Nuclear New Zealand: New Zealandʼs nuclear and radiation history to 1987 A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the History and Philosophy of Science in the University of Canterbury by Rebecca Priestley, BSc (hons) University of Canterbury August 2010 Table of contents Abstract 1 Acknowledgements 2 Chapter 1 Nuclear-free New Zealand: Reality or a myth to be debunked? 3 Chapter 2 The radiation age: Rutherford, New Zealand and the new physics 25 Chapter 3 The public are mad on radium! Applications of the new science 45 Chapter 4 Some fool in a laboratory: The atom bomb and the dawn of the nuclear age 80 Chapter 5 Cold War and red hot science: The nuclear age comes to the Pacific 110 Chapter 6 Uranium fever! Uranium prospecting on the West Coast 146 Chapter 7 Thereʼs strontium-90 in my milk: Safety and public exposure to radiation 171 Chapter 8 Atoms for Peace: Nuclear science in New Zealand in the atomic age 200 Chapter 9 Nuclear decision: Plans for nuclear power 231 Chapter 10 Nuclear-free New Zealand: The forging of a new national identity 257 Chapter 11 A nuclear-free New Zealand? The ideal and the reality 292 Bibliography 298 1 Abstract New Zealand has a paradoxical relationship with nuclear science. We are as proud of Ernest Rutherford, known as the father of nuclear science, as of our nuclear-free status. Early enthusiasm for radium and X-rays in the first half of the twentieth century and euphoria in the 1950s about the discovery of uranium in a West Coast road cutting was countered by outrage at French nuclear testing in the Pacific and protests against visits from American nuclear-powered warships. New Zealand today has a strong nuclear-free identity – a result of the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament and Arms Control Act of 1987 that prohibited nuclear weapons and nuclear warships in the country’s land, air and water – that can be traced back to the first protests against nuclear weapons in the 1940s. This thesis is based on the supposition that the “nuclear-free New Zealand” narrative is so strong and such a part of the national identity that it has largely eclipsed another story, the pre-1980s story of “nuclear New Zealand”. New Zealand’s early embracing of and enthusiasm for nuclear science and technology needs to be introduced into our national story. This thesis aims to discover and reveal that history: from the young New Zealand physicists seconded to work on the Manhattan Project; to the plans for a heavy water plant at Wairakei; prospecting for uranium on the West Coast of the South Island; plans for a nuclear power station on the Kaipara Harbour; and the thousands of scientists and medical professionals who have worked with nuclear technology. Put together, they provide a narrative history of nuclear New Zealand. Between the “anti-nuclear” voices, already well told in many histories of nuclear-free New Zealand, and the “pro-nuclear” voices revealed in this thesis, options were considered and decisions made. This thesis shows that the people with decision-making power tended to make practical decisions based on economics and national interest when it came to deciding whether or not to adopt a certain piece of nuclear technology or whether or not to participate in projects or ventures with international agencies. This eventually led to a nuclear-free policy – focused on weapons, nuclear-powered ships and waste – that since the legislation was enacted in 1987 has been interpreted ever more widely by politicians and the public to include nuclear power, uranium prospecting and many other applications of nuclear technology. 2 Acknowledgments First thanks go to the two organisations whose support has been essential to the writing of this thesis. Thanks to the University of Canterbury whose doctoral scholarship provided vital funding over the first few years of this thesis, and to my supervisors at the University of Canterbury: Dr Philip Catton (philosophy), Professor John Hearnshaw (physics and astronomy) and Professor Philippa Mein Smith (history). History of science was a new discipline for me and the support and guidance of my supervisors has been crucial. Second thanks go the Stout Research Centre for New Zealand Studies at Victoria University of Wellington, and its director, Professor Lydia Wevers, for giving me a peaceful haven in which to complete my thesis. Thanks also to the staff and residents at the Stout Research Centre, for stimulating conversation and constant encouragement. Many individuals have assisted me over the nine-year course of this thesis, either by providing personal anecdotes or sharing photographs, diaries and papers. Particular thanks go to Jim McCahon, Robin Williams, Lloyd Jones and Rob Aspden who shared their personal stories with me. Thanks also to Jock Brathwaite, Simon Nathan and the family of Tas McKee for sharing their photographs. Thanks also to the staff at Archives New Zealand and the National Library of New Zealand, where I spent many weeks researching this thesis. Final thanks go to my family, my husband Jonathan, and my children, Pippi, Hazel and Huck, all of whom were born during the nine-year course of this project. Thanks also to my mother and step-father Ruth Brassington and Chris Peace and to the nannies whose assistance helped me to achieve this goal: Jade, Janine, Marnie, Miriam and Jess. 3 Chapter 1 Nuclear-free New Zealand: Reality or a myth to be debunked? “ … our nuclear free status … has become a defining symbol of our national identity.” Prime Minister Helen Clark, 28 November 20071 “New Zealandʼs nuclear-free status is a myth …” Act MP Ken Shirley, 27 July 20052 New Zealand today is internationally recognised as being “nuclear-free”. The New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament and Arms Control Act of 1987 created a nuclear-free zone that prohibited nuclear weapons and nuclear warships in the country’s land, air and water. In the years that followed, government and the New Zealand public began to interpret the nuclear-free policy more widely. In 1996 a Minerals Programme issued under the Crown Minerals Act prohibited uranium mining, and prospecting for uranium. And in 2005, in response to calls for nuclear power to meet New Zealand’s future electricity needs, the Labour Government stated their clear policy of no nuclear power stations. This nuclear-free status, initiated by a Labour Government in the 1980s, is now recognised by both major political parties, and is a reflection of a strong nuclear-free national identity. This thesis is based on the supposition that the “nuclear-free New Zealand” narrative is so strong and such a part of the national identity that it has largely eclipsed another story, the pre-1980s story of “nuclear New Zealand”. New Zealand’s early embracing of and enthusiasm for nuclear science and technology needs to be introduced into our national story. This thesis aims to discover and reveal that history: from the young New Zealand physicists seconded to work on the Manhattan Project; to the plans for a heavy water plant at Wairakei; prospecting for uranium on the West Coast of the South Island; plans for a nuclear power station on the Kaipara Harbour; 1 From the Prime Minister’s address on ‘New Zealand and Peaceful Conflict Resolution’ in Cairo, Egypt, at www.beehive.govt.nz/speech/new+zealand+and+peaceful+conflict+resolution downloaded 23 June 2010. 2 A statement made when presenting his New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control (Nuclear Propulsion Reform) Amendment Bill to Parliament on http://www.parliament.nz/mi- NZ/PB/Debates/Debates/7/c/1/47HansD_20050727_00001577-New-Zealand-Nuclear-Free-Zone-Disarmament.htm, downloaded 23 July 2008. 4 and the thousands of scientists and medical professionals who have worked with nuclear technology. Put together, they provide a narrative history of nuclear New Zealand. In attempting to write an alternative history – that of “nuclear New Zealand” rather than the already told story of “nuclear-free New Zealand” – I hope first to show the extent of use, over time, of radiation and nuclear science and technology in New Zealand; second, to reveal attitudes (of the scientists and engineers involved and of the public, as reflected in the media, and of the governments of the time) to all aspects of nuclear science and technology before New Zealand’s current nuclear-free policy was adopted; and third, to show how recent an addition the nuclear- free status is to national identity. New Zealand’s nuclear-free identity is strong, and most New Zealanders are fiercely proud of it. Perhaps this is why New Zealand’s nuclear history (as compared with its “nuclear-free” history) has been neglected – it does not fit with established identity. But this is not the only reason. As the following literature review shows, many books have been written about New Zealand’s nuclear-free story and most general histories of New Zealand reference New Zealand’s nuclear- free status. Science history in New Zealand, however, is a sorely neglected field. Although Ross Galbreath’s history of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) was published in 1998 and there has been a proliferation of (mostly amateur) biographies of New Zealand scientists published in the last decade, there is little published material on New Zealand’s science history – let alone its nuclear science history – and almost none that comes from an academic source.3 In contrast, New Zealand’s social and political history is well covered; there are many books, theses and academic articles describing the work of politicians and the peace movement and the build-up to the adoption of New Zealand’s nuclear-free policy.