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Diceros Bicornis Longipes As a Tool to Test Species De-Extinction Using Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer EMILY LALONDE1, HANNAH MAHONEY1 1

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Diceros Bicornis Longipes As a Tool to Test Species De-Extinction Using Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer EMILY LALONDE1, HANNAH MAHONEY1 1 LITERATURE REVIEW Diceros bicornis longipes as a Tool to Test Species De-extinction using Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer EMILY LALONDE1, HANNAH MAHONEY1 1. Integrated Science Program, Class of 2020, McMaster University SUMMARY The need for a solution to species extinction has become more crucial following the official extinction of the West African black rhinoceros in 2011 and the more recent extinction of the North African white rhinoceros on March 18th, 2018. This literature review explores the de-extinction of the West African Black rhinoceros through somatic cell nuclear transfer, commonly known as cloning. This idea was developed by analyzing the literature related to the several methods of de-extinction: back breeding, somatic cell nuclear transfer, and genetic engineering. Furthermore, the role of the West African Black rhinoceros within its ecosystem before and after extinction, as well as its genetic variation as a subspecies of the black rhinoceros, is discussed. Common concerns pertaining to de- extinction and cloning are also examined in order to justify potential future initiatives. Received: 11/09/2018 Accepted: 03/12/2019 Published: 11/17/2019 Keywords: West African black rhinoceros, de-extinction, genetic cloning, somatic cell nuclear transfer, genetic engineering, conservation, invasive species, ethics INTRODUCTION resources to represent a new field of scientific Molecular Biology Molecular research. While de-extinction events have As of March 2014, the International Union for occurred and will be discussed in more depth Conservation of Nature (IUCN) had assessed throughout the review, no organism born from a 71,576 terrestrial and fresh-water species; of this, de-extinction event has lived for more than a few they classified 860 as extinct or extinct in the wild, days. This is expected to change, as the field of and 21,286 were deemed threatened with 4,286 genetics is one of the fastest advancing scientific described as critically threatened. These fields in the world (Eisenstein, 2015). The question extinctions cannot simply be explained based on then arises of how using de-extinction as a means past extinctions in Earth’s history: humans must of conservation and study will impact the be negatively affecting a large portion of species. environment of the cloned organisms; moreover, This theory is further supported by comparing if there will be an impact on extant animals. pre-human extinction rates established by the 9 IUCN of 0.1 extinctions per million species years This review aims to use the literature surrounding (E/MSY) to present extinction rates of the West African Black rhinoceros (WABR), a | 201 approximately 100 E/MSY (Pimm et al., 2014). subspecies of the African black rhinoceros, as a qualitative tool to help hypothesize the effects of Based on these findings, the prevention and de-extinction, as the subspecies was declared solution to extinction seem to be of the utmost extinct in 2011 (Moodley, 2017). By summarizing importance. A recent strategy is the concept of de- how the loss and reintroduction of the subspecies extinction which involves resurrecting extinct may impact its environment and the discussion ISCIENTIST species using back-breeding, somatic cell nuclear around species de-extinction, the WABR is an transfer (SCNT), and genetic engineering. These excellent example that could be used to elucidate techniques utilize current technologies and the de-extinction of other species that have been 36 36 extinct for similar periods of time and eventually TECHNOLOGIES OF DE- ones that have been absent for longer. EXTINCTION There are currently three techniques that are used METHODS and explored as solutions to species extinction. These techniques include back breeding, somatic Articles used in this systemic review were found cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), and genetic using online journal databases including, but not engineering. Their specific methodologies and limited to, Web of Science. The Web of Science applications are discussed in the following database was used as the primary database as it subsections. includes articles from a variety of disciplines. This is essential for this literature review because a range of different topics are covered. For example, BACK-BREEDING scientific topics such as the methodologies of de- extinction (e.g. back-breeding, SCNT, and genetic The concept of back-breeding as a method of de- engineering) as well as ecological concepts extinction was made popular by the Heck surrounding the WABR and its reintroduction are brothers. Between the 1920s and the 1930s, the discussed. However, subjects that are more related brothers attempted to recreate the auroch (Bos to social sciences are also reviewed. The topics primigenius), a breed of large wild cattle that was discussed in Ethics and other Considerations, domesticated approximately 2,000 years ago and which delve into the ethics and other became extinct over 400 years ago (Stockstad, considerations of species de-extinction, fall more 2015). The brothers attempted to resurrect the Biology Molecular within this category. auroch by cross-breeding different types of cattle and selecting the desired traits for their offspring. Search terms were used consistently when The result of such experiments found the Heck searching all resources to ensure relevant articles cattle to not be very morphologically similar to the were found. For example, in order to find auroch (van Vuure, 2002). Despite this, the scientific articles pertaining to SCNT, the search experiments introduced the concept of selective terms included: SCNT, cloning for de-extinction, breeding to recover distinct ancestral phenotypes and somatic cell nuclear transfer extinct species. within a population. While the new species may be All searches conducted involved using more than similar to the extinct species phenotypically, the two search terms to ensure that a wide range of exact gene pool remains extinct with the original articles on the subject was included. species (Price, 2006). Still, back-breeding provides It was important to ensure that only relevant an interesting means of filling previously empty articles were used to create this literature review. ecological niches and allows for the new species Therefore, articles chosen had to abide by a list of and the ecosystem to re-evolve naturally (van inclusion criteria; however, the criteria varied Vuure, 2002). between topics. For example, the age of the articles pertaining to species de-extinction did not matter as this section is meant to include all SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR relevant instances of species de-extinction. TRANSFER Whereas, articles pertaining to the population decline and extinction of the WABR were Unlike back-breeding, somatic cell nuclear transfer published prior to 2007, as the species was (SCNT) aims to create a replica that possess declared extinct on March 18th, 2018. Moreover, identical nuclear DNA to its donor. Cloning by ISCIENTIST information relating to rhinoceros had to be SCNT (Figure 1) has been successfully constrained to articles based on work in Africa, accomplished in 23 mammalian species as of and more specifically West Africa. However, all February 2018 (Lui et al., 2018). articles had to be peer-reviewed and directly The first mammalian example of SCNT was Dolly related to the topic. the Sheep in 1996. Sir Ian Wilmut of the Roslin | 201 9 37 37 Institute accomplished this by using a mammary GENETIC ENGINEERING gland of a six-year-old female sheep in her third trimester of pregnancy. These experiments are Genetic engineering utilizes advances in the fields significant because the results proved that a of ancient DNA extraction and genome editing to mammalian adult cell can be completely combat extinction. These advances create living reprogrammed (Wilmut, 1997). Dolly the sheep cells that possess extinct genes, which then can be was the product of a multistep process involving used for SCNT (Yu & Bradley, 2001). Genetic 38 three female sheep. One provided the genetic engineering provides a means of de-extinction for material that was inserted into an unfertilized and animals that have been extinct for a long time, enucleated oocyte provided by a different female. unlike the WABR. For this reason, it will not be After undergoing fertilization, the oocyte became discussed in great detail in this review. an embryo and was implanted into a third female surrogate (Campbell, 1996). Since the birth of Dolly the sheep, technical improvements and THE WEST AFRICAN BLACK increased knowledge of cellular reprogramming RHINOCEROS have enhanced the efficiency of SCNT. Despite The West African Black rhinoceros (Diceros this, the overall ability of SCNT to produce a live bicornis) (WABR) is a subspecies of the African offspring is only on the order of 1-3% (Booth et Black Rhinoceros species. They are distinguishable al., 2001). from the white rhinoceros by their hooked upper lip, which allows them to browse and feed on leaves from bushes and trees. Like all rhinos, the WABR is a megaherbivore and plays an important role in the health of its native environment (Cromsigt et al., 2014). Norman Owen-Smith, a highly regarded ecologist whose work pertaining to rhinoceroses will be referred to throughout this review, defined megaherbivores as plant-feeding animals that typically attain an adult body mass in excess of 1,000kg (Owen-Smith, 1987). With both male and female WABRs easily reaching weights Figure 1: A nucleus from an adult up to 1,300kg, the species fits well into this definition. somatic cell is injected into an enucleated oocyte (egg cell with The important role of megaherbivores can be Molecular Biology Molecular the nucleus removed). Together summarized by the Keystone Herbivore they are reprogrammed. During Hypothesis, which states that large animals are reprogramming, the adult somatic necessary ecosystem engineers, opening up cell becomes an undifferentiated densely forested regions, and thus food resources, for smaller ungulates (Mills et al., 1993). The term stem cell which upon fertilization ‘keystone species’ is poorly defined and broadly develops in the same manner as applied with possible applications to organisms on an embryo (Schorschski, 2007).
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