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The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence: Issues and Initiatives The ethics of artificial intelligence: Issues and initiatives STUDY Panel for the Future of Science and Technology EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service Scientific Foresight Unit (STOA) PE 634.452 – March 2020 EN The ethics of artificial intelligence: Issues and initiatives This study deals with the ethical implications and moral questions that arise from the development and implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. It also reviews the guidelines and frameworks which countries and regions around the world have created to address them. It presents a comparison between the current main frameworks and the main ethical issues, and highlights gaps around the mechanisms of fair benefit-sharing; assigning of responsibility; exploitation of workers; energy demands in the context of environmental and climate changes; and more complex and less certain implications of AI, such as those regarding human relationships. STOA | Panel for the Future of Science and Technology AUTHORS This study has been drafted by Eleanor Bird, Jasmin Fox-Skelly, Nicola Jenner, Ruth Larbey, Emma Weitkamp and Alan Winfield from the Science Communication Unit at the University of the West of England, at the request of the Panel for the Future of Science and Technology (STOA), and managed by the Scientific Foresight Unit, within the Directorate-General for Parliamentary Research Services (EPRS) of the Secretariat of the European Parliament. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the following interviewees: John C. Havens (The IEEE Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems (A/IS)) and Jack Stilgoe (Department of Science & Technology Studies, University College London). ADMINISTRATOR RESPONSIBLE Mihalis Kritikos, Scientific Foresight Unit (STOA) To contact the publisher, please e-mail [email protected] LINGUISTIC VERSION Original: EN Manuscript completed in March 2020. DISCLAIMER AND COPYRIGHT This document is prepared for, and addressed to, the Members and staff of the European Parliament as background material to assist them in their parliamentary work. The content of the document is the sole responsibility of its author(s) and any opinions expressed herein should not be taken to represent an official position of the Parliament. Reproduction and translation for non-commercial purposes are authorised, provided the source is acknowledged and the European Parliament is given prior notice and sent a copy. Brussels © European Union, 2020. PE 634.452 ISBN: 978-92-846-5799-5 doi: 10.2861/6644 QA-01-19-779-EN-N http://www.europarl.europa.eu/stoa (STOA website) http://www.eprs.ep.parl.union.eu (intranet) http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank (internet) http://epthinktank.eu (blog) The ethics of artificial intelligence: Issues and initiatives Executive summary © Seanbatty / Pixabay This report deals with the ethical implications and moral questions that arise from the development and implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. It also reviews the guidelines and frameworks that countries and regions around the world have created to address them. It presents a comparison between the current main frameworks and the main ethical issues, and highlights gaps around mechanisms of fair benefit sharing; assigning of responsibility; exploitation of workers; energy demands in the context of environmental and climate changes; and more complex and less certain implications of AI, such as those regarding human relationships. Chapter 1 introduces the scope of the report and defines key terms. The report draws on the European Commission's definition of AI as 'systems that display intelligent behaviour'. Other key terms defined in this chapter include intelligence and how this is used in the context of AI and intelligent robots (i.e. robots with an embedded AI), as well as defining machine learning, artificial neural networks and deep learning, before moving on to consider definitions of morality and ethics and how these relate to AI. In Chapter 2 the report maps the main ethical dilemmas and moral questions associated with the deployment of AI. The report begins by outlining a number of potential benefits that could arise from AI as a context in which to situate ethical, social and legal considerations. Within the context of issues for society, the report considers the potential impacts of AI on the labour market, focusing on the likely impact on economic growth and productivity, the impact on the workforce, potential impacts on different demographics, including a worsening of the digital divide, and the consequences of deployment of AI on the workplace. The report considers the potential impact of AI on inequality and how the benefits of AI could be shared within society, as well as issues concerning the concentration of AI technology within large internet companies and political stability. Other societal issues addressed in this chapter include privacy, human rights and dignity, bias, and issues for democracy. I STOA | Panel for the Future of Science and Technology Chapter 2 moves on to consider the impact of AI on human psychology, raising questions about the impact of AI on relationships, as in the case of intelligent robots taking on human social roles, such as nursing. Human-robot relationships may also affect human-human relationships in as yet unanticipated ways. This section also considers the question of personhood, and whether AI systems should have moral agency. Impacts on the financial system are already being felt, with AI responsible for high trading volumes of equities. The report argues that, although markets are suited to automation, there are risks including the use of AI for intentional market manipulation and collusion. AI technology also poses questions for both civil and criminal law, particularly whether existing legal frameworks apply to decisions taken by AIs. Pressing legal issues include liability for tortious, criminal and contractual misconduct involving AI. While it may seem unlikely that AIs will be deemed to have sufficient autonomy and moral sense to be held liable themselves, they do raise questions about who is liable for which crime (or indeed if human agents can avoid liability by claiming they did not know the AI could or would do such a thing). In addition to challenging questions around liability, AI could abet criminal activities, such as smuggling (e.g. by using unmanned vehicles), as well as harassment, torture, sexual offences, theft and fraud. Self-driving autonomous cars are likely to raise issues in relation to product liability that could lead to more complex cases (currently insurers typically avoid lawsuits by determining which driver is at fault, unless a car defect is involved). Large-scale deployment of AI could also have both positive and negative impacts on the environment. Negative impacts include increased use of natural resources, such as rare earth metals, pollution and waste, as well as energy consumption. However, AI could help with waste management and conservation offering environmental benefits. The potential impacts of AI are far-reaching, but they also require trust from society. AI will need to be introduced in ways that build trust and understanding, and respect human and civil rights. This requires transparency, accountability, fairness and regulation. Chapter 3 explores ethical initiatives in the field of AI. The chapter first outlines the ethical initiatives identified for this report, summarising their focus and where possible identifying funding sources. The harms and concerns tackled by these initiatives is then discussed in detail. The issues raised can be broadly aligned with issues identified in Chapter 2 and can be split into questions around: human rights and well-being; emotional harm; accountability and responsibility; security, privacy, accessibility and transparency; safety and trust; social harm and social justice; lawfulness and justice; control and the ethical use (or misuse) of AI; environmental harm and sustainability; informed use; existential risk. All initiatives focus on human rights and well-being, arguing that AI must not affect basic and fundamental human rights. The IEEE initiative further recommends governance frameworks, standards and regulatory bodies to oversee use of AI and ensure that human well-being is prioritised throughout the design phase. The Montreal Protocol argues that AI should encourage and support the growth and flourishing of human well-being. Another prominent issue identified in these initiatives is concern about the impact of AI on the human emotional experience, including the ways in which AIs address cultural sensitivities (or fail to do so). Emotional harm is considered a particular risk in the case of intelligent robots with whom humans might form an intimate relationship. Emotional harm may also arise should AI be designed to emotionally manipulate users (though it is also recognised that such nudging can also have II The ethics of artificial intelligence: Issues and initiatives positive impacts, e.g. on healthy eating). Several initiatives recognise that nudging requires particular ethical consideration. The need for accountability is recognised by initiatives, the majority of which focus on the need for AI to be auditable as a means of ensuring that manufacturers, designers and owners/operators of AI can be held responsible for harm caused. This also raises the question of autonomy and what that means in the context of AI. Within the initiatives there is a recognition that new
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