 1994).

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-005.pdf Kunwar et al. - Indigenous Use and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants 11 in Far-west Nepal Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) !Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae; DBU 006 Khochade (L), Penny wort (E). Plant The whole plant is Whole plant extract shows ghodtapre, juice is valued for fever, useful in bronchitis, skin antimycobacterial activity (Newton (N), brahmi, dysentery and throat diseases, blood disorders, et al. 2002). Methanolic and manduka pain (IUCN 2004). The asthma and leprosy. It aqueous extracts of plant are parni (S). plant is a stomachic is alterative, tonic and moderately effective at lessening Leaf juice is and used in leprosy, diuretic (Dash & Gupta body pain, inflammation, vascular used in urinary indigestion, skin diseases, 1994, Joshi 2006). and bronchodilation (Kumar & Muller problems and epilepsy and asthma 1999). Asiaticoside is used to treat cuts and wounds. (Baral & Kurmi 2006). leprosy and stimulate wound healing and skin grafts. It promotes mental calm and clarity. Asiatic acid and madecassic acid possess anti- inflammatory properties (Somchit et al. 2004). Brahmic acid treats ulceration. Extracts do not reduce sugar levels in blood (Manandhar & Adhikary 1988) but lower uric acid (Manandhar et al. 1991). Plant extract is a potential antidiarrheal agent (Mamtha et al. 2004). Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Nees Lauraceae; BBU 095 Tejpat (N), Cinnamon (E). Bark and Leaves are carminative A plant extract exhibits hypoglycemic bahugandh, leaves are astringent, and stimulant. Leaves effects and reveals a phenomenon tachula, stimulant and carminative, and bark are used in of less hypoglycemic response patra (S). relieving diarrhoea, colic gonorrhoea, rheumatism, at a higher dose (Sharma et al. Leaf is used in pain, and ophthalmia diarrhoea, bronchitis and 1996b). Eugenol acts against herpes gastric problems. (Baral & Kurmi 2006). diabetes (Bajracharya simplex virus (Bourne et al. 1999). Bark is useful in 1979, Dash & Gupta checking nausea 1994, Dey 1998). and vomiting. !Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae; BKU 023 Batulpate, False pareira, brava Leaves and stem parts An alcoholic extract of stems and gurjegano (N), (E). Plant juice induces are used in asthma. leaves possesses antimycobacterial ambashtha (S). abortion and stops Roots are useful in skin activity (Antoun et al. 2001). Root is bleeding after delivery diseases, blood disorders, Pelosine acts against urinary anthelmintic (Rajbhandary 2001). Root leukorrhea, diarrhoea, complaints. Hyatin is a muscle and antipyretic. paste is applied on snake dysentery and indigestion relaxant (Jain et al. 1991). Root juice treats bites (Manandhar 2002). and have antiperiodic headache, effects (Anonymous stomachache, 1995, Dash & Gupta asthma and 1994, Joshi 2006). urinary problems of livestock. *Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Amaryllidaceae; BKU 020 Kalmusali (N), Black musale (E). Roots are diuretic, Extracts are known to have vascular talmule (S). Rhizome is an aphrodisiac, tonic, aphrodisiac, protective activities (Palazzino Roots are used diuretic and tonic and antidiarrheal, and are et al. 2000, Valls et al. 2006). as a tonic and to used in piles, jaundice, used in liver problems, treat paralysis. asthma and skin disease piles, asthma and (Anonymous 1995). The gonorrhoea (Anonymous powered rhizome stops 1995, Bajracharya bleeding and treats cuts 1979, Joshi 2006). and wounds (IUCN 2004).

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Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Convolvulaceae; BKU 053 Aakasbeli (N), Dodder (E). Plant juice Plant is purgative Whole plant extract is considered amaruela (S). is used in jaundice, in properties (Dash as antiviral (Awasthi 1981) and Plant paste fever (Manandhar 2002, & Gupta 1994). analgesic (Pal et al. 2003). Methanol is used for Rajbhandari 2001), extract of stem possesses broad- headache, body asthma, bronchitis, spectrum antibacterial activity ache and itches. headache, rheumatism, (Pal et al. 2006). Plant extract itches, skin diseases and has diaphoretic, demulcent, bilious disorders (IUCN laxative and tonic properties. 2004). Seed is carminative, Plant is antifertility agent. anthelmintic and alterative (Baral & Kurmi 2006). !Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae; BBU 096 Nagarmothe, Nut grass (E). Tuberous Plant is used in Rhizome extract is used to lower siru (N), roots are used in inflammation. Tuber blood glucose levels (Raut & nagarmusta (S). indigestion, diarrhoea, has diuretic, astringent, Gaikwad 2006). Beta-sitosterol Rhizomes extract dysentery, cholera and anthelmintic, digestive possessed anti-inflammatory and is used in fever, fever. It is astringent, and galactogogue antipyretic activity (Gupta et al. diarrhoea, anthelmintic, stomachic properties (Anonymous 1980). Methanol extract of rhizome dysentery and and diuretic (Baral & 1995, Bajracharya 1979, is antidiarrheal (Uddin et al. 2006). blood disorders. Kurmi 2006, Rajbhandari Dash & Gupta 1994). et al. 1995). Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae; DKU 094 Dhatura Devil’s apple, thorn apple, Seeds and fruit are Seed extract causes increase (N), kanak, (E). Flower juice is applied antispasmodic and in activity of brain lipids and dhatura (S). to scalp for dandruff and narcotic in properties. Fruit reduction in glucose metabolism Fruit are used hair loss (IUCN 2004). juice is useful in dandruff (Hasan & Kushwaha 1987). as sedative. and promotes hair growth. Seed paste is Plant is described as toxic used for boils. (Dash & Gupta 1994). *!Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteraceae; BKU 055 Bhringraj, Eclipta, false daisy (E). The whole plant has Plant juice is antiviral and liver kal jira (N), A plant paste is used on emetic and purgative protective (Dixit & Achar 1979) with kesaranjan, cuts and wounds, pimples effects and is useful in activity against hepatitis B virus bhringraj (S). and skin diseases (IUCN jaundice and filariasis (Subramonium & Pushpangadan Leaf juice is given 2004). Plant is specific (Anonymous 1995, 1999). Alcoholic extracts confer for dyspepsia for curing eye problems. Bajracharya 1979, protection against snake venom and is applied Roots are used as liver Dash & Gupta 1994). (Mors et al. 1989). It is anti- for scorpion tonics, antiseptics, inflammatory (Chandra et al. 1987), stings. Roots are emetics and purgatives a bronchodilator (Leal et al. 2000) used as a tonic (Baral & Kurmi 2006). and antimycobacterial (Al-Shamma for the liver. & Mitscher 1979). Plant powder counteracts an increase of liver weight (Chandra et al. 1987).

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-005.pdf Kunwar et al. - Indigenous Use and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants 13 in Far-west Nepal Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) ‡Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don Apocynaceae; BKU 093 Bankhirra, Easter tree, ivory tree, Bark and seeds show Conisine is effective against desikhirra (L), conessi bark, kurchi (E). astringent, antipyretic, dysentery. Conkurchine is indrajau (N), Seeds are used in fever, expectorant and vasodilator. Methanol extract of indrabriksha, jaundice, diarrhoea, stomachic effects and plant bark is antimycobacterial kutaj, watsak intestinal worms and are taken for diarrhoea (Newton et al. 2002). Bark (S). Bark is gallstones (IUCN 2004). and dysentery. Seeds powder is hypotensive antidiarrheal, Root bark is used in are used for treating (Chaturvedi & Singh 1983). antipyretic and dysentery and leaves are jaundice, gall stone anthelmintic. used in bronchitis, boils, and intermittent fever Seed powder is ulcers and dysentery (Bajracharya 1979, Dash uses for fevers. (Baral & Kurmi 2006). & Gupta 1994, Dey 1998). Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae; BBU 056 Inna (L), sajiwan Physic nut (E). Twigs are Seeds and latex are Root extract is antidiarrheal (N), vyaghra used as tooth brushes. The astringent and purgative (Mujumdar et al. 2000). Root paste eranda (S). latex is used on pimples and are employed is anti-inflammatory (Mujumdar Seed oil is and boils (Manandhar in scabies, eczema, & Misar 2004). Curcin from seed applied for 2002). The plant juice is inflammation and produces deleterious effects to the arthritis and a purgative. Root bark wounds. Leaves are blood. Plant extract has cytotoxic, boils. Bark is used in rheumatism used in hemorrhage, antitumor and abortive effects juice is used on and fruit is anthelmintic hemoptysis, cough, fever (Goonasekera et al. 1995). Latex is a wounds, scabies (Baral & Kurmi 2006). and asthma (Joshi 2006). blood coagulant (Osoniyi et al. 2003) and ringworm. whereas dilute latex is anticoagulant. Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae; DBU 099 Okhar (N), Walnut (E). Bark is used Bark juice is considered Seeds are diuretic and a nervous akshotaka (S). as anthelmintic, and as anthelmintic, astringent system depressant. An aqueous The bark is used leaves are astringent and tonic. Leaf extract is extract of leaves is antinociceptive, in scabies, allergy and tonic in properties employed in tuberculosis and an ethanolic extract reveals and toothaches. (Manandhar 2002). Nut oil (Joshi 2006). anti-inflammatory activity (Erdemoglu is anthelmintic and used et al. 2003). Napthoquinone is in skin diseases (IUCN anthelmintic (Nardelli 1987). 2004). Bark and fleshy wall of the fruit are used as hair dye to make hair black and promote hair growth in amchi system (Lama et al. 2001). adhatoda L. ; BBU 057 Vasakha (L), Malabar nut (E). An Leaves are used Leaf extracts are antimycobacterial asuro (N), basa, infusion of dried leaves for leprosy, asthma, (Grange & Snell 1996). Methanolic brisha (S). is used for respiratory bronchitis, cough and extract of flowers inhibits leukotriene, Leaf juice is used problems (IUCN 2004). skin diseases. Leaf which causes pain, inflammation to treat diarrhoea It is a reputed remedy and root juice possess and broncho-muscular constriction and dysentery. for respiratory problems antiseptic and hemostatic (Kumar & Muller 1999). Vasicine is and cough and cold properties (Bajracharya a bronchodilator and expectorant (Baral & Kurmi 2006). 1979, Dash & Gupta (Johri & Zutshi 2000). 1994, Joshi 2006).

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Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Müll. Arg. Euphorbiaceae; BKU 092 Rohina (L), Kamala (E). Bark decoction The plant is useful in A methanolic extract is active against sindure (N), is used in typhoid and bronchitis. The seed are herpes simplex virus (Taylor et al. kampillak (S). meningitis (Manandhar a laxative. Glands and 1996). A fruit extract is antibacterial Fruit are used 2002). Fruit powder is hairs are used as emetic, (Kumar et al. 2006). A bark extract for scabies. anthelmintic, purgative purgative and anthelmintic is both gram positive and negative and laxative. Bark juice and useful in urinary antibacterial (Taylor et al. 1996). has stomachic effect problems (Bajracharya A fruit extract is hypoglycemic and (Baral & Kurmi 2006). 1979, Joshi 2006). anti-cancer (Chandel et al. 1996). Mentha spicata L. Lamiaceae; BKU 058 Pudina (L), Spearmint (E). Leaf The leaf oil is antiemetic, An aqueous leaf extract is tulsi pate (N), juice is taken to treat antispasmodic, antimycobacterial (Fitzpatrick putitha (S). dysentery and boils carminative, diuretic and 1954). Leaf extract is fungicidal The plant is used (Manandhar 2002). stomachic (Dash & Gupta (Sarbhoy et al. 1978). for freshness, 1994, Joshi 2006). asthma and urinary complaints. !Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringaceae Sahjwan Drumstick tree, horse- The seeds are used for A plant extract is considered (N), shigru, radish tree (E). Roots are bronchitis, asthma, and as a source of anti-cancer shobhanjana purgative. Leaves are leprosy. Bark and fruit compounds (Dhawan et al. 1980, (S). Raw fruit is a galactogogue. Gum are taken for epilepsy, Lotufo et al. 2005). Plant juice valued for liver is useful in dysentery urinary tract infection, and shows liver protective properties disorders. (Manandhar 2002). The rheumatism. The plant is (Subramonium & Pushpangadan plant is antispasmodic, astringent, aphrodisiac, 1999). A leaf extract possesses expectorant, cardiotonic carminative and stomachic hypotensive activity (Faizi et al. and diuretic (Baral (Bajracharya 1979, Dash 1995). Plant root wood extracts & Kurmi 2006). & Gupta 1994, Dey 1998). reduce the risk of stone formation (Karadi et al. 2006).Ethanol root extract are hypocholesterolemic (Mehta et al 2003). Root extract is effective in preventing implantation (Shukla et al 1988). Bark extract has been shown to possess antifungal and antitubercular activities (Bhatnagar et al. 1961). Ethanolic extract of stem bark is hypoglycemic (Kar et al. 2003). ‡Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fabaceae; BKU 059 Kauchho (N), Cowhage, velvet bean Roots used for dysentery, Seed powder has been reported kapikachhu (S). (E). Seeds are used as fever and urinary troubles. to be anti-diabetic (Dhawan Roots are used an aphrodisiac, purgative Seeds are aphrodisiac, et al. 1980, Pant et al. 1968) as a tonic and and tonic and in scorpion nerve tonic, anthelmintic, and is useful in Parkinson’s stimulant. stings (HMG 1970). Pod antipyretic and purgative disease (Manyam et al. 1995). is most active anthelmintic (Bajracharya 1979, Root juice is a nervous system against tapeworms Dash & Gupta 1994). stimulant (Chandel et al. 1996). (Baral & Kurmi 2006).

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-005.pdf Kunwar et al. - Indigenous Use and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants 15 in Far-west Nepal Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) *!Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Rutaceae; BBU 091 Ganiuele, Curry leaf tree (E). Root Plant used to treat Seed oil is anti-bacterial and anti- mechiya sag and bark are carminative, diarrhoea, diabetes, fungal. Aqueous leaf extract is (L), desi neem, tonic and purgative constipation and hypoglycemic (Kesari et al. 2005, mitha neem, (IUCN 2004). Leaves are menstrual troubles. Narayan & Shastri 1975) but the kari patta (N), stomachic and used for Leaves and bark are effect is promising only for early maharista, leprosy, skin diseases and tonic, stomachic and diabetes (Yadav et al. 2002). mahanimba (S). diarrhoea and dysentery purgative (Joshi 2006). Leaves and (Baral & Kurmi 2006, roots are used Manandhar 2002). as anthelmintic and in blood disorders. Root extract is applied for skin diseases. *! grandiflora DC. ; DBU 060 Bhulte (L), , musk root Plant is useful in Methanolic rhizome extract is used to jatamansi (N), (E). Leaves are taken for epilepsy, hysteria, ulcers, treat dementia and increase memory jatanmasi, altitude sickness, fever and insomnia, blood disorders, (Vinutha et al. 2007). Extract of gandhamasi (S). wounds in amchi system. digestion and respiratory rhizomes contains hepatoprotective Oil is used for Rhizomes are used for problems, measles, compounds (Ali et al. 2000) and headaches. healing wounds, cough, syncope, mental disorders it moderates epilepsy with low Roots and high blood pressure, and skin diseases. neurotoxic effects (Rao et al. 2005). rhizomes are stomach diseases and It is antispasmodic, Rhizome extract shows antibacterial used in epilepsy swelling (Lama et al. carminative, diuretic and activity (Kumar et al. 2006). and mental 2001). Rhizome oil is sedative (Anonymous weakness. a well known hair tonic 1995, Bajracharya (Watanabe et al. 2005). 1979, Dey 1998). *Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennel) D.Y. Hong Scrophulariaceae; DKU 090 Katuko (L), Gentian, hellobore (E). Plant used for fever, Root powder is active against viral kutki (N), Roots and rhizomes are cough, jaundice, liver hepatitis (Luper 1999, Subramonium aristha, katuka, anthelmintic, antiperiodic, and blood disorders and & Pushpangadan 1999). Picroliv matsyapitta (S). stomachic, purgative, hepatitis (Bajracharya and kutkoside are hepatoprotective Roots are used digestive and used in 1979, Dash & Gupta 1994, (Doreswamy & Sharma 1995) and for fever and constipation, dyspepsia, Dey 1998). Rhizomes immunostimulatory (Puri et al. 1992). stomachache. colic, cough, asthma, and roots are used for Powdered tuberous root relieve jaundice, diabetes and bile diseases, high blood bronchial asthma (Rajaram 1976). skin diseases (Baral & pressure, sore throat, Kurmi 2006, IUCN 2004). cough and cold and gastritis in amchi system (Lama et al. 2001). *Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz Bignoniaceae; BKU 061 Sanna, tatelo Trumpet flower (E). A Root bark and seeds are The fruit is spasmolytic. The bark (N), shyonaka seed paste is applied to carminative, stomachic, is diuretic. The plant extract is (S). A root treat boils and wounds tonic, diaphoretic and considered as a source of anti- decoction is used (Rajbhandary 2001). astringent. Root bark cancer compounds (Lotufo et in diarrhoea and The root is astringent, is also used to treat al. 2005). An Ethanol extract dysentery. Seeds anti-inflammatory, bile problems, cough, of stem bark reveals activities are a digestive. aphrodisiac, expectorant, diarrhoea, and dysentery against breast cancer (Lambertini anthelmintic and tonic. (Bajracharya 1979, et al. 2004) and arthritis The bark is diuretic and Dash & Gupta 1994, (Laupattarakasem et al. 2003). stomachic and useful in Rajbhandari et al. 1995). diarrhoea and dysentery (Baral & Kurmi 2006).

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Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) Paris polyphylla Smith Liliaceae; DBU 134 Satuwa (N), Love apple, paris (E). The rhizome is used as an An ethyl acetate extract is haimavati, Root paste is used as an anthelmintic, expectorant, antioxidant (Yingming et al. 2004) satuwa (S). antidote for insect and antispasmodic, digestive, and immunostimulatory (Zhang et Roots are used snake bites (Rajbhandari tonic and alterative al. 2007). Diosgenin is renowned for epilepsy, 2001). The plant is (Bajracharya 1979). for antibacterial and anticancer shock, fever, anthelmintic and tonic properties (Zhang et al. 2007). and vomiting (Watanabe et al. 2005). A methanolic extract of the plant control. Its paste rhizome is gastroprotective is applied on (Matsuda et al. 2003). snake bites. *!Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae; BKU 135 Aunla (L), Gooseberry (E). The plant The fruit is an aphrodisiac, The fruit possess high levels of amala, rikhiya is used in hemorrhage, diuretic and hemostatic potassium and low levels of sodium, (N), dhatri, diarrhoea, dysentery, used in anaemia, suitable for cardiovascular patients aadiphala (S). jaundice and dyspepsia diarrhoea, dysentery and (Devi et al. 2000). Because of Fresh fruit is used (Anonymous 1995). The jaundice. Fruit should high calcium content in fruit, it is as a diuretic and root is an astringent and be avoided at bedtime recommended for lactating and laxative and for the seeds are used in to prevent harmful pregnant women. It stimulates cold and cough. asthma (IUCN 2004). effects on teeth (Dash the immune system, increases The fruit is diuretic, & Gupta 1994, Dey interferon and protects against laxative, ophthalmic 1998, Joshi 2006). Fruit cancer (Xia et al. 1997). Fresh and useful in diarrhoea, are used in blood, liver fruit juice reduces cholesterol dysentery, jaundice, and spleen disorders levels. Plant juice is liver protective ulcer and skin diseases (Tibetan). Flowers are (Gulati et al. 1995, Subramonium (Baral & Kurmi 2006). used as a hypothermic & Pushpangadan 1999). A fruit agent (unani). butanol extract relieves gastric ulcers (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2000, Maulik et al. 1997). A methanolic fruit extract inhibits leukotriene, which causes pain, inflammation and broncho-muscular constriction (Kumar & Muller 1999). A fruit extract is anticarcinogenic (Rajeshkumar et al. 2003) and antidiabetic (Sabu & Kuttan 2002). Putranjivein shows inhibition of HIV reverse transcriptase (Mekkawy et al. 1995). *Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Pinaceae; BBU 062 Khote salla (L), Chir pine (E). Resin is Wood oil is used as a Turpentine oil is antiseptic rani salla (N), used to in relieve cough nerve tonic, hemostatic, and used as an expectorant in sarala (S). (Rajbhandari 2001) expectorant and diuretic. It chronic bronchitis. Needle oil is A bark paste is and gastric troubles is used for skin diseases, antibacterial (Chauhan 1999). used in burns and (Manandhar 2002). burns and cracks. Bark is scalds. Resin is used for skin diseases and applied on boils. ulcers (Bajracharya 1979, Dash & Gupta 1994).

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-005.pdf Kunwar et al. - Indigenous Use and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants 17 in Far-west Nepal Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae; BBU 089 Chhittu (N), Ceylon leadwort (E). Roots are used for Plumbagin has been reported to agnimata, The plant is used as a indigestion, dysentery, have anticancer and antimitotic chitrak (S). Leaf stimulant, stomachic, skin diseases and piles. activity (Purushothaman et al. 1983). juice treats skin narcotic and irritant in Plant stems are effective diseases. Root large doses (Rajbhandari as appetizers, and paste is used et al. 1995). The milky used for skin diseases against scabies. juice is applied to skin in unani (Anonymous diseases (IUCN 2004). 1995, Bajracharya 1979, Dash & Gupta 1994). Prinsepia utilis Royle Rosaceae; BKU 136 Dhatyal (L), The oil cake is used as an The oil is rubefacient and A leaf extract was found be dhatelo (N). anthelmintic (Manandhar applied for rheumatism effective against mycobacterial The seed oil is 2002). The plant is used and pains (Sapkota reactions (Taylor et al. 1995). used for cough in asthma, epilepsy and & Adhikari 2001). A fresh leaf extract contains and cold. headaches. The oil has cyanogenic glycosides laxative effects and is which cause food poisoning used in cough, ulcers, skin (Shrestha & Agrawal 1994). diseases and amentia (Baral & Kurmi 2006). *!Punica granatum L. Punicaceae; DKU 088 Anar, darim (N), Pomegranate (E). Fruit The plant is used in A methanolic extract is active against dadima (S). pulp and seeds are chest pain, sore throat, herpes simplex virus (Taylor et al. Root and stomachic and cardiotonic and bronchitis. It is 1996) and mycobacteria (Wang stem bark are (Manandhar 2002). stomachic, astringent, 1950). Flowers are anti-diabetic anthelmintic The bark is used as an anthelmintic, antidiarrheal, (Jafri et al. 2000). A plant extract and used for anthelmintic. Flowers diuretic, expectorant, is resolves allergic symptoms and tapeworms. and fruit are employed in hemostatic and cardiovascular disorders (Watanabe cough in amchi system aphrodisiac (Anonymous & Hatakoshi 2002). Juice, peel and (Lama et al. 2001). 1995, Dash & Gupta oil extracts inhibit pregnancy (anti- It is good for epitaxis 1994, Joshi 2006). implantation) and are anticancerous (Baral & Kurmi 2006). and anti-inflammatory (Lansky & Newman 2007). Puniclin and punicalagin inhibit HIV reverse transcriptase, and maslinic acid is an antioxidant (Wang et al. 2006). !Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Ericaceae; DBU 063 Laliguras Rhododendron (E). Bark The bark is analgesic and An alcoholic leaf extract (N), pollasa, juice is applied to treat used in liver disorders, depresses respiration. Flower raktakarni cough, diarrhoea and jaundice, diabetes and juice is used for diarrhoea and yara (S). dysentery (IUCN 2004, obesity. Stems are dysentery (Chauhan 1999). Flower juice is Rajbhandary 2001). used in enlargement used to treat Flowers are used as an of liver and root is dysentery. appetizer and in menstrual taken for leukorrhea disorders and dysentery (Bajracharya 1979). (Baral & Kurmi 2006).

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Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) *Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Fleming Rubiaceae; DKU 064 Majitho (N), Indian madder (E). The roots are astringent, A root extract is hepatoprotective majistha (S). The plant is astringent, digestive, expectorant (Rao et al. 2006) and useful for A fruit and stem antidysenteric and and hypnotic and used disintegration and elimination of decoction is used antiseptic in properties in leprosy, urinary urinary stones (Mischenko et al. to treat wounds. (Rajbhandari et al. 1995). complaints and snakebite 1999). It is anti-proliferative against The root is used Stems are used for snake (Anonymous 1995, epidermal keratinocytes (Tse et as a digestive bite and scorpion stings. Bajracharya 1979, al. 2006). Rubiadin is a potent and in leprosy. The plant is used as a Sapkota & Adhikari 2001). antioxidant, inhibits lipid peroxidation blood purifier and against (Tripathi & Sharma 1998) and is anti- skin and urinary diseases inflammatory and immunomodulatory (Baral & Kurmi 2006). (Jokharapukar et al. 2003) Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. Sapindaceae; DKU 087 Rithha (N), Soap nut (E). The fruit is The fruit is emetic, The plant’s saponins are aristhaka, expectorant, demulcent, laxative and expectorant active against Chlamydia phenila (S). emetic, anthelmintic and (Bajracharya 1979). (Garg et al. 2004). The fruit is used purgative and used in for snake bites, treating epilepsy and scorpion stings, cholera (Baral & Kurmi and dandruff. 2006, IUCN 2004). Semecarpus anacardium L.f. Anacardiaceae; BBU 066 Bheul, bhalla Marking nut (E). The root The plant and its nuts A methanolic seed extract is used (L), bhalayo (N), juice is considered to are well known for anti- to treat dementia and increase bhellataka (S). cause sterility in women arthritic and anti-cancer memory (Vinutha et al. 2007). It is A mixture of its (Manandhar 2002). Fruit properties. The fruit is neuroprotective especially in the fruit and cow juice is applied to treat astringent, aphrodisiac, hippocampal region (Shukla et al. dung solution chapped feet (Rajbhandari nerve tonic, stomachic, 2000). An ethanolic nut extract is keeps snakes 2001). Nut is aphrodisiac, digestive and expectorant antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, out and acts as astringent, purgative and and used for leucoderma anthelmintic and anti-amoebic (Singh an ant repellent. liver tonic. Nut oil is used and leprosy (Bajracharya et al. 2006) and antifungal (Tripathi externally for rheumatism 1979, Dash & Gupta & Singh 2001). A seed extract (Baral & Kurmi 2006). 1994, Joshi 2006). is anti-inflammatory. An extract is anticarcinogenic (Premalatha & Sachdanandam 1999). Solanum surattense Burm.f. Solanaceae; DKU 086 Jhyaure bhanta, The berries are carminative The whole plant is A capsule extract is hypoglycemic jware baigan (L), and expectorant and used used as an antipyretic, (Kar et al. 2006). kantakari (N), for sore throat (Anonymous analgesic, carminative, kantakari (S). 1995). Fruit paste is diuretic and expectorant A seed infusion applied to treat toothaches (Bajracharya 1979, is taken for (Manandhar 2002). Dash & Gupta 1994). toothache. *Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Flem.) Karst. Gentianaceae; DBU 067 Lek tite Plant paste is anthelmintic, The whole plant is used The plant juice is liver protective (N), kirat, stomachic and laxative as a laxative, stomachic, (Subramonium & Pushpangadan bhunimwa (S). (Anonymous 1995). febrifuge, anthelmintic and 1999). Swerchirin significantly lowers The whole plant It is used to treat skin in jaundice, fever and skin blood sugar levels (Saxena et al. is used for cough diseases (IUCN 2004). diseases (Anonymous 1991). An ethanolic plant extract and fever. 1995, Bajracharya is antibacterial and antifungal 1979, Joshi 2006). (Devkota et al. 1999). An aqueous plant extract is anti-inflammatory (Chowdhury et al. 1995).

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-005.pdf Kunwar et al. - Indigenous Use and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants 19 in Far-west Nepal Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) ‡Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae; BBU 085 Jamun (N), Black berry, Java plum The plant has astringent, A decoction of dry leaves and seeds brahaspati, (E). The leaves are used carminative, diarrheic, is hypoglycemic (Grover et al. 2000, jambhu (S). to help in strengthening dysenteric and stomachic Prince et al. 1998). A plant extract is A seed powder teeth and gums. Bark is properties (Dash & antibacterial (Shafi et al. 2002). An and bark astringent, carminative, Gupta 1994, Dey ethanolic extract is anti-inflammatory decoction is used diuretic, anthelmintic, 1998, Joshi 2006). (Muruganandan et al. 2001). in diarrhoea, and stomachic. Bark is dysentery, specially used in dysentery diabetes and (Baral & Kurmi 2006). inflammatory activity. Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae; BKU 068 Sele, harado (L), Chebulic myrobalan (E). The fruit pulp is anti- A methanolic fruit extract is harra (N), avaya, The bark is diuretic and inflammatory, analgesic, antianaphylactic (Shin et al. 2001) haritaki (S). cardiotonic (IUCN 2004). stomachic, laxative, and an aqueous extract acts against An infusion of The fruit is alterative, expectorant and diuretic. herpes simplex virus (Kurokawa et fruit is used in astringent, digestive, and The plant should be al. 1995). An ethanolic fruit extract cough and cold. purgative and is used in avoided in pregnancy is antibacterial and antifungal diabetes, cough, local (Anonymous 1995, (Bonjar 2004, Devkota et al. 1999). swelling and eye diseases Bajracharya 1979, The species’ tannins are antibiotic (Baral & Kurmi 2006). Sapkota & Adhikari 2001). (Tanaka et al. 1991). Punicalin, It is used externally as punicalagin inhibit viral adsorption a local application to into cells (Mekkawy et al. 1995). chronic ulcers and wounds Chebulin is antispasmodic. (Anonymous 1995). *Valeriana jatamansi Jones Valerianaceae; DKU 084 Juge jadi, (E). The rhizome The plant rhizome is The root extract is antimycobacterial simme, samayo is used for headaches, eye used for diarrhoea, (Taylor et al. 1995) but is chiefly (L), sugandhwal troubles, indigestion and stomachache, nervous used in insomnia (Chauffard et (N), tagarah, wounds in amchi system system disorders, al. 1981). Curcumin is a chief nataha, (Lama et al. 2001). It is and eye problems. constituent for anti-inflammatory washim (S). analgesic, carminative, It is anthelmintic, an activity (Ammon et al. 1993). The root is antispasmodic, aphrodisiac and applied anthelmintic antiseptic, expectorant, on arthritis, sore throat, and tonic. diuretics and sedative liver and spleen disorders (Anonymous 1995). in unani system (Anonymous 1995, Bajracharya 1979, Dash & Gupta 1994, Dey 1998). ‡Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Lythraceae; DKU 083 Dhula (L), Fire flame bush, shiranjitea The plant and fruit are Ellagic acid, a major flower dhainyaro (N), (E). Juice from small useful in cough, wound constituent, inhibits bacterial agnijwala, buds, twigs and leaves is and energy recovery. The infections in stomach and arrests tamra pushpi, helpful in stomach troubles flowers are astringent, ischaemic gastric lesions (Lino dhataki (S). (IUCN 2004). The flowers hemostatic, antipyretic et al. 2002). Ellagic acid use for Flowers are used and bark are anthelmintic and useful in diarrhoea, gastroduodenal disorders has as an antipyretic and used in diarrhoea, dysentery and burns been patented (Rajagopalan & and for dysentery. dysentery, leprosy, skin (Anonymous 1995, Khambe 1998). It is also effective diseases and diabetes. Bajracharya 1979, Dash & for rheumatism (Paper et al. 2005) It is considered as a safe Gupta 1994, Joshi 2006). and uterine disorders (Oudhia stimulant in pregnancy 2003). It also has promising (Baral & Kurmi 2006). antitumor and anti-inflammatory activity (Das et al. 2007).

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Indigenous use Indigenous use Uses in ayurveda* Pharmacological activity! (Present study) (Earlier studies) *Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Rutaceae; DKU 069 Timur (N), Prickly ash peeper, Nepali The plant is used in Ethanol fruit extract is antibacterial gandhalu, peeper (E). Essential toothache, headache, skin against gram positive bacteria tejwobati, oil from the fruit has diseases, indigestion, and (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus tumbaru (S). deodorant and antiseptic diarrhoea. It is employed aureus, Mycobacterium The fruit are used properties. A fruit decoction as a tonic, analgesic, phlei) (Taylor et al. 2002). for colds, cough is used for abdominal carminative, expectorant, and toothache. pain (Rajbhandari 2001). diuretic and used in The bark is used Berries are carminative, gastritis, liver problems, to stupefy fish. antispasmodic, and blood disorders in unani used for rheumatism system (Bajracharya and skin diseases. Bark 1979, Dey 1998, Sapkota is used for cholera, & Adhikari 2001). diabetes and asthma. It is used for toothache (Baral & Kurmi 2006). *Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae; BKU 082 Bewari (L), Chinese date, jujube Root and fruit are used Root extract is antimycobacterial bayer (N), (E). The fruit are used for thirst, bronchial (Taylor et al. 1995). The plant has badar (S). Root for as a tonic and asthma, diarrhoea and antifertility, analgesic and antidiabetic paste is applied aphrodisiac (Joshi & Joshi as an aphrodisiac, properties (Erenmemisoglu et for diarrhea, 2001). They are used emetic, carminative and al. 1995). Used for antifertility dysentery and in fever and digestion digestive (Bajracharya (Gupta et al. 2004). Betulinic acid vomiting. The fruit (Manandhar 2002). 1979, Dash & Gupta is an antibiotic and antitumor are used for fever 1994, Joshi 2006). agent (Maurya et al. 1989). and digestion.

A total 66.66% species and their uses were common be- The affinity and validity between the indigenous use and tween present and earlier study findings. The findings of phytochemical tests was less significant. 41.66% of the this present survey was enumerated in Table 1 in order plant species were validated by phytochemical bioassays. of species name, family name, English, local, Nepali and Eight species and uses were commonly supported across Sanskrit names and voucher code in column one; earlier all earlier studies and this one: Asparagus racemosus as findings in column two, Ayurvedic uses in column three, a galactogogue, Berberis asiatica for treating eye prob- chemical compounds in column four and phytochemical lems, Mucuna pruriens, as nerve tonic and stimulant, Ae- findings in column five. gle marmelos, Bergenia ciliata, Holarrhena pubescens, Syzygium cumini and Woodfordia fruticosa as antidiarrhe- Based on the criteria stated above, only 48 plant species al and anti dysenteric. consisting of 39 families were selected and preceded for comparative analysis of ethnomedicinal and ethnophar- There are forty-seven medicinal plants found as ethno- macological properties (Table 1). The families Rutace- antidiabetic drugs worldwide (Marles & Farnsworth 1995). ae and Euphorbiaceae contributed the most species i.e. Among them, Syzygium cumini is used in six countries, each contributed three species. Phyllanthus emblica in four countries and Juglans regia in three countries. The present study also found the ethno- medicinal use of Syzygium cumini as an antidiabetic. Of Discussion the forty eight enumerated species in the present survey, sixteen species along with P. emblica and S. cumini pos- The folk uses identified possess moderate affinity with sessed active constituents for hypoglycaemic effect (Ta- ayurvedic traditions with 50% of species surveyed sharing ble 1) but there were no any phytochemical validations at least one common use. This illustrates that the home of the antidiabetic property of J. regia. The present study herbal remedies are an independent health care system found the ethnomedicinal uses of J. regia against scabies, of Nepal Himalaya, which are indigenous but influenced allergy and toothache. It is commonly used for arthritis, by the ayurvedic system. However, the folk uses of the hair growth and wound healing in mountain districts of Ne- plant species in study area are being changed through pal (Kunwar et al. 2006). Ziziphus species are used for perception and social transformation. many medicinal purposes in folk medicines all over the world. It is widely used in 10 countries including Nepal

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol7/i1547-3465-07-005.pdf Kunwar et al. - Indigenous Use and Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants 21 in Far-west Nepal (Anonymous 2006) against skin diseases, diarrhea, fever Antoun, M.D., Z. Ramos, J. Vazques, I. Oquendo, G.R. and insomnia. The study obtained its uses against fever, Proctor, L. Gerena & S.G. Franzblau. 2001. Evaluation of diarrhea, dysentery and indigestion but the species pos- the flora of Puerto Rico for in vitro antiplasmodial and an- sesses anti-inflammatory, antibacterial antitumor proper- timycobacterial activities. Phytotherapy Research 15:638- ties in phytochemical tests (Maurya et al. 1989). 642.

The folk uses of some of the species were contradicting Arul, V., S. Kumaraguru & R. Dhananjayan. 1999. Effects to the ayurveda and phytochemical bioassays. Calotropis of Ageline and Lupeol, the two cardioactive principles iso- does not act as an antidote for scorpion sting (Uawong- lated from the leaves of the Aegle marmelos. Journal of gul et al .2006) but it was locally used in scorpion sting in Pharmacy and Pharmacology 51:252. study area. Acorus calamus was reported to be used as pesticide in study area and anticancer in the ayurveda but Awasthi, L.P. 1981. The purification and nature of an an- the experiment showed its insignificant inhibitory effect tiviral protein from Cuscuta reflexa plants. Archives of Vi- (Smit et al. 1995). Because of the bitter alkaloids of Swer- rology 70:215-223. tia chirayita, it is beneficial to the indigestion (Reynolds 1982) but it was used only for headache and fever in study Badam, L., S.S. Bedekar, K.B. Sonawane & S.P. Joshi. area. The indigenous knowledge on uses of plants of Cin- 2002. In vitro antiviral activity of bael (Aegle marmelos namomum tamala, Datura stramonium, Justicia adhato- Corr.) upon human coxsackieviruses B1-B6. Journal of da, Mallotus philippensis, Mentha spicata, Neopicrorhiza Communicable Diseases 34:88-99. scrophularifolia, Paris polyphylla, Sapindus mukorossi and Semecarpus anacardium was inconsistent to the ear- Bajracharya, M.B. 1979. Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants and lier studies, the ayurveda and phytochemical bioassays. General Treatments. Jore Ganesh Press Pvt Ltd, Kath- The detail phytochemical study on those species would mandu. be an important line of research. Contradicting uses of the species should be discouraged and further investigation, Balansand, J. & M. Rayband 1987. Diuretic action of As- phytochemical screening and the validity assessments of the species are worthwhile. paragus officinalis. Critical Reviews in Society of Biology 126:954-956.

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