School and Community N E W t S

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А ISSN 0314 - 1543

FRONT COVER: Wreck Bay Fishermen (see article р.32) Photograph by Alison Taylor.

THE SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY PROJECT IS FUNDED BY THE SPECIAL PROJECTS PROGRAM OF THE SCHOOLS COMMISSION DIRECTOR: Patrick Brady School of Teacher Education Canberra College of Advanced Education PO Box 1 BELCONNEN ACT 2616 (tel: (062) 522469) The views expressed in this newsletter are not necessarily those of the Schools Commission

CONTENT 5 Page

Burwood Case Study: South Australian Open 'A' Class Appointments David Pettit

4 The Culture of the Disadvantaged: Three Views Rachel Sharp

* An Analysis of Inequality in the Light of the Jervis Bay/Wreck Bay Innovations Project Margaret Clark

,,Reflections on the Jervis Bay/Wreck Bay Experience 32-45 February 1978-June 1980 Ann Nugent

An Extract from Isolated Schools 46-47 C. Turney, K.E. Sinclair and L.G. Cairns

Other Recent Publications 48-49

Some Impressions of Community Education in the United States 50-52 Terry Tierney

EDITORIAL faced with the particular problems of educational disadvantage experienced by children in isolated In this edition of School and Community News a regions. number of the articles focus on questions of disadvantage and inequality. In a different vein, Terry Tierney's article provides some insights into the United States In the first article, which is also the last from the community education scene and suggests some pit- Burwood Case Study Project, David Pettit looks at one falls to be avoided here in Australia. South Australian approach to the problem of linking schools with special problems up with Principals with Mailing List Review ... special skills. In our last edition we asked readers to advise us The next three articles look, from quite different if they wished to continue to receive copies of perspectives, at the question of "cultural our publications in 1980. Over 600 readers disadvantage" in our schools. replied. We are pleased to know that so many of you find cur materials of value. Rachel Sharp's article, written as a discussion paper for the Disadvantaged Schools National Regional Response ... Dissemination and Communication Project, considers We recently canvassed all Regional Directors and three different ways of thinking about the culture Education Centres in an attempt to get some feel of disadvantaged groups in our society and their for the kinds of activities taking place at this educational implications. level. The response certainly indicates that people working at the regional level would appreciate The papers by Margaret Clark and Ann Nugent increased opportunities to link into networks that both centre man innovations project, developed by provide information about initiatives being tried Ann, and implemented at Jervis Bay/Wreck Bay, ACT. elsewhere. We will be looking, in the next few Both Margaret and Ann are Associate Members of the months, at ways in which the services of the Project School and Community Project and their papers show can be adapted to meet this need. a similarity in the direction of their thinking. This similarity is perhaps a reflection of the degree This edition of School and Community News is something of open dialogue and cross fertilization which has of a first for us in that, as we reported in the last been made possible, under the auspices of the Project, newsletter, with the completion of the Bzwwood Case during this year. Study Project, new approaches to the development of materials have had to be explored. Your responses to In our section on 'New Publications' we have included the materials in this newsletter would therefore be some extracts from the book Isolated Schools by doubly welcome. We would be happy to receive your Turney, Sinclair and Cairns. We have mainly focussed suggestions, criticisms and/or materials for future on the authors' recommendations in relation to publications. school and community but strongly recommend the book to all those parents, teachers and administrators Beverley Pope Project Officer.

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN OPEN 'A CLASS APPOINTMENTS

By: David Pettit Burwood Case Study

How do you select the fifty best principals in and leadership are appropriate to the specific needs the State and how do you decide which schools of the schools to which they are applying. need those principals? In 1979 there were nearly two hundred applicants for A selection process is evolving in South Australia the thirty-four primary and secondary school positions. with the extensive co-operation between the Minister The panel short-listed to about a third of that for Education, the Department and the South number and then embarked upon a laborious process of Australian Institute of Teachers (BAIT). Under the reviewing the applications, studying the referee's arrangement up to fifty Principals 'A' are appointed comments, visiting the applicants' existing schools to specific 'Open A' class schools for a five year and interviewing. During the interviews matters of tenure and receive an extra loading of between two management, innovation, devolution of responsibility, and three thousand dollars a year for the staff development, budget processes, community responsibility. involvement and participation beyond the school were discussed. Members of the panel visited the applicants' The Principals 'A' are chosen by a selection panel present schools talking to students, teachers, staff of eight people - three of SAIT, three from the and parents, looking at programmes and discussing Education Department and two Ministerial appointees. organisation and morale. The panel then made recom- There are two panels : one for primary and one for mendation to the Director General and the Minister. secondary principals. SAIT holds an election for If referred back the position may be re-advertised five primary and five secondary teachers from which although in practice this has rarely happened. It is three are chosen for the panels, two primary and an indication of the thoroughness of the panel's work one secondary for a primary panel and vice-versa that positions are not filled if they consider that for a secondary panel. The Department Officers none of the candidates are suitable : this has happened are fairly senior and the ministerial appointees on several occasions and twice during the 1979 round of are parents drawn from the Parent Teachers Council appointments. of South Australia. When the Principal 'A' class came into being five years The Principal 'A' positions are widely advertised ago it was a personal classification and not a school in Australia and New Zealand. Potential applicants classification. Having identified the people, schools can obtain on request further information about the were then selected : consequently the matching was not particular characteristics of each 'Open A' school peřfect although a total of nearly one hundred schools ('Open' because openly advertised). The applicants became eligible for a Class 'A' Principal. The decision have to demonstrate that their qualities, experience to designate certain schools as 'Open A' schools because of'special need' had been accepted in the In the process of selecting Open 'A' schools a original agreement but was not activated until later. fairly strong and tangible improvement philosophy The selection and designation of the schools with has developed. The early concept of using Class 'A' special needs has made the choice of principals principals as 'troubleshooters' has given way to for them particularly important. more of a 'lighthouse' approach, using achievements in the schools to improve the performance and broaden There are twenty secondary and thirty primary the perspectives of adjacent schools. The process Principal 'A' schools eligible for Principals has also enabled the Department and its Regional Class 'A' at any one time. The primary school list Directors to develop ideas about what ought to happen includes three or four junior primary, a special in schools even if there is not always agreement. and one or two rural area schools. In creating a list of possible Open 'A' class schools the The innovation could not have taken place without the Department takes three considerations into account: support of SAIT. Like most agreements between the the size of the school, its complexity as indicated Minister, the Department and the Union it resulted by the socio-economic status of the parents and the from a trade-off. During a work conditions case in migrant and aboriginal component and 'special 1974 SAIT selected the more complex Class 1 schools considerations'. This last category includes the as examples for work values. Consequently the innovativeness of the programmes in the school, differences within the Class 1 schools became more the relationship with University and College pre- obvious. The Department wanted a re-classification service programmes and the school's past history. to reduce the number of classes of schools and after Past history could take into account such consider- negotiation this was agreed to in exchange for the ations as the turnover of principals brought about by creation of fifty Principal 'A' positions and the promotion, death, long service leave, accouchement inclusion of SAIT in the selection process. The leave etc; schools recently combined but on different changes, psrticularly in the system of tenure, campuses and 'experimental' schools such as K-12 and required considerable negotiation. There was con- 'community' schools. There is a tendency for a strong siderable opposition within the SAIT at the time and representation of 'disadvantaged' or 'priority project' the issue was only finally passed through in SAIT schools to be represented on the list. Council when the Open 'A' appointments were tied to more complex and demanding schools. Theoretically, Most Open 'A' schools are in metropolitan Adelaide the system offers opportunities for accelerated and there is no formula for taking into account the promotion. In fact only one interstate and one geographical distribution of the schools. Regional overseas appointment has been made and most South Directors are fully involved in the process but this Australian appointments are from Class 1 category. creates difficulties in making cross regional com- Only two appointments have been made from Class 2 and parisons. This is especially so in determining what one from the deputy principal category. are the more subjective 'special considerations' as these differ in emphasis from region to region. If a Principal 'A' is not re-appointed at the end of a five year term then he or she reverts to a Class 1 Principals 'A' were appointed to Primary 'A' principal position on that salary although it is positions and one Principal 'A' was appointed from possible to maintain superannuation at the overseas. The system works strongly in favour of Principal 'A' rate of contribution. In the event incumbents. They are more experienced, generally of a Class 1 position not being available the have a proven 'track record' and have to be given surplus principals may be seconded to central or an interview by the panel. It is thus more difficult regional office. As yet this has occurred only once. for a younger person with promise but no principal In the process of creating 'Open A schools some experience to break into the class. incumbent principals may apply unsuccessfully and be displaced. They are normally transferred to equiv- Only three of the 1979 appointments were women, - two alent positions on the same salary but in one case, from junior primary schools and one from a special where the principal was unwilling to leave, he was school : this imbalance reflects the general sexual simply transferred by the Department after extended, inequality of access to promotion positions in all inconclusive negotiation. South Australian and Australian schools.

Once appointed there is strong pressure upon The use of Principal 'A' designation has failed to Principals 'A' not to transfer, take leave or be overcome the unattractiveness of the country and seconded but to serve the full five year term felt some provincial cities for principals. In these necessary to implement effective change. For the areas there have also been anomalies where an same reason principals selected have to be able to incumbent Class 1 Principal of a designated school serve at least five years before retirement. (Most has applied for a Principal 'A', been turned down are in their mid-forties to mid-fifties when but no satisfactory Principal 'A' has been found and appointed). If at the end of the five years a the incumbent has remained while the whole process principal's school is no longer designated as has been public knowledge. Class 'A' school he can remain in the school as a Class 1 principal or apply for a transfer to a The original decision by SAIT to accept changes did Class 1 position in another school which may or may lead to fairly severe divisions within the High School not be successful. Principals Association (which have not yet healed) and considerable opposition for some primary school After nearly five years of operation the Class 'A' principals who question the qualification of the panel appointment system has not led to radical changes and resent the interviewing process. There are however in the appointments of principals in South indications that most Principals 'A', especially the Australia. younger ones, are aware of the higher expectations of them. Of the thirty-four positions advertised in mid 1979 (sixteen of the fifty have changed hands in between The need to re-apply at the end of five years and to for a variety of reasons) nineteen Principals 'A' account for their action is taken seriously as is the were re-appointed as principal to their own school. recognition that it is not possible to 'sit' Seven Principals 'A' were not re-appointed - all indefinitely on an Open 'A' school. primary. For the first time two Junior Primary There is no local involvement in the selection The present Class 'A Principal system is a partial process beyond the visit made by members of the move towards acknowledging that schools differ in panel. While the panel do interview staff, their needs and leaders differ in the skills they parents and students, who they meet, especially offer to meet the needs of schools. It is partial in the case of parents, can be influenced to some because of the needs of only fifty schools theoret- extent by the applicant. It is thus difficult for ically being met (although the needs of up to a the panel to find out what local people want of hundred schools have been recognised). In some ways their school. There is also a great deal of the centralised panels are in a well-informed position ignorance of the process at the 'A' designated to assess the availability of leaders and the needs of schools. The teachers, parents and students have schools. In other ways there is a good case for little or no knowledge of who have applied and been encouraging local community involvement, perhaps shortlisted for their school and often the through councils, in the expression of needs and the principal is in the same position. No formal election of principals. Yet it is possible that such opportunities exist for an applicant to visit the appointments could reinforce entrenched conservative school for which he has applied and such action is prejudice. It depends on the perspective. Inevitably made more difficult as the incumbent will, in most any moves to change the nature and structures of cases, apply for the position. The School Council, decision making would depend upon the attitude of although responsible for the general educational SAIT whose members are involved. Change is not likely policy of the school, is not involved in the process to be radical or quick. The Principal 'A' system of selection in any direct way at all. Several itself is a legacy of industrial bargaining that was principals are very critical of this omission not intended to change the basis of power in decision- although they admit that not all councils would be making in a major way. Gradual refinements of the equally efficacious in the process. Some schools process have removed anomalies and improved the have attempted to interfere in the process by effectiveness of what remains a centralised and trying to influence the Minister or the Director fairly conservative system. General either directly or through their councils. In some cases the pressure is apparently the result of feelings contrived by a threatened incumbent principal; in others it is the result of real local concern.

If the appointments of Principals 'A' to schools with special needs continues the question must arise as to how long a principal can stay in such a school arid yet still be adjudged to be meeting special needs. Some incumbent principals, confirmed as 'A' have already served at least five years and have been re-appointed for a further five year term.

4. THE CULTURE 0F THE DISADVANTAGED THREE VIEWS By: Rachel Sharp

This article is reprinted with the kind permission of the Disadvantaged Schools Program. It is the fifth of a series of discussion papers which aim to raise for discussion some of the critical issues involved in educational disadvantage. Information about the program's other publications can be obtained from State Offices of the Schools Commission.

This paper considers three different ways of It is no longer fashionable to argue that lack of thinking about the culture of disadvantaged groups educational success for disadvantaged groups is due in our society and their educational implications. to low intelligence, genetically transmitted. In the post war period much attention has been given to the It takes as its starting point the persistence of causal role of cultural factors emanating from the way inequality of educational opportunity despite a of life of disadvantaged groups. Nevertheless, a formal commitment to equality by the government and good deal of confusion and muddled thinking abounds most of those involved in educational policy making. in discussions about what can and should bе done Some social groups, are, for example, under- about the education of the disadvantaged1 . This represented in the higher levels of secondary and confusion stems from the failure to think through tertiary schooling, Moreover, those who leave the social origins and consequences of social inequal- school with little or no educational qualifications ity, a lack of clarity regarding basic objectives and face the prospect of lower paid unskilled employ- key assumptions, and a reluctance to reappraise the ment or the dole. Given that such people frequently role of education in the light of what it actually come from disadvantaged backgrounds, with fewer does do, rather than what it ideally should do. facilities and opportunities, the lack of educa- 1. For the purposes of this paper, the 'disadvantaged' tional success tends to reproduce the cycle of is a term used to denote groups at the lowest disadvantage and poverty from generation to levels of the socioeconomic status groupings. generation. The question which needs to be It would include many migrants, Aborigines and answered is why? unskilled workers. As a result children are often at a disadvantage in The paper has been written to stimulate further the school situation because they cannot understand discussion about these issues. The mounting of or use effectively the language of the teacher and more effective programs depends upon precisely because linguistic deprivation tends to be associated this rethingking. with perceptual and cognitive impairment.

THEORY 1: THE DISADVANTAGED ARE CULTURALLY The theory of cultural deprivation had widespread DEPRIVED support in the post war period up until the early 1970's. Policy makers were preoccupied with the The first theory explains the lack of educational wastage of talent which occurred despite the shortages success of the disadvantaged by invoking certain of skilled and educated personnel. deficiencies of their cultures which are thought to be less than adequate for encouraging The theory led logically to schemes for compensatory educability. The prerequisites for educability education designed to give disadvantaged students what tend to be acquired 'naturally' by typical white, they needed in order to compete on a basis of equality middle class children, from the families and the with middle class students. Such measures included not local communities in which they are embedded. The only programs to enrich the experience of these students disadvantaged, on the other hand, fail to acquire to enhance their perceptual, linguistic and cognitive relevant skills because they are culturally abilities, but also those intended to provide support deprived. Their percentual and cognitive develop- facilities for the family and the local community. ment, for example, has often been retarded by the Ideally premised on a close liaison between teacher, poor range of environmental stimuli to which they social worker, family therapist and community worker, have been exposed; the family situation is often such schemes were intended to intervene in the culture of unstable due to the higher incidence of single the disadvantaged, to minimise its negative effects on parent households, chronic illness, unemployment educability and, as far as possible, effect a transform- and inadequate housing. This often leads to the ation such that the cycle of deprivation would be broken. emotional impairment of the children who ten to be insecure, lacking in autonomy and self-confidence. Discussion of Theory 1 The main difficulty with this approach is that it sets Moreover, the cultural themes stressed by the dis- up an arbitrary standard of cultural value emanating advantaged reinforce values and attitudes which are from the culture of the white middle class and then often inimical to the children's school progress: proceeds to define all groups who diverge culturally an inability to delay gratification, a lack of from this norm as deprived. Who is to judge the respect for discipline and authority, a rejection superiority or inferiority of a culture? On what of individualism and competitiveness, a suspicion grounds should a middle class concept of a well of education, low occupational aspirations and so on. adjusted family, a rich environmental experience, an appropriate job, the 'proper' way to speak, the mode Finally, these difficulties are aggravated by the of demonstrating interest in one's children's education, proglem of linguistic deprivation. Such cultures be accepted as the standard and that which differs be are said to be deficient regarding both the quantity regarded as culturally deprived. Much of the empirical and quality of verbal communication which takes place. research into the conditions of the culturally analytical category because it entails a negative deprived systematically avoids posing such questions judgement of the culture of the disadvantaged. and instead uses middle class values unselfconsciously as if they were absolute eternal values. From this 'respect' for cultural differences, it follows that the starting point of any program There are dangers too, in that, through labelling designed to improve the educational opportunities of children as culturally deprived, self fulfilling the disadvantaged is that teachers have both an prophecies may be established. Children may understanding of, and appreciation for, the different experience the demeaning of their subculture, with cultures. The disadvantaged should have the opportunity deleterious effects on their self concepts. to learn formally their own language and be understood as having had different prior experiences which are of A further difficulty with this theory concerns the significant pedagogical value. The concept of multi- naive assumption that cultures can be so easily culturalism summarises this approach. transformed through compensatory educational programs. After all, cultures are a direct response Discussion of Theory 2 to the living conditions which groups experience. Whilst superficially the second approach seems more They both reflect and help to mediate those conditions. progressive than the first that it does not prejudge How is it possible to transform cultures radically ire a whole group's cultural attributes as fundamentally without changing the conditions which generate them? deficient, one should not be deceived by the way it apparently takes the side of the disadvantaged. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the theory of cultural deprivation began to be subjected to lively In the first place, there is a confusion about aims. criticism and controversy. In many quarters, it It is not clear whether the long term goal is assimil- began to be replaced by Theory 2. ation or co-existence. Do we avoid denigrating children's subculture in the short run, so that they THEORY 2: THE DISADVANTAGED ARE NOT CULTURALLY maintain a sense of self esteem, so that in the long DEPRIVED BUT CULTURALLY DIFFERENT run they may benefit from formal education which itself is based on a different culture; the dominant culture? The second theory recognises that we live in a Or do we aim for a genuine pluralism such that, for pluralistic society with a variety of groups with example, a well educated Italian migrant is very different cultures each with their own patterns of different from a well educated, middle class, Australian behaviour, inner integrity and standards of value. born person from the wealthy suburbs of Sydney or There is no moral or political justification for a Melbourne, or different again from a well educated policy aimed to abolish cultural differences and Aborigine from the Northern Territory? Where is the assimilate the disadvantaged into white middle class line to be drawn? Are Australian universities to be culture. On the contrary, a truly democratic encouraged to run courses in science or history using society respects cultural differences and encourages Italian or Arabic or an Aboriginal language as the children to develop a positive regard for both their main vehicle of instruction? own and others' cultures. The concept of cultural deprivation is rejected both as a descriptive and

7. There is a superficial progressiveness about this them, in both theories cultural differences are seen approach, superficial because it fails to realise as, in some way, significant causes of the persistence that a genuine cultural pluralism presupposes of social inequality. Moreover, each theory proposes economic and political pluralism, that is, a a cultural solution which places considerable emphasis situation where political and economic power is on the role of schooling. evenly distributed among the different cultural groups, no one group having the monopoly over THEORY 3: THE DISADVANTAGED LACK POLITICAL AND defining what it means to be educated, or superior ECONOMIC POWER AND INHABIT A CULTURAL power to determine the content and forms of WORLD WHICH REINFORCES THEIR schooling. In the absence of such pluralism, an SUBORDINATION educational philosophy which emphasises the desirability of preserving cultural differences This theory begins with the reality of social can become a means of justifying and perpetuating inequality emanating from the distribution of political class or ethnic stratification; it may permanently and economic power. It asserts the impossibility of a deprive migrants, the traditional working class or thorough-going cultural consensus in society, given the blacks from any access to the rewards of society. differences in experience, life chances and opportunity It may also lead to the maintenance of cultural which stem from the structure of inequality. It notes ghettoes, permanently on the margins of the the existence of cultural differences and sees the cultural mainstream with serious consequences for content of the different cultures as being in some way social disharmony. reflective of varying social conditions. In this connection it is worth mentioning that the On the one hand, for example, there are the cultures of South African Eiselin Commission (1949-52) which the dominant groups, or strata which tend to justify and set out the philosophy of Bantu education, based explain their position of dominance; on the other hand, its arguments concerning black schooling on for example, there are the cultures of the various inter- precisely this theory of 'equal but different'. mediate and lower strata which tend to reflect what it is Such an approach has been crucial for the maint- like to live in an inferior social position, deprived of enance of apartheid, the system of not only racial access to power and other significant social rewards. but also class domination in South Africa. In other words, the content of the different cultures is not arbitrary. Thus it would be absurd to find in Resume marginal Aboriginal communities a cultural stress on the fact that everyone can make it to the top through Theory 1 starts off from the perspective of middle hard work and effort, or in privileged sections of the class culture as the desirable way of life, and community, a cultural attitude which purports to explain defines all other cultures as deficient. Theory 2 social privilege in terms of force, fraud, greed, theft rejects the view that the different cultures can or whatever. be hierarchically ranked as more or less valuable, and instead wishes to accord to each cultural The third theory believes that the maintenance of social group the right to perpetuate its own culture. inequality over time depends upon the existence of Whilst there are important differences between

8. cultural or ideological themes which have a conserving to be conducive to knowledge. All cultures are seen function. For example, the widespread belief in to be at least partially mystifying in that the 'natural' inequalities in talents etc. is ideally maintenance of social inequality necessarily requires suited for a hierarchical society, unlike a belief that the latter's basis is obscured. that all persons' capacities are infinite, given appropriate social conditions. This approach thus rejects the assumption that middle class culture provides a superior way of life or set The theory also holds that despite significant of cognitive understandings as in Theory 1, but it cultural differences between the various groups, avoids committing the same error as in Theory 2 of there will be many cultural attitudes and themes romanticising the culture of subordinate groups. On which are held in common, simply by virtue of the contrary, as Willis has pointed out,' such common exposure to such institutions as the mass cultural themes as racism, sexism, the devaluation media and formal schooling, together with common of intellectual work, are typical of working class participation in the formal political process, culture and, far from being emancipatory, serve to leisure habits and so on. Thus the different sub- help reproduce the structure of inequality. Similarly, cultures are not completely separate and self con- those subordinate cultures which reinforce political tained but infused by common society and perform an cynicism and privatisation play a comparable conserv- important social function. ative role and serve both to prevent a full under- standing of how resources are allocated and key Thus, if one has been brought up on a disadvantaged decisions made and to foster an attitude of apathetic group, one has been exposed to a variety of different acceptance of social conditions over which one believes and sometimes competing cultural messages from one has little control. several significant sources. The culture of sub- ordinate groups contains themes from the everyday Discussion of Theory 3 experience of living one's life at the lower end of the status heirarchy, from work and from the pre- Theory 1 aims to preserve middle class culture. occupations of the local community, fused with Theory 2 aims for the preservation of all subcultures. cultural themes that are interalised through Theory 3 argues, on the other hand, for an objective habitual exposure to institutions which propagate appraisal of all cultures with a view to assessing a different world view, one more likely to sustain, which of their various aspects are enlightening and explain and justify the structure of social inequality progressive as opposed to those which impede under- standing of the conditions which produce inequality. and the disadvantaged position within it. This last approach rests on the assumption that all The third theory also believes that the content of societies are pervaded by myths which need to be cultural themes, both minority and dominant, requires exposed to critical examination if we are to be able careful critical examination with a view to ascertain- to differentiate between the way things really are, and ing the extent to which it gives access to, or the way they seem to be. inhibits genuine understanding of, society and how it is organised. Neither the culture of the dominant 2. P. Willis. Learning to Labour. London, groups, nor those of subordinate strata are thought Saxon House, 1978.

9. Some of these myths have a long history and are Disadvantaged groups need an understanding of the deeply embedded in the culture of most social groups: roots of their condition. They should be taught, the myth of equality of opportunity, for example, for example, the pattern of income and property and the belief in meritocratic schooling. All are distribution, the ownership structure of Australian encouraged that through hard work and effort, anyone industry and commerce, and their implications for can make it, and yet, given the reality of social such issues as resource allocation and job inequality, most people must fail. Similarly most opportunities. people have been brought up to think that through a better education, access to self fulfilling jobs is Migrants should understand the historic role which facilitated, and yet, despite longer exposure to labour migration has performed for the Australian education, many people face jobs which require con- economy, and for other industrialised societies in the siderably less initiative and scope than they have post war boom. They should also appreciate the various been trained for, and a sizeable minority face the ways in which labour migration has been associated with reality of no jobs at all. Through technological patterns of ethnic stratification which have worked change and changes in the location and organisation against ideals of equality of opportunity. of work many jobs have been subject to deskilling or have simply disappeared, which discounts the Aborigines should be made familiar with the history of supposed linkage between education and the labour black/white relations in the emergence of the colonial market. settler economy of the 19th Century, and the functions that various forms of racism have played in stabilising Similarly, we have been conditioned to think that social relationships and cementing the social order. economic development necessarily means greater prosperity, equality and happiness for all; When the Disadvantaged Schools Program was first estab- however, the continuation of sizeable areas of lished, Australia was experiencing full employment. Now, poverty despite the general affluence of the sixties however, the situation has markedly changed. The prospects and early seventies should not be forgotten. In for young school leavers are not bright. Many face addition, a reversal of the recent trend towards sporadic or short-term employment with few prospects for high levels of structural unemployment will not advancement or the reality of life on the dole. Such necessarily accompany a renewed surge of economic students need to understand the structural changes which growth, given the particular nature of Australia's are taking place in the Australian economy and labour economic structure and the changes taking place market so that they appreciate that the lack of a job is within it in relation to the rest of the world. not necessarily produced by a lack of skill, motivation and resourcefulness, but by an objective reduction in These myths of our society are often preserved and the number of jobs brought about by economic and sustained in and through the workings of the various political factors over which they have no control. subcultures. My argument is that what disadvantaged groups in our society most need is not myths but All of this necessary information cannot possibly be knowledge. A policy designed merely to preserve imparted in an educational program geared towards the subcultures also preserve the cultural blinkers sensitively preserving the cultures of the disadvantaged. which serve to disguise the nature of an inegalit- This does not mean that teachers should seek to arian society. annihilate all subcultural patterns. It follows from the analysis of subcultures here that all cultures conducted into the content of subcultural themes contain both penetrating partial insights, and with a view to exploring their pedagogical implic- obscuring myths. Teachers of the disadvantaged ations. Moreover almost no research has been need to be able to differentiate between them. carried out into alternative styles of pedagogy This necessitates a rejection of a relativist where the content of the knowledge to be transmitted epistemological position, that is, the view that has been the main focus. Many progressive teachers there are no means of reliably knowing anything: have assumed that informal child-centred methods one person's view is as good as any other. of teaching are ipso facto better than more authoritarian modes, but there is a dearth of The rejection of formal schooling, for example, by research on this issue to guide us. so many disadvantaged students, is indicative of both the positive and the negative attributes of the In short, the debate about what to do in the schools culture of subordinate groups. On the one hand it with disadvantaged students has tended to be con- represents the correct perception that whilst formal fused both as regards goals and with reference to schooling has created some opportunity for upward curriculum and pedagogic means. It is one thing to social mobility for some individuals, it has done identify a problem, it is quite another to be clear little to alter the structure of inequality for about what needs to be done and effective ways of disadvantaged groups seen as a whole. Nevertheless, implementation. on the other hand it also represents a rejection of precisely those positive benefits to be derived from This paper has offered only a very tentative education; for example, access to broader frames of perspective. Its operationalisation depends upon a reference, and the deeper understanding which can much deeper understanding of the way in which existing follow systematic study and critical thought. cultural themes both enlighten and dim the vision of those students who come from subordinate strata. Such a profound anti-intellectualism is often associated with the absence of any degree of self The paper is premised on two main assumptions: that reflection regarding the contents of one's own the preservation of social inequality is incompatible culture and its location within society. The in- with genuine freedom, individual self development ability to look at one's own culture objectively and autonomy which an enlightened schooling system is an important means whereby the existing should aim for; and that an understanding of the structure of society is reproduced and culturally causes and nature of inequality is a necessary pre- legitimised, along with its sustaining myths. condition of any action designed to produce a fairer society. The operationalisation of this approach requires much more research into the forms and content of It follows from the argument that a broader definition the various subcultures, and considerable attention of the concept of disadvantage is called for. All to the problem of pedagogy. The standard teaching cultural groups within society, whether successful or modes of our society are premised on an ideal unsuccessful products of the schooling system, are rather than a real student - someone highly com- deprived if they do not understand the society in which mitted to formal schooling and deferent to the they live, and if they cannot penetrate the legitima- teachers' authority. Very little research has been ting myths which serve to sustain it in its present inegalitarian form. к * * * * * * * AN ANALYSIS 0F INEQUALITY IN THE LIGHT OF THE JERVIS BAY/WRECK BAY INNOVATIONS PROJECT

It is only through our commitment to collectively eine each others work, to use and go beyond what may be no longer utile, or what may be weaker than By: Margaret Clark it might, and then stand on each others shoulders Special Education Project that serious progress can be made. Canberra College of Advanced Education Apple, M., 1 979, P.1 57

This paper is an attempt to "stand on the shoulders" POLITICAL, INTELLECTUAL AND PERSONAL COMMITMENTS of those who seriously write and act out of a concern that schools work to redress the consequences of The political belief underlying the ideas that follow inequality in an unequal society. is that a meritocratic society, even though more just than what exists at present, is still basically unjust. I will begin by making clear the political, intel- However this paper does not look forward to some kind lectual and personal commitments which form the of utopia where all will be equal, and more importantly parameters of my investigation in this area; without does not suggest a blueprint for the achievement of this. attempts at justification. As Popper(5) argues, to talk about the ideal form of Following this the paper examines briefly the society is academic, because society will never be developments in notions of equality in the perfect. I agree with Popper that 'utopians' ask the Australian educational scsn , culminating in the wrong sort of questions. Instead of asking "How can Schools Commission Report' 1) in 1973. An attempt we maximise happiness?" we should be asking "How can is made to show that "inequality" is a more useful we minimise unhappiness?". This directs attention to tool for analysis than "equality". the immediate problems of the present and to the discussion of immediate solutions which are far more The paper then develops notions of inequality using likely to be tried out than an ambitious long range the work of Paulo Freire( 2) and Michael Аppl е(3). plan. Their ideas will enable critical reflection of the Australian educational scene and on the case study This also has the advantage of flexibility. The second which then follows. or third steps are not fully worked out until one has time to reflect on the first step. This enables pro- This case study(4) is crucial to the paper because grams to match real problems with real solutions. it is a rare example of ideas really worked out through action, where each continuously feeds off In keeping with Popper's negative type of questions, and contributes to the other. the focus question which guides this paper's

12. development is: fundamental questions such as "How does our society, which espouses the noble ideals of democracy and GIVEN THAT A MERITOCRACY IS BASICALLY justice, produce and support extreme wealth and UNJUST, HOW CAN WE MINIMISE THE extreme poverty?" In other words schools don't even CONSEQUENCES OF THIS INJUSTICE? take these extreme manifestations of injustice back to their roots in the unequal institutional To answer this question one must first focus on the arrangements. unjust consequences and then proceed to the tentative responses. Only the first step can be suggested with The consequences of this is that even the poor accept any degree of confidence. The second step, which has these unequal arrangements. They want to improve their a vague shape, must be reflected on in the light of lot but don't really complain that the social game is the experience of attempting to actualize the first weighted against them. They even have a tendency to step. "glorify the oppressor" that is, when they see a wealthy person, such as their employer, they don't see THE UNJUST CONSEQUENCES OF SCHOOLING it in terms of him/her owning their labour and living Schools must select what social and cultural knowledge off the profits of it, they simply see an image of they will distribute. However in most schools an what they could be like if only they worked harder and awareness of this has not led to an examination of weren't such failures. The fault is theirs not the that selection and its impact on individuals. systems. What I am attempting to describe has been referred to by many an ideological domination or false The very fact that in our society the dominant ideals consciousness. This happens when the naming of the and institutional arrangements are treated as sacred world is done by the dominant elite and the rest means that students take for granted that social accept this as reality. In doing so they accept the labels that are put on them as just. reality which I believe is in most need of critical examination. These arrangements of societies' THE FIRST STEPS structures which are so taken for granted are unequal in their consequences. For example: The The curriculum content of schools must include wealthy can afford the best schools and the best materials which enable students to examine the way lawyers. The poor are denied access to the in which the structures of society operate and how language of decision making (legal language and these have an unequal impact on individuals. The that which is used in formal meetings) and therefore latent ideology and consequences behind certain modes less likely to be able to have an input in decision of operation must be uncovered and common sense making processes. practices must be made problematic.

Schools encourage students to accept the unequal This does not mean merely dabbling in topics and consequences of existing structures as simply the way themes on poverty and racism, which are merely the things are. Even the blatant manifestations of this overt manifestations of injustice. A worthwhile inequality like extreme poverty are dealt with in curriculum in this area would encourage students to terms of: "How can we alleviate their hardships?" critically examine those things our society takes Instead students should be encouraged to ask more most for granted and relate these to the impact

13. they have on daily lives of individuals. continuity: Australian educational history can be For such a curriculum to have success there are compared in some ways to a never ending a number of criteria it must meet: relay race. It has been run, and is still being contested, between members 1. The context in which such a curriculum is of various socio-economic strata of the taught must not mitigate against it. This community. The 'haves' race on the refers to the common sense practices, inside tracks, handing on the baton teaching methods, disciplinary procedures, under auspicious circumstances from decision-making structures, personal generation to generation. The upwardly relationships and evaluation process mobile often begin at, but hope despar- that exist in schools. ately not to finish on, the outer lanes. Some contestts is have fallen out 2. To be of any worth such a curriculum must al together. '7) include an historical perspective. This is necessary because some ideas and ways of This relay race was seen by its proponents as operating so permeate our existence it is equality of opportunity for it aimed at a merito- impossible for us to stand back from them cratic society. Arguments for such a meritocracy unless aided by such a perspective. were, by the turn of the century, eloquently espoused by state directors of education. Pearson 3. The teachers working in the area must not work for example talked about education as a "ladder under the assumption that teaching can ever be reaching from the gutter to the university along a neutral act (except perhaps basic numeracy). which every child shall have the chance of climbing They must recognise the political nature as far as he(sic)is fit to go."(8) of their job and make explicit, and be willing to defend and modify, their own commitments. The embodiment of these ideas was seen in the intro- Through the teaching process they, too, must duction of compulsory and free secular education in be willing to examine their own assumptions and the primary sector, with scholarships available to learn from the questioning of their students. enter secondary and tertiary institutions. Equality was ensured by uniformity of provision, a centrally NlSTORlCAL BACKGROUND prescribed curriculum and a vigorous standardized assessment. Ely (1978) in her book Reality and Rhetoric (6) focuses on the continuity which can be seen in the The unwanted consequences of inequality were seen by history of Australian Education. She claims that, the proponents of equality of opportunity in terms in spite of 'gusts of rhetoric' and small changes of inefficiency or wastage of talent. They did not in detail, the arguments given for the purposes of want people to be placed on the wrong rung of the education in the past rely on the same sorts of social ladder. This could lead to social discontent values and assumptions as those used today. and was not in keeping with the demands of the Inequality is the most important facet of this

14. industrial society. This rhetoric sat well Roper's attack was not upon the ideological base of because while serving the state it appeared to educational policy for it already espoused equality serve the demands of the people. Also, because of opportunity. He was attacking both the reality it did seem to serve the demands of the people, of unequal opportunities and the limited ideas of it reduced discontent thus further serving the the sort of handicaps which were operating against state. It can be seen as a vehicle for efficiency, equality of opportunity for culturally deprived homogeneity and social control. groups. The notion that education must 'compensate' is part of his argument. Most changes in educational policy and practice in Australia were concerned with this same sort of In fact much of the research and writing done problem - that is: "how can we minimise wastage?" recently has concentrated on this handicap. Our Ely attempts to show in her book that even major understanding of the difficulties faced by cultural changes in policy did not reflect significant minorities is a very important part of working to changes in ideology. The social relay race was redress inequalities, but it on its own does not still to be run but the rules of entry became more take us beyond the limited notions of meritocracy. complicated, so that those with potential would have more chance of finishing on the inside lanes. Ely goes on to apply this analysis of continuity to the 1973 Schools Commission report called Schools in Even many of those who were highly critical of Australia. She claims that in spite of apparent educational policies, with respect to equality, saw radical suggestions like decentralization, diversity the problem in terms of handicaps. Tom Roper's book and multi-culturalism they still see education in The Myth of EquaZitу(9) can be seen as an example of terms of a social relay race. She identifies two this. He saw the realities of schooling as being reasons for this: grossly unequal and wanted to eliminate handicaps: Firstly the interim committee was forced by It is always comfortable to believe that its terms of reference to see state and rewards are the result of ability, if you church schools as equally 'needy'. Secondly have the rewards. A cursory glance at the Committee was not required to determine who are the rich and powerful shows that the historical reasons for existing few who start at the back mark ever catch inequalities(11). up. The past neglect of whole classes and groups of people have made them back However, in spite of these limitations, this paper markers. Should the child at Fitzroy or takes the view that an important shift has been made Redfern be regarded as having the same by the Schools Commission Report with respect to opportunities as the child at Geelong notions of equality. Grammar. To believe t is is to stretch credibility a long way"O).1 Equality, as seen by the Commissioners who wrote the report, was still related to talent, selection and He advocated payment on the basis of needs, equality the allocation of resources but it was also about of access, and discrimination in favour of disad- access to enjoyment and participation. For vantaged and culturally different groups.

15. example:

The committee believes that schools attempts are still made to eliminate handicaps but should attempt to provide a more equal the nature of the handicaps has changed. The race opportunity for all children to has become more enjoyable, relevant and interesting participate more fully in the society 12 and is not the same for each entrant. More importantly, as valued and respected members of it. there are two kinds of prizes to be won. One prize is given out unequally according to performance but it is and more importantly: not the most important one. The other prize which everyone receives in equal amounts bears no relation An equal valuing of people based on to performance and is really the most important. their common humanity might lead to quite different interpretations of equality of To return to the focus question of thiš paper the Karmel opportunity. Such an interpretation Report's answer to "How can we redress the negative would emphasise the right of every child consequences of inequality?" is manifestly different to assistance in developing a variety of from the mainstream of the educational thought of their socially desirable attributes, which predecessors. They are concerned about wastage but might both afford him personal satis- they are also concerned about the other consequences faction and contribute to an improved like alienation, unequal participation in the society quality of personal and cultural life.... and negative feelings of self worth. the cash return to these attributes and the access they give to power would then However, this notion of equality appears to have a become an incidental rather than a (13) few problems. First, will it work? Is it possible to determining reason for valuing them. change peoples' conceptions of reality without actually changing reality? The other problem is the possibility This notion of equality is rather intriguing. It that this type of action could reinforce the selective recognises that education, no matter how it is roles of schools by encouraging people not to worry organized in the present society is bound to lead about the problem (because 'it doesn't really matter'). to manisfestly unequal results in the areas that While appearing to change things policies such as these matter most to people (economic rewards and run the danger of encouraging people to accept without access to power and status). This represents a question the questionable role that schooling plays in shift - meritocratic society is no longer an ideal. teaching people to accept the labelling process and It is a necessary evil that education alone has no unequal power than an unequal society perpetuates. power to change. What the Karmel Report suggests Basically then the biggest fault of the 1973 Schools is that we reduce the perceived importance of Commission Report is that it is too idealistic. economic rewards, power and status, and emphasise other things instead. The earlier notions of equality of opportunity were limited because they worked towards a meritocracy In terms of the Karmel Report the social relay race which has unequal consequences. However, the Schools has at last started to change. As in the old race Commissions (1973) notions of equality do not appear

16. to be very useful either because they attempt to to decide what knowledge is appropriate for their smash the reality of the functions of schooling. school, it has enabled the few who are committed to This paper takes the view that equality is not a the struggle for change some support and encourage- useful concept because schools cannot work towards ment within the legitimate structures. Few have it in any clear way. taken up this challenge, but the important point is that the path is clear for such action. They can however work towards reducing inequality and this point is very important. This is not just Furthermore the report stressed the importance of putting the same idea into a negative statement, it teaching those attributes which cannot be measured is fundamentally different. To work towards by educational outcomes. The Commissioners called equality is to work with a utopian blueprint and this the teaching of "socially desirable attributes" it offers us no clues as to the next step. From (which can mean very different things to different people). However, if those who are committed to reality to utopia is a long way and those who reducing injustice take up this area they could mean have tried it have found it very difficult to map very worthwhile things. 1 out the way. The only way to fundamentally change will return to this idea things is to work with what is. later in the paper. MICHAEL APPLE For this purpose focussing on reducing inequalities becomes much more fruitful because it leads one to Vallence(14), writing on the history of schooling in first focus on the problems, then to proceed to the United States says that educationalists in the possible solutions in the light of ones political late nineteenth century were very explicit about the and ideological commitments. "socially desirable attributes" schools should work for. These included loyalty to ones country, an acceptance Although the Schools Commission Report does not of one's place in society with characteristics approp- tackle rigorously enough the real problems of riate to that position, a belief in progress and hard inequality it has been a very important document work, and a homegeneity of values and culture. for several reasons. One, it has made its assumptions explicit and by doing so has encouraged Writers like Apple(15), Young(16) and Bernstein(17) debate and dialogue to take place at a more meaning- argue that these same attributes are still incalcul- ful level. While educational debate stays at the ated by schools today. Belief in them is no longer level of allocation of resources, staffing policies, overt, in fact the rhetoric of schooling is quite curriculum design methods and forms of assessment, contrary to this. However, the very fabric of changes will be necessarily superficial because schooling, its structures, knowledge base, teaching all that is being changed is "how to" types of methods and common sense practices work towards ideas. When attention is focussed on "why" reinforcing such attributes. Apple sees this questions as well then more meaningful changes operating at three distinct levels: can be discussed. 1. The basic regularities of school experience and Secondly, by encouraging schools to take more what goes on because of them. responsibility, to make clear their own aims and 2. The ideological commitments that are embedded in the overt curriculum. making the curriculum forms found in 3. The ideological, ethical and valuative under- schools problematic so that their pinnings of the ways we th'``n about, plan and latent ideological content can be 20)• evaluate these experiencestl ). uncovered(

Apple's basic premise is that education is by its This however is not sufficient. Often, he argues, inquiry oriented curricula can have the effect of very nature a political act. If one assumes it is neutral then one allows the assumptions which underlie depoliticizing the study of social life. This is the practices of schooling at the three levels because those who do the questioning still believe mentioned above to operate without even being in the myth that education can be neutral. aware of them. Perhaps Apple's biggest contribution to the whole His book is a thorough analysis of the multiplicity question is his plea that educators decide on their of ways schools operate to create forms of conscious- political and ideological commitments. Either one ness which enable social control. He is careful not accepts the way structures and practices impose a to do this in an overly deterministic way. That is particular mode of consciousness which serves an he does not argue for a "one to one correspondence" unequal society or one commits oneself to counter- between the economic base and the form of conscious- acting this by working for a different form of ness that is imposed. The relationship is very consciousness. All questioning must be placed "within a framework of competing conceptions of complex and subtle. Hegemony is seen by Apple as the key to understanding this relationship. He justice, of social and economic equality and what is and who should have legitimate power(21 І' explains this idea as follows:

Hegemony supposes the existence of something FREIRE that is truly total....which saturates the society to such an extent, and which even Freire's analysis of how cultural domination operates constitutes the limit of commonsense for is distinctly less subtle, in fact he does not attempt most people under its sway... Thus the to support his statements, they are presented as self notion of hegemony as deeply saturating evident. Where Apple is concerned with the analysis the consciousness of a society seems to be of the problem, Freire concentrates on radical, clear- fundamental(1 9). minded solutions. The society he worked within had a distinct influence on his writing. Oppression was more While stressing that this is not a mere reflection obvious and the problems more pressing. of the economic structure, he goes onto explain how this "assemblage and meanings still leads to, and However, similar themes underlie both writers. The comes from, unequal economic and cultural control". most important one is their commitment, through Schools do this by what is called "selective education, to political change in order to create a tradition" where certain knowledge, ideas, meanings more just and 'open' society. and practices are emphasized and others are excluded. The solutions to all this lies in: Freire too, though not referring to schools, talks

18. about false consciousness and challenging this is In spite of these differences both writers agree that the starting point of all his programs for action: the onus is on the committed person to act as educator to the powerless, and that the starting point To surmount the situation of oppression, is to enable the powerless to develop a critical men must first critically recognise it's awareness of their situation in society. Their causes, so that through transforming action difference lies in how they see the role of this they can create a new situation(22). committed person. It appears to me that this is where a lot of hard thinking is needed; just how does He also talks about the impossibility of being one initiate a program of conscientization? The neutral. If one is not committed to human liber- Case Study that follows is of crucial importance for ation one is automatically on the side of the this reason. The innovator saw the program in oppressors. Freirian terms and spent a lot of time thinking out her role. The tensions, frustrations, rewards and These are the starting points for both Freire and ambiguities which ensued can be of value in thinking Apple, but after this they pursue different paths through and critically analysing the ideas of both Apple's commitment is directed towards more honest Freire and Apple. and meaningful research and scholarship, and changing the curriculum so that it includes Before proceeding to the case study 1 feel it is material which directly confronts such issues as important to react briefly to the ideas of Freire and justice, human rights, conflict, change, ideology Apple with respect to the current Australian educational and social structures, in a context of commitment context. in their analysis of the ways schools oppress to political justice. both present a stereotyped picture of schooling which of course can be true of schools. However, schools in Freire's commitment is to enabling (not professionals Australia are mostly not as bad as that and some have but the powerless), through a ocess of conscientiz- come a long way in changing those structures and гг ation, to critically recognise the cause of their practices which impose false consciousness. oppression and through recognition to move to trans- forming action. He does not want the committed It would be fair to say though that only a small educator to liberate the oppressed or to work for number of schools have changed out of a commitment them. Rather they must 'commit themselves within to reducing social injustice and false consciousness. history, to fight at their side' 3). For the rest this outcome has been incidental. I am referring to the changes that took place in the Apple believes that the educators (who are part of seventies in response to the rhetoric of the open the elite) can implement a liberating education, school or child-centred movement. They were but Freire thinks that this is a contradiction for essentially concerned with the same goals as the such people are members of the oppressor group traditional movement - that is maximizing efficiency. whether they like it or not. It is critical for The difference between most progressives and most Freire that the oppressed take part in and make traditionals was not so much a difference in ideology decisions about the transforming actions. However but a difference in belief about how children learn. he still relies on people like educators to begin and even guide the process. However, this movement did, often without being aware •▪

of the ideological implications, succeed in allow others to name their world for them. eroding away some of the grosser forms of the con- The lack of commitment on the part of most formist, oppressive schooling structures. educators to the idea of giving the most dis- advantaged the knowledge that they most need. In their concern to be child centred many teachers Too often it is said that they need only created classroom environments where individuality practical social and job type of skills. What and diversity were encouraged, the selection of they most need is that knowledge which is more knowledge was different (often coming from the powerful. That is knowledge about the forces local environment) and children were encouraged to and structures of society set within a framework question and exercise some control over their own of competing ideologies. learning activities. THE CASE STUDY: JERVIS BAY/WRECK BAY INNOVATIONS In spite of this, I believe there are still PROJECT. important areas of school practice and teaching which go largely unquestioned and mitigate against I become involved with the project examined below a just society. They are: only when it was about to be implemented at the school. I was asked, along with Di McConachy and .Unequal access to decision making in the Beverley Pope (both research assistants at the CCAE), to form a team to evaluate the project at the schools and the paucity of the dialogue implementation stage. However, I was very conscious which takes place at the School/Community that we were not merely evaluating just another level. curriculum package. The stages that preceded The apolitical way in which the study of implementation appeared crucial and in this paper society is often tackled. I have included a background section which attempts The exclusion of knowledge which relates to to map out the events and ideas that preceded the stage we were asked to evaluate. This background the structures and beliefs our society is data was obtained through reading the material avail- based on, within a framework of competing able on the development of the project and in-depth conceptions of society and justice. discussions with the innovator, Ann Nugent. .Only the talented few who choose to specialize in history and happen to get good In the second section of this case study various teachers are encouraged to develop an school and community members perceptions of the historical perspective or engage in project are presented. The data for this section diachronic thinking. The ability to under- was collected by the evaluation team who, during the stand oneself diachronically and to empathize implementation stage, made three trips to Jervis Bay/ with those whose social reality is different Wreck Bay. On these occasions the team talked with is important for it allows students to examine teachers, children and parent representatives of the different ways of naming the world. If denied School Board and Parents and Citizens of Jervis Bay this students are far more likely to view their Primary School, and residents of Wreck Bay. social reality as fixed and immutable and

20. The third section presents the conclusions of the Bay children became identified as having learning evaluation team and attempts to place the project in and behavioural problems. An awareness that this the wider context of a curriculum model that has need not be the case and that the way the school relevance beyond Jervis Bay/Wreck Bay. operates could be in fact contributing to this problem was not fully appreciated by the school. BACKGROUND In 1970 Ann Nugent was appointed to the pre-school A description of the school in terms of its problem. at Wreck Bay. Up until that time the pre-school had not succeeded in gaining full acceptability. The Jervis Bay Primary School serves a number of It had few community links and attendance was communities: unpredictable. Ann made an effort to involve the parents in all aspects (including decision making) • The naval college community - a transient of the pre-school program, and to operate within group, the values and culture of the community. She used .civilians living at Jervis Bay - fairly their local environment and aspects of their culture permanent, mainly whites but a few Aboriginal extensively in the program. An evaluation report(25) families have moved there recently, says that "Ann's policy met with considerable .residents from two other holiday townships - success". mostly white, permanent and geographically distanced from the school. During her three year stay at the pre-school Ann established considerable links with the Wreck Bay A number of stud ies(2) have indicated that all but coстrnunity and became aware that in such an environment the Wreck Bay community are members of the dominant the children behaved and performed at a similar level Euro-Australian culture. The residents of Wreck Bay to other children their age. She also came to share different values and a different cultural recognise that the Wreck Bay community was culturally heritage. There is a distinct feeling among the distinct and that they had considerable pride in their residents that they want to preserve this distinct- heritage. ness. That is they do not want to be assimilated into the dominant culture. With the awareness of the potential of the children and the interests of their parents that Ann had gained from Up until 1965 the Wreck Bay community had their own this experience she transferred, in 1973, to the Jervis school, then, without any communication, the Bay Primary School. Here the picture was different. building was removed and the children were re- The children who had been achieving well at the pre- located at the Jervis Bay Primary School. No real school were, at the primary school, having considerable attempts were made to consider the implications of learning and behaviour problems. With the belief that this move. This gave rise to a number of problems this was a problem to overcome and not just the 'way which were not at first recognised by the school as things were', Ann applied for a small grant from the being problems. It cut off all communication Schools Commission to: between the Wreck Bay community and the school their children attended. Also many of the Wreck devise a program, in an attempt to stop and reverse the educational decline which project. One was a study conducted (at Ann's she had noticed. The program had both request) by Kevin Lay< .7 This study showed that: long and short term aims which sought to modify the school so that Aboriginal Parents (Wreck Bay) say they want their ehi'ldren would make better progress children to do well at school but at the 6) there (2 same time they vigorously reject those attitudes and practices which they feel This part of the program could be seen in the undervalue Aboriginal identity and ways 28 narrower sense as an attempt to chip away the handicaps and make chances more equal. However, The second factor was an incident which occurred in the handicaps were seen as the fault of the school 1976. Ann was teaching at the school at the and were not seen in terms of individual time and two Wreck Bay parents came to her and deficiencies. angrily related an incident which their children had told them had happened the previous day. They said The details and evaluation of this first project that the class had role-played Captain Cook's are outlined in the School and Community News, landing (discovery?) and all the Wreck Bay children Vol. 3, No. 1, pp 33-39. The important point had played the part of the primitive hostile for the purposes of this article is that although Aboriginals who Cook's crew successfully fought off. it met with considerable opposition and eventually folded* it was the beginning of a much more The picture that came through to the innovator at this adventurous project. point contained the following elements:

The first project was aimed at changing the school ▪ The curriculum taught at the school represented so that the Aboriginal children could have a cultural domination. "fair go". However this change was in terms of .What went on at school undermined what the Wreck adding an additional facet to the school's life Bay parents were trying to do at home - that is and it did not change in any way the existing instil in the children a positive sense of arrangements of the school. The second project cultural attempted far more because it aimed to change the .identity. existing cultural knowledge distributed by the • The school completely failed to recognise the school. It also aimed to change the consciousness cultural diversity of the student population. of the community. • The school was operating on a cultural deficit model (the problem is theirs not ours). There were two factors which guided Ann in the justification and development of the second • The lack of access the Wreck Bay parents had to decision making at the school was not based on lack of interest (they were very concerned about *It should be noted that the Aboriginal community the Social Science curriculum and the progress of thought it was highly successful and were extremely their children). Nor was it based on lack of disappointed when it folded.

22. At the school ZeveZ - ability. They had been involved in a significant way in decision making at the - making known the historical and cultural heritage pre-school. of this group of people in easily accessible and useable form, . If the parents were given the opportunity of deciding what aspects of their culture and - developing channels of communications between the history should be transmitted to their young community and its schools. this would give them the opportunity to reflect on their own consciousness and At the student ZeveZ - develop skills which would enable them to = for the Aboriginal children the existence and act on the perceived conflicts created by use of such material within the schools should the school's assumptions and ways of strengthen their sense of self and their sense operating. of cultural identity. In response to this problem situation Ann embarked - for the non-Aboriginal children the materials on another project which, in the first stage, should encourage positive attitudes towards the involved both the Wreck Bay community and herself Aboriginal people in general and towards this in the development of appropriate and high quality particular community. materials about the history and culture of Wreck Bay. The community was responsible for the At the teacher level - gathering and recording of information. They then used this to reflect upon their culture and decide - demonstrate that the teaching of Aboriginal what aspects should be transmitted in the school children and the transmitting of Aboriginal context. It is relevant to note that this stage culture are worthwhile pursuits within the school, of the project was seen by Ann in "Frierian" terms. - provide resource materials for school use. Its key notes were dialogue between herself and the people. Action with the people rather than At the community level - for them was seen by Ann as very important. - an experience in consciousness gaining for both The Second Stage involved the implementation of a the adults and the children within the community. number of these curriculum units in the Jervis Bay - provide links between the community and the schools. School. Two units were developed and implemented, one on fishing at Wreck Bay, and the other a As in any innovation the aims that were originally put language unit. down on paper tend to represent only a number of the aims that one is conscious of working towards as the The original aims of the project as included in project nears completion. There are two reasons for the submission to the Schools Commission in 1977(29) this. Firstly, many aims are either deliberately not were: made explicit or are not fully articulated by the

23. innovator. Secondly, the more important aims often PERCEPTIONS OF THE PROJECT evolve as the innovator reflects on his/her ideas and experience. This innovation was no exception. Wreck Bay Conviunity The following are impressions gained from talking It is unclear which aims evolved and which existed with four Wreck Bay residents and one Aboriginal in an undeveloped form to start with. However, mother now living at Jervis Bay. Three of them were the following aims appear to have become recognised members of the original group who had contributed to and made explicit by Ann during the development of the development of the curriculum project and all had this project: children or grandchildren in the unit where the project was to be implemented. 1. To question and change the value and culture base of the school. All the residents spoke of their school days when they 2. To provide an incident which enables the were taught such facts as "Captain Cook discovered teachers of the school to reflect on their Australia" and read books like "The Little Black own consciousness in a critical way. Princess". Other memories of school days included 3. To develop a model of community action for prejudiced teachers who publicly denigrated them changing schools which might suggest because they were Aboriginal, having no white friends, fruitful possibilities for others to try being discouraged from anything too challenging, and and which might encourage critical "never seeing their history in print". They felt very discussion in the community of educators. strongly that their children and grandchildren should not 4. To explore the role of the interventionist. have to be subjected to the feelings of humiliation, shame and anger that they recalled experiencing at it proved difficult (impossible?) for us to school. evaluate these aims in any objective way. Rather such aims operate within the people involved and They wanted their children to feel proud of being cannot be objectively tested. Often the effects Aboriginal. They explained that their parents had of such programs only emerge over time as people tried very hard to make them feel proud of their reflect upon their actions. Therefore what heritage but most of what went on at school conflicted follows, rather than being an "evaluation" in the with this. traditional sense, attempts to present the different perceptions of the project that the groups and They felt it was very important that the Aboriginal individuals we talked to presented. We follow this version of Australian history be taught to both their up with a conclusion in which we attempt a more children and the white children at the school. As 'theoretical' evaluation of the project as a model parents or grandparents they thought that having their of curriculum development that has relevance beyond children learn about their special history at school the specific situation that exists at Jervis Bay/ will make it easier for them to develop in their Wreck Bay. children some sense of pride in being an Aboriginal. A pride that does not evaporate the minute they leave the community. One resident said "Aboriginal people are the only building better relationships between Aboriginal and people in the world who have no sense of identity". white children. They feel the white man "robbed" them of their identity and this curriculum was seen as part of A number of Wreck Bay residents saw the process of the struggle to regain it. curriculum development as being really the most important part of the project. The process was, A sense of pride was seen as important if their they thought, the means by which the adults in the children are to do well at school. This involved community could explore their own culture and become changing teacher's and white children's views of more aware of their identity as a people. Some also Aboriginals so that expectations with regard to thought that the process would help their community ability are changed (two residents recalled being gain the skill and knowledge necessary to express their discouraged by teachers from trying anything point of view to the white community, especially at the difficult and all talked about other children school level. treating them as if they were stupid). It was also seen as promoting greater self confidence which The School Cоптюиnity would enable their children to get more out of For the purposes of our evaluation the school community school. One resident said "we expected to fail, includes the following: The Principal, the President our children must expect to succeed". of the P & C, the Chairman of the School Board and several teachers (including the librarian and the Another reason why this sense of pride in being special education teacher). Aboriginal was seen as important had to do with their development as a people both culturally and Overall the curriculum materials had been received politically. This view was only put forward by enthusiastically by the school community. We were a few residents but they represent a group of told that at a well attended and lively P & C Wreck Bay people who saw this project in its meeting only two members had expressed doubts but these broader context. For example one resident saw the were mainly directed at the language component of the curriculum development project as a 'constructive program. but small beginning in the right direction'. He linked positive self identity with what he called The reasons why people thought the curriculum worthwhile 'political clout!'. Another resident said that included the following: before they could effectively fight for their land rights they have to fight for a sense of .they thought the materials would lead to a greater cultural identity as a community. understanding of the Aboriginal community, enhance black-white relations and encourage more They thought that non-Aboriginal children would, Aboriginal parents to come into the school, through this project, become aware that the Aboriginal people have their own culture which .there was a recognition by some that the materials incorporates knowledge and understandings which would provide a closer match between home and are of value. They hoped that this would enable school for the Aboriginal children, them to respect and understand differences in the .the aspect most approved of was that the materials two cultures. The project was seen by them as were thoroughly researched, well produced, and

г5. funded by the Schools Commission - that is they materials were of excellent quality and had a were respectable and good for the image of the wealth of appropriate and interesting materials. school, It can be seen from this that the teachers views of . there was a feeling of relief that this innovation the potential of curriculum were in some ways different would not disrupt the schools daily routine. from those of the innovator. They did not talk about establishing links with the Wreck Bay community, or The last two points were those that were voiced more the importance of cultural continuity, and appeared generally. It is clear that what were really the to be unaware of the major role that the Wreck Bay extraneous features of the curriculum were those community had had to play in the development of this that mattered most to the school community. This project. It can be seen from this that the teachers raises an important question about just how much who were to implement the program did not fully under- the innovator can appeal to the interests of the stand the nature of its intentions as perceived by groups concerned and still be able to keep intact Ann and the Wreck Bay community. Perhaps greater the real functions of the innovation. When do the contact with Ann and with residents of Wreck Bay, extraneous features take over and become the prior to teaching the curriculum, would have helped perceived prupose of the curriculum? overcome this to some extent. The CZa sroom Teachers в WHAT HAPPENED? Two teachers who worked as a team in the open unit of the school volunteered to teach the curriculum materials. The six weeks over which this curriculum project took Their class contained children from year 3 to year 6, place were weeks of intense activity. Both teachers and all the geographical communities were represented and pupils spoke enthusiastically about how much they (eight were from Wreck Bay but about twelve were of enjoyed the experience. Aboriginal descent). The teachers had the highest regard for the curriculum They were keen to use the curriculum materials for a materials. They were flexible, highly motivating, number of reasons: abundant and easy to use. Anticipated difficulties, apart from procedural arrangements like excursions, .they were hopeful that the materials would just never eventuated. provide an incentive for some of the quieter Aboriginal children to speak up about their The teachers noted that the Aboriginal children did own experiences, display a greater amount of interest than normal and took a more active role generally in the classroom. .they felt it would be good for the non- It appeared to give them an immense boost in confid- Aboriginal children to become aware of an ence and enabled them to express, at the classroom alternative culture existing close at hand, level, positive feelings about being Aboriginal. and they felt that the units were well designed and relevant to the needs of all The class undertook two excursions to Wreck Bay. The the children, first excursion was to find out about fishing and the . They were pleased that the curriculum children met and talked with two senior Wreck Bay

26. fishermen. On the second excursion they found out The Classroom about the settlement of the area, the environment It is impossible to judge the long term effects of and its meaning for the Wreck Bay people. A senior such a program for the children in terms of the member of the community talked to them on this development of critical awareness of their society. occasion. Never-the-less for the Aboriginal children in the class the project appeared to be an experience in The units culminated in a display of classroom work. understanding themselves diachronically (which is Although this display succeeded in attracting part of the process of constructing their own social several local school inspectors and principals, it reality). For the non-Aboriginal children it was did not attract many Wreck Bay people. Possibly an exercise in understanding another group and in this was because they were notified only by a this way it may enable them to discover the possib- printed school circular. ility of a different social reality than that which they presently take as given. This project on its PERCEPTIONS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION own will not enable them to have an understanding of themselves and others but it does appear to be a step Wreck Bay in the right direction. It appears that while the first part of this project - that is the development of the curriculum The teachers did express their concern at the materials - was highly successful in motivating difficulty of communicating with the Wreck Bay the Wreck Bay community, this did not carry over to community and the importance of overcoming these the second part. In the initial stages the materials barriers if a project such as this is to succeed in belonged to them and they were involved in decisions future. made about cultural selection. After the curriculum had been given to the school they appeared to no Most of the other observations related to the class- longer have any feelings of ownership of it or room have already been described under 'what happened'. involvement with it. Perhaps this is a significant indicator of the enormous gap between the school CONCLUSION and the Wreck Bay community. A. How successful was the project in terms The School Community of its aims? The P & C President and the Chairman of the School All who observed the classroom activities could not Board both were very enthusiastic about the help but conclude that all children enjoyed the implementation of the curriculum project. They also curriculum and found the work they did extremely stressed that the members of the P & C were interesting, exciting and different. The Aboriginal supportive. They pointed out that both hoped the children, for the first time, started to talk in experience would be repeated and that further units class about their home life and their general class would be developed. participation increased.

27. The fact that only one Aboriginal parent came to the In this section what is being evaluated is the classroom was a dissapointment but this should not value of this curriculum project as a model for undermine the significance of the fact that several those who wish to change the social and Wreck Bay parents came to the display. This is a intellectual structures of the school. small but very significant beginning because, apart from sporting events, they have never gone to the Ар pl е(3°) in discussing innovations which aim to school before. At the same time the two excursions contribute to the creation of programs that enable to Wreck Bay which the teachers and children made change in the social and intellectual structures during the implementation of the curriculum brought of the school, has suggested the following the school into the community in a way that had criteria for evaluating innovative processes: not occurred before. 1. One should focus on the prior questions that The curriculum had provided an incident which has have been asked by the innovator. Apple sees been used by a number of people to help them reflect the following as important: on their ideas and commitments. For example, one member of the Aboriginal community, as a result of .Whose knowledge is it? her involvement with this project, increased her .Why is it being taught to this particular understanding of the problems her people face in group in this particular way? relation to education. She is actively engaged, .What are its real or latent functions in both as a School Board member and a member of the the complex relationship between knowledge Aboriginal Education Committee at.Nowra.in promoting new and power? initiatives in Aboriginal education in the South Coast Region and she plans to take up the language 2. Motives - it must be.truly therapeutic and component of the project and introduce it into unlikely to be perverted into a mechanism of other schools in the area. social control.

The teachers too appeared to have become a lot more 3. Achievability - it must demonstrate prior to its aware of the sorts of issues this curriculum was implementation that it is capable of accomplishing designed to focus on as the program proceeded and the goals. the experience of implementing this unit did appear to provide a focal point for working out new ideas 4. Side Effects - the possibility of undesirable ones and strategies designed to provide better must be foreseen beforehand and properly weighed. educational experiences for the children in their 5. Role of Innovator - the innovator must be able to classroom. stand back and critically examine the assumptions Furthermore, the project has generated a great deal which operate in schools and must affiliate with those for whom the innovation was designed to of interest at both the school and systems level. benefit. B. To what extent did this project focus on and confront the particular problems of inequality If we examine the Jervis Bay/Wreck Bay project in which existed in the Jervis Bay School situation? relation to these criterion suggested by Apple

28. we find: committee and so spent time demonstrating achievability. Each process and its relationship Prior Questions to the aims was at all times explained clearly. At the time of Ann's arrival at the school Ann spent time studying the hierarchy of the Aboriginal children, because they had learning schools authority and knew exactly who to enlist problems, did not have equal access to the for support and when. knowledge that was distributed by the school. A recognition that these learning problems had their Side Effects roots in schooling structures and that unequal The possibility of harmful outcomes was at all times access to knowledge meant unequal access to power given honest consideration by Ann. However, one was the initial focus which eventually led to possible consequence that probably wasn't foreseen this project. At the same time the knowledge was that, when the curriculum was implemented in the which was valued by the community was unconsc- school Wreck Bay people tended to no longer see it as iously denigrated by the school. In this sense theirs. It had been given over to the professionals the project was clearly a response to the kinds and to a certain extent this meant that they had lost of prior questions posed by Apple. it.

Ann, in her justification for the project, makes it Role of Innovator very clear that the materials had been designed The careful thought which preceded the defining of the specifically for the Jervis Bay/Wreck Bay situation innovator's role was perhaps the biggest strength of and that such a program must be taught in a way this model. Ann spent a lot of time relating to the which relies on the community as a resource. Ann people and made no attempts to impose her own view was also concerned that the culture was not except in matters where she was the obvious expert. objectified in any way. In this respect Ann chose the more difficult path of enabling the people themselves to engage in effective Motives action. Ann designed many safeguards in an attempt to ensure that the innovation remained truly therapeutic. Situationality The teachers had to rely on the Wreck Bay community This speaks for itself. Ambiguity, open endedness in order to implement the program and this was to and uncertainty were the hallmarks of the project. ensure that the cultural representation did not It was a risk-taking venture which cannot be become objectified. However, perhaps greater mindlessly replicated. safeguards should have been built in. It is clear that this curriculum ran the danger of being taught Clearly then this evaluation takes the view that this as a 'good curriculum package' and the excursions particular innovation is of immense value as a model were very nearly relegated to motivational status. for those who want to change the social and intellectual structure of the school. It can however only be a Achievability model In the most difficult sense. It is not an Ann had to justify her project to the innovations 'innovations. kit' or a blueprint but rather a

г9. way of focussing, beginning and progressing within in individual schools. This is because situating a concrete situation. The important aspects of the action in the concrete reality, modified by this curriculum, which make it a worthwhile model, the perceptions of the people, is the only possible are: way it can justifiably and fruitfully begin.

. the basic values on which it is based, Obviously action can only begin within a framework of ideology. This has always been somewhat of a . the role that is taken by the innovator in dilemma for me because I have never been able to both enlisting the community and using the comprehend how action for change can progress support of the schooling structures, without a clear ideological framework and I have . the sort of aims it incorporates. never been able to justify imposing an ideological framework on others. However, this case study, LOOKING BACK while not completely solving this problem, has presented me with a model that indicates the Levin and Simon(31)talk about a model of innovation possibility that the ideological framework could which allows for: be a commitment to a just means of change and to openness. In other words a commitment to process the ideas and values of all the users of and direction but not to goals. the innovation and those of the professional designers to become synthesized in an ongoing The case study has shown that, by focussing on the dialectic. right kinds of prior questions, adopting processes which enable the innovator to involve the people With the Levin and Simon model 'looking back' is an concerned in an honest and authentic way and then important aspect of the innovative process. This starting in a direction which is consistent with includes evaluation but out of that evaluation the conscious pursuit of justice, the gradual but discussion begins again as to what it is all about meaningful alteration of the institutional and how it should be done. This seems to be some arrangements of schools is possible. form of praxis. In this paper I began with reflection, then examined an action that was based FOOTNOTES on some sort of reflection. This action, to be true praxis, must give rise to new reflection. This 1. Schools Commission - Schools in Australia, reflection examines the action embodied in the case Canberra, 1973. study in the light of the focus question which was 2. Freire, Paulo - particularly his book Pedagogy central to the initial reflection. That is: of the Oppressed, Penguin Education 1972. How can schools work towards redressing the 3. Apple, M. - Ideology and Curriculum, Rout ledge consequences of an unequal society? and Kegan Paul, 1979, p.157. 4. The Case Study deals with the development of The 'action' has made it clear to me that the onus a social studies curriculum for the Jervis Bay for change can and must reside with the individuals Primary School.

30. 5. Popper K.,,Øen Society and its Enemies 24. See for example, the background material in I used a summary of his thoughts - Magee, B. Ann Nugent's unpublished M.Ed. thesis. - Popper Fontana Modern Masters, Glasgow, 1973. University of Queensland 1980. 6. Ely, J.,ReaZity and Rhetoric, Southwood Press, 25. Brady, P., "Aboriginal Community Education Sydney, 1978. Project at Jervis Bay/Wreck Bay: Evaluation" 7. ibid., p.1. School and Community News Vol.3, No.1. pp•31-39. 8. ibid., p.48. 26.ibid., p.35. •9. Roper, T., The Myth of Equality, Melbourne, 1972. 27. Lay, K., An Aboriginal Community's Perception 10.ibid., р.23. of Primary Education. Unpublished manuscript, 11. Ely, J. op.cit. Grad. Dip. Ed. CCAE 1977. 12. Schools Commission, Schools in Australia, 28. This was the original application for a grant op.cit., p.25. from the Schools Commission. 13.ibid., p.27. 29. Apple, op.cit., ch.6. 14. Vallence, E., "Hiding the Hidden Curriculum" 30.Zoc.cit. in Curriculum Theory Network 1V. 31. Levin, M.А. and Simon, R.I., "From Ideal to Real: 15. Apple, op.cit. Understanding the Development of New Educational Settings", Interchange Vo1.5, No.3 1974. 16. Young, M.F.D., "Knowledge and Control", Knowledge and Control, Land Collier MacMillan 1971. 17. Bernstein, B., Class, Codes and Control, Vol.3, Towards a Theory of Educational Transmission, Land Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977. 18. Apple, M., op.eit., p.21. 19.ibid., p.5. 20.ibid., p.23. 21. Apple, M., op.cit., p.24. 22. Freire, P., op.cit., p.24. 23.ibid., p.18.

31. REFLECTIONS ON THE JERVIS BAY/WRECK BAY EXPERIENCE FEBRUARY 1979 - JUNE 1980

By: Ann Nugent

These tapes were analysed to determine what In the March 1979 issue of School and Community News knowledge and values were seen as being important I described the early development of curriculum to the community. Five themes emerged: kinship; materials within Wreck Bay Aboriginal Village, ACT, bush skills and survival; prehistory and sites; for use in Jervis Bay Primary School. settlement of Wreck Bay and fishing; the Aboriginal languages of the area. From these themes two topics The project, which was started in February 1978, was were developed after consultation with the community. developed in three stages. In the first stage The topics chosen were: members of Wreck Bay community provided focal themes for the generation of community-based curriculum - The story of fishing at Wreck Bay. materials. This was the oral history of the modern settlement of the Wreck Bay site. The second part of the project involved the setting up of communication between Wreck Bay community and - The Aboriginal languages of the NSW South Jervis Bay School so that the community could state Coast. what it wanted to be included in the school's curriculum and so that the school could respond to STAGE 2 the community's initiatives. ESTABLISHING CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION The third part of the project was concerned with the designing of educational materials and experiences The second part of the project involved the setting around the focal themes which had been worked out up of communication between Wreck Bay community and by the community. The materials were implemented Jervis Bay School. at Jervis Bay School in first term 1980. In the design of the project the setting up of STAGE 1 communication between the school and the community was seen to precede the development and implementation THE COMMUNITY AS AGENT FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT of the curriculum materials in the school situation (see Figure 1). However in the working out of the By December 1979 seventeen members of the Wreck Bay project direct and open communication between the community had recorded 26 taped interviews of their school and the community was not fully achieved. In memories, views and experiences of life at Wreck Bay*. fact, most communication was mediated through me and for this reason I think that the unbroken "communication" lines in Figure 1 would be better represented as broken * The population of Wreck Bay is about 150. lines to show the type of mediated communication which There are approximately 25 households. took place.

32. STAGE A. STEР1. SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS—>THE SCHOOL—'CURRICULUM--łCULTURAL SUB-GROUP Community Participation STAGE В STEP2. STEP. 3. $ Т P.4. Recording Variant Checking with Articulation by the Versions of culture community authenticity community of its knowwef* Community centred Value categori

Communication between School and Community Value categories communicated as ideational frame for curriculum unit

School and Curriculum Evaluation STAGE C I -2 STEP. Т_ P..4 Translation of value Designing educational Organisation and categories into experiences to implementation focal ideas for attain focal ideas of the curriculum generation of in step 2 unit in the school curriculum unit

Figure.1.

33. believe that łoui factors inhibited the development between the school and the community was not of independent, open communication channels between achieved what was realized was a mediated form of Wreck Bay community and Jervis Bay School The communication and it was hoped that this would factors were. develop into more direct communication as the materials were introduced into the school situation. * lack of time and the fact that I did not live The extent to which this occurred will be looked at at Jervis Bay meant that my visits were 1 ater. intermittent, * both the school and the community lacked a My experience in the project also indicates that the knowledge base of each other, community and the school can, in unexamined ways, be * curriculum, not communication, was seen as operating on different basic assumptions to do with the main thrust of the project, values and that this can put obstacles in the path * at that time, February to March 1980, there of true communication. The purpose in thinking about was negative communication taking place one's assumptions is to clarify one's value position between Wreck Bay community and Jervis Bay not necessarily to change it. I now believe that School. each group needs to examine and evaluate its assumptions before communication starts otherwise there will be The land claim which the people of Wreck Bay were misunderstanding and recrimination. involved in had spilled over into school and community relations.* There was a strong anti- My initial analysis of the Jervis Bay School suggested school feeling in the community and at the school to me that the policy and practice of the school is actions were being taken against alleged segreg- based unconsciously on an assimilationist model. ationists behaviour in the playground by Aboriginal While the values which provide the mainspring for children. The point to be made here is that although practice and decision-making in a school remain I have been writing of the school and the community unconsciously held they prevent open communication. as being in a way separate both in fact function within a wider social setting and both are influenced Similarly expectations of schooling within Wreck Bay by the power structures, prejudices and political community appear to lack conscious definition. Studies climate of the wider society of which they are part. of the communities expectations suggest that the Thus the relations between school and community are community at Wreck Bay holds ambivalent attitudes complex and require a great degree of sensitivity towards schooling(l). That is, on the one hand parents and openness by both school and community members. want their children 'to succeed' at school and on the other hand they have bitter memories of their own Although in the communication stage of the project school experience and resent some aspects of present the expectation of direct and open communication school practice. Just as teacher groups have to think more clearly about the basis of their school's policy and practice so Aboriginal communities need to do the * The Aboriginal community had blocked the road to same about what they want the schools to do. Thinking Wreck Bay and so prevented non-Aboriginal access about one's own values is the beginning of exercising to popular beaches. This action brought strong responsibility in educational decision-making. criticism in the local press.

34. In order for communication to take place between a * the materials should be acceptable to the school and a community group each needs to have some teachers and designed in a way that sees clear knowledge of how the other group functions. teachers as thinking decision-makers and Such knowledge is not gained by chance. It is the not as dispensing technicians. result of conscious reciprocal effort. To build up these knowledge bases the community must have access Underlying these overall criteria were other goals to the school and the school must have access to the which were evolved and articulated as the project community. The project indicated that at Jervis Bay/ progressed. Perhaps the goals were latent in the Wreck Bay access is at present insufficient. Perhaps project but as the project developed they became in the past the barriers to access have had positive more evident to me and loomed larger in my thinking. survival value for each group in that both school and Each unit is also evaluated in terms of these community could retain their mutually negative stero- underlying goals which were: types. Such an arrangement meant that the school could sheet home responsibility for the poor educat- * that the materials should alter the existing ional achievement of Aboriginal children to home power relationship between the school and the environment factors and the community could refuse community (with the tilt being in the responsibility in educational endeavours by blaming direction of the community), the school for its bias against Aboriginals. * that the materials should foster communication Finally, trust and goodwill appear to be necessary if between the school and the community, the community is to be able to speak openly of its * that the materials should lead the school to expectations of schooling and the school is to be think seriously about the purpose and value of able to discuss openly its endeavours, and even the education which it was providing for the mistakes, in a tolerant atmosphere. Aboriginal children at the school.

SтАсЕ 3 Oral History Unit

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF CURRICULUM MATERIALS The first unit to be designed was an oral history unit. The materials for this unit comprised a The final part of the project involved the designing book The Story of Fishing at Wreck Bay and of the curriculum materials and their implementation other resource materials. in the school. In this section the two units are evaluated separately. In designing the materials 1. The Story of Fishing at Wreck Ваy I kept to three basic guidelines. These were: Although the book was written at a 10 year read- * the materials should, as faithfully as possible, ability level it incorporated many words and phrases present the knowledge and values of the community, which the people of Wreck Bay had used in telling their own stories. The poem used in the frontpiece •the materials should be attractive and suitable of the book for example was spoken by a fisherman of for the age level of the children who would be using them, 35. Wreck Bay as a sentence rather than a poem design enabled the addition of material over time which coincided with the concept of the culture of a Before ever l came here community as being dynamic and adaptive rather than I knew this place static and closed. I knew where the water was Where to catch the red fish As well I wished to create situations which would Where to get the mutton fish lead the school into the community and the community Where the oysters were into the school. Thus, attention was directed by means of the activity, information and excursion By using the patterns of speech of the people cards towards the community at Wreck Bay. Emphasis a degree of authenticity was achieved. was put on group work so that children from outside Wreck Bay would have the opportunity of asking Wreck Aboriginal words which survive in the speech of Bay children for information. It was hoped that such the village were incorporated in the text e.g.: a situation would allow Wreck Bay children to become givers of information about their own community. I Booblegaa - a southerly bluster directed my efforts in producing this unit towards sorting and collecting information. The use made of and Guragama - the west wind. maps, photographs and activity cards allowed inform- ation to be assembled in a way which required a As well local knowledge was included: response on the part of the teachers and students - "The fishermen knew that when the wattle that is, the resources were not "information dispensing" tree bloomed the bream would be travelling but rather "starters in a process of enquiry". north ..." Evaluation of the Oral History Materials "They knew that a new moon or a full moon would bring the fish in season." Authenticity

In its final form the book was warmly received Wreck Bay Community opinion confirms my judgement in the community. that the book and resource materials achieved a high degree of authenticity. Excursions by the children 2. Resource Materials and teachers to Wreck Bay Villege, their interaction with members of the community, the use of photography The resource materials were clustered around the and learning situations within the environs of Wreck themes of the book (settlement, fishing technology, Bay brought the educational processes very close to seasons/migration, local skills and knowledge, their knowledge base in the home community. marketing, transport, geography and bush resources). No direction was given as to the way in which the Suitability materials were to be used. There was no written The enquiry methods and resource materials were teachers guide and the teachers were left free to appropriate at this age level. The teachers reported explore and experiment with the materials. This

36. Children in the Jervis Bay npen-plan unit engaged in the curriculum activ\tIes.

Photographs by Marjorie Kibby,

37. that all children sustained a high level of the school. Thus in a perverse way community-based ;nterest throughout the 10 week implementation curricula could be seen to objectify the culture of period. In the words of M Clark who evaluated the the community so that children of the community project: become unquestioning consumers of their own cultural heritage in a school situation. All children enjoyed the curriculum and found the work they did extremely 1 overstate this point because it is one which all interesting, exciting and different. minority cultural groups must face. 1 have no doubts it will remain a highlight in their primary experience(2). As has been noted above by stressing the oral nature of the knowledge through enquiry it was hoped that Acceptability the Aboriginal children within the classroom would be seen as having access to knowledge which was valued There is no doubt that the teachers felt in command by teachers and other pupils. In fact the teachers of the materials and free to develop and use the reported that other children actively sought informa- materials in their own ways. Indeed the materials tion from the Aboriginal children. led teachers to develop, on similar lines, themes tangent to the main topics. The teachers reported Margaret Clark reports: that they were not over-powered by the resource materials because, although the materials were of ... the Aboriginal children did display a greater a good quality, they were not glossy and amount of interest than normal and took a more commercial. active role generally in the classroom. It appeared to give them an immense boost in Altering the Power Relationships confidence and enabled them to express, at the To what extent did the oral history materials allow classroom level, positive feelings about being the Aboriginal community to have a say in the Aboriginal(3). educational processes of the school? Certainly, the materials in their authenticity allowed the Another aim had been to alter the power relations knowledge and values of the community to gain between the school and community. In the implement- expression within the school curriculum but did ation of the project it was necessary for the school this connection ensure a role forthe Wreck Bay to enter the community to ask for information but community in the school's decision-making this alone seems not to have altered the basis of processes? That is, was the status of the the existing relationships between the school and the community raised from that of recipient of community in any permanent or radical way. curriculum decisions to that of participant in curriculum decisions? Similarly, although the materials that were used in the school were the same as those which were developed This is a real issue because it is possible that in the community the community did not perceive any in providing content (knowledge) for curriculum continuity between the process of gathering and units a community could be seen to surrender its recording (1978) and the process of the implement- knowledge and in so doing relinquish power to ation in the school (1980). It was as though, once

38. Ρ Stems vч ith tails mimb ńаbиg bite ngundam drink mand: budm hig anem eat nand

0

Examples of the aids used in the language unit.

Photographs by Marjorie Kibby.

39. the materials entered the school, they underwent As has been noted 1 mediated communication between a transmogrification which changed their nature the school and the community. Such communication in the eyes of the community. Therefore the use of has now lapsed. At present no one acts as the materials in the school did not lead the communicator nor is it a role which the school has Aboriginal parents to take any greater part in defined as being necessary. I think the experience the school activities nor did it lead the school of the project indicates that some critical examin- to actively encourage greater involvement. ation and possible provision of this type of inter- vention would benefit communication between Jervis Although at the Jervis Bay School there seems little Bay Primary School and Wreck Bay Aboriginal alteration of the power structures, the project has community. had impacts further afield. One Aboriginal parent from Jervis Bay is working towards using some of the The Language Unit language materials in other schools. As well other schools in the district with Aboriginal communities Materials are using the conceptual framework of this project Although fragments (some isolated words) were retained to develop a greater level of community involvement among the community at Wreck Bay the language as a in their schools. As the result of the project it spoken language is virtually extinct. Thus in the is possible that other schools and communities will language materials the goal was not so much to achieve be able to develop their own curriculum approaches cultural continuity for the Wreck Bay children in the in their own ways. school situation as it was to restore to them and to non-Aboriginal children some of the Aboriginal Changing Communication Patterns cultural heritage of the NSW South Coast. As well In the course of the project entries had been made the language materials aimed to acquaint the children by the school into the community. As well, parents of Jervis Bay School with a knowledge of some universal from the community had come to the school at the structures of language viz. tense, transitive/ beginning of the project and made informal contact intransitive, word chains, pronouns. The manipulative with the teachers. However, as implementation of materials and games aspects of the language unit have the curriculum materials proceeded, both the teachers been described elsewhere*. Suffice it to say that, from the curriculum design point of view, the problem and the parents reported that the initial communic- was to design educational experiences which would ation lapsed and both groups seemed disappointed incorporate the highly complex linguistic structures about that. and concepts in a way that would suit the cognitive capacity of eight year old children and at the same It is interesting that although both groups time sustain their interest. My solution was to have recognized a problem in the area of involvement the teaching of the languages around games and and communication each attributed it to different colourful manipulative materials. These materials causes - the teachers thought the parents were proved highly successful in the classroom situations. reluctant to be involved because they felt As well as learning structural aspects of language uncomfortable in the school situation while the parents felt that they hadn't been given enough Those interested in specific aspects of the information or directly invited to the school. language unit can obtain more information from the School and Community Project.

40. the children learned something of the distribution in any future project opportunities should be of original languages throughout the Australian provided for Aboriginal parents to participate in continent, the adaptations and borrowings which the classroom as teachers or co-learners or to occurred between English and the Aboriginal attend parellel classes in an adult situation. languages and the way in which languages are uniquely styled to meet the needs of their users. Evaluation of the Language Materials As an example of the latter point the Dharawal language contains a word for sea close (gadhu) as The language materials were highly successful in well as a word for sea distant (пgаruuaan) - a the classroom situation. The approach of teaching distinction which is not provided in English. By complex linguistic forms through games seems to be being exposed to the languages it is likely that both novel and successful. the children will realize that every language is intrinsically valuable in its own right and As well the language unit aroused feelings of cannot be regarded as being inferior or superior. cultural identity and worth among the Aboriginal communities. 1t was the language which was seen as The idea of teaching Aboriginal languages to primary being most valuable by the Aboriginal people. age children was, on the whole, well received by Several Aboriginal people are trying to get copies parents at Jervis Bay School. Two parents expressed of the materials to teach themselves and their reservations because they could not see the use of children or for use in their home communities and such language teaching. Other non-Aboriginal schools. community members supported the introduction of the materials because they saw the unit as being culturally valuable for all children. Aboriginal Reflections parents were highly supportive of the language materials because they saw it as giving their One can say that the units initiated some communication children something of Aboriginal value - something of a utilitarian kind but much more critical thinking which could be treasured and carried, and something and effort will be required if this initial contact is which they, the parents, had not had access to in to form the basis of open and continuing communication their own schooling. about issues of educational importance to the school and the Aboriginal community. in retrospect I now see that in teaching the language in the school situation there is a danger There is no evidence that the curriculum units that Aboriginal children will come to know elements resulted in any serious scrutiny by the school of of the language whilst the adults would be excluded - its policy or practice. However, the two teachers that in a sense the children will acquire 'superior' involved have shown a more searching attitude to the problems encountered by Aboriginal children in the knowledge. In the Jervis Bay/Wreck Bay project no school situation. direct action was taken to avoid this danger however

41. CONCLUSION • A flexibility which permits an on-going feedback and allows modification and change while prov- One must now ask what was of value in the project. isional solutions are in progress.

There seem to have been several worthwhile outcomes * Tolerance of the tension between what "should be" of the project: and "what is". * Valuing of the incomplete achievements as a way * A community was able to generate curriculum to greater understanding. units which were culturally authentic and * educationally valuable. A person or group which undertakes the reflective, monitoring role. * The children who participated in the program had good experiences. Upon reflection 1 see that although, at a rational and operational level, I followed a design such as * There were changes in attitudes to community and that illustrated in Figure 1 (above) at the same time in approaches to teaching by the teachers who I was responding emotionally and imaginatively to a implemented the program. whole range of ideas and stimuli within a much wider * Most importantly the project yielded insights framework than that enunciated in the diagram. It is into the concept of curriculum design in the more complex responses and the awareness of the community and cross-cultural settings. greater depth of the field in which the project took place which leads me now to re-formulate what Community Based Curriculum Development Reformulated happened and what was learned in the project. The picture which emerges is as follows: In the original plan (Figure 1) I saw curriculum as the central issue. I now believe that curriculum is 1. The project started with a problem. not really the issue but rather that attention should 2. A method was devised to attack the problem. The focus on the conditions which allow problem-solving method drew on past experience, theoretical environment to be created. Seen in this light perspectives and some intuition. curriculum development might contribute to problem- solving but it is not the central issue. As a result 3. A reflective process took place throughout the of the experience of the project I believe that the project and culminated in this and other reports. conditions which allow problems to be attacked are: 4. As a result of 1,2,3 above a reformulation of the method is now possible. * Access to knowledge. The reformulation is not a tinkering with the original * Open communication. plan it replaces it will the process of the project, * Provisional as opposed to absolute solutions. that is, the four points above are now seen as a fruitful way of approaching education problems and * Constant comparisons between what is planned what happens - emphasis on both theory issues at school and community level. For ease of аnд and experience with experience feeding back reference I propose to call this approach a problem- posing approach to curriculum development(4). By into theory.

42. using this approach attention is focussed not on of excluding community experience and knowledge so possible solutions in the form of plans but on an approach which is based entirely on cultural problems as the threshold of new understanding. criteria can lack depth(5). At the same time, both the objectives or cultural models have Just as Margaret Clark has rejected the notion of carefully sealed themselves off from questions equality as a motivating force for action, because of power, social conLr91 and purposes and in a sense it is unobtainable and hence distracting, functions of educationt6). so I believe that 'blue prints' (the objectives model of curriculum design) distract from educational A problem-posing model, as I see it, is an inter- problems by assuming the achievability of an active model in that what happens in educational educational utopia. institutions is seen in relation to social forces which lie beyond the immediate educational environ- By making a problem the overt focal point in ment. It is interactive in that the perspectives of curriculum development one allows a range of school and the perspectives of the community are perspectives to be drawn upon so that community known yet each retains their separateness. There is members, teachers, curriculum developers and no attempt to reduce what might, be conflicting views children can all participate*. Since, in this to some form of 'consensus'. approach, no final solution is envisaged there is scope for dynamic interaction between the perspec- Naturally the idea of a problem-posing approach to tives on a continuing basis. educational issues and curriculum development poses many difficulties. For instance how does one know By stressing the situational context the problem- and/or select the problem? Is the approach workable posing approach admits the untidiness of educational if the values which form the basis of various per- processes, the impossibility of reducing human inter- spectives are diametrically opposed? At this point actions to planned order, the importance of unexpected I can merely draw attention to these difficulties. outcomes and the role of the imagination and the However I believe that the conditions stated above emotions in educational enterprises. One cannot (p.42) which are necessary for creating a problem- capture, in objectives type models of curriculum attacking environment, would go some way towards design, the kaleidoscopic flux and interchange solving such impasses. Such an approach offers which we know is part of all curricula. In such provisional solutions which can then be critically models the flux, the imagination, is down-graded and assessed in the light of experience. It cannot in doing this so much of value is lost or distorted. operate from an absolute value base and this in itself might go some way to resolving conflicts Just as an objectives type model can have the effect which arise between proponents of opposing value systems. The problem-posing approach takes decisions out of the realm of ideology into one of conditionally * A wide range of people participated in the project. held assumptions. This being so this approach seems At the theoretical level several disciplines particularly appropriate for those schools and including Anthropology were drawn on and at the communities who wish to question or alter the power practical level over 50 people were involved in bases which control or direct present educational producing the materials. practice.

43. As a result of my reflections on the project my original plan (Figure 1) has been altered radically and can now be represented as in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Problem-posing curriculum development.

1. Represents a problem with ill-defined edges. 2. Interactive perspectives which centre on the problem. The crossing points represent both communication and the unresolved conflict inherent in such open direct communication. 3. A dynamic action which receives its initial impetus from the problem. In the dynamic action attempts are made, A, reflected upon, and remade, B...C. The impetus for each new attempt is gained from the perceived weaknesses in the previous attempt. 4. Represents the reformulation of problems often in different situational contexts. NOTES:

1. Lay, Kevin, An Aboriginal Community's 5. Bruner, J.S., "Poverty and Childhood" in Perception of Primary Education. The Relevance of Education George Allen and Unpublished manuscript, Grad.Dip.Ed.CCAE Unwin, London, 1972 р.153. 1 977, Bruner summarizes the position as follows and Vanzetti, Noel, A Survey of Parent Opinion "the strength of a culture-free view is that at Jervis Bay Primary School. A Report to it searches for universal structures of the the Jervis Bay School Board, September 1978. mind; the weakness of most culture sensitive views is that they give too much importance 2. Clark, M., An Analysis of Inequality CCAE, to individual and cultural differences and June 1980, p.26. overlook universals of growth".

3. ibid., 6. Brady, P., The Role of Imagination in the Development of Curriculum Theory, p.13. 4. This approach draws on Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed and on K. Popper's scientific method as outlined in Objective Knowledge; An Evolutionary Approach.

45. of jobs in their home towns and a high BOOk REVIEW probability of not being employed at all, and they had little capacity to seek out and hold jobs away from their home towns.

Of specific interest to us were the authors' findings ISOLATED SCHOOLS in relation to school and community. We here, with Teaching, learning and transition to work permission of the authors, give their report on this aspect in full: C. Turney K.E. Sinclair L.G. Cairns THE SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY Sydney University Press in association with The relations between teachers in isolated schools Western Region Disadvantaged Country and parents and between the schools and their Area Programme 1980 communities generally seem to be quite poor. Teachers perceived parents attitudes towards This book is the result of two research projects schooling as apathetic and even hostile. They tended commissioned by the NSW Western Region Disadvantaged to place part of the blame for students' negative Country Area Programme. It looks at the problems of attitudes towards school on parents. However, teachers isolated schooling from a range of perspectives were doing little to improve the situation. Their including the characteristics and concerns of teachers contacts with parents are minimal. Meagre efforts and the motivation and achievement of students. In are made to inform parents of the school programme. their conclusion the authors write that: The reporting of pupil progress is formal and narrow. Parental participation in school activities is ...students in the studies were clearly limited and conventional. Clearly, much needs to disadvantaged both in the teaching and be done to improve school-community relations and curriculum they were experiencing and in the initiative must be taken by the school. Indeed making the important and difficult transition from school to work. From a personality one of the concerns of in-service education obviously point of view, compared with age-mates in needs to be an exploration of the rationale for, and urban communities, they had lower levels of the teacher's role in, the development of strong self-esteem, higher levels of anxiety about school-community relations. Many teachers in the self-adequacy, and a greater tendency to view western region, like so many of their colleagues elsewhere, seemed either unaware or unconvinced of themselves as having little personal control the potential educational value for them or their over learning and achievement at school. With respect to reading achievement they were students of more frequent teacher-parent contacts and of closer school-community relations. For example, lamentably behind their school year. With some teachers would not concede that greater under- respect to the transition from school to work standing of the child and improved student attitudes the students had little realistic view of the might result from discussions with parents. Again, sorts of occupations they could expect to enter, some teachers would not agree that the involvement of they were faced with a very restricted range

46. parents in programme construction and implementation In this regard community projects in which students might result in more relevant and richer school help with local problems or activities, and work experiences. experience programmes in local jobs are promising lines needing exploration. The school's resources It should be acknowledged, however, that parents' might also be used as a base for parent and community attitudes to teachers in the isolated schools are education and leisure programmes, either during and often quite negative, and this does not, of course, after normal school hours. Some of the parent make teachers any eager to contact and co-operate educational programmes might well centre on the with them. To many parents the teachers are important difficulties facing their children and 'blow ins' from the city who do not understand indicate ways in which parents might assist. country life and who represent a culture alien to Immediately such themes as 'learning to read', country people. Despite these barriers to 'finding a job', and 'increasing interest in communication and collaboration on both sides, a learning' suggest themselves. start must be made to improve the inter-relationships.

At the simplest level each school needs to inform Extract from Turnеg, Sinclair and Cairns, pages 120-1. parents clearly and realistically of developments, activities and problems associated with its work. The conventional newsletters and P and C meetings need to be supplemented by classroom visits, displays of work, observations and informal discussions with individual, or groups of teachers. Reporting the progress of pupils should also become more meaningful, personal, and comprehensive. The conventional, formal written school report needs to be supplemented by individual and group parent-teacher discussions, sometimes involving the student as well. Such sessions can be invaluable to the teachers as well as parents. Through them teachers can learn of the problems, needs and aspirations of both parent and child. Ways of productively engaging parents and members of the community in the work of the school also need to be sought. The use of members of the community as resource people in teaching programmes, the employ- ment of parents as paid or unpaid teacher aides in the classroom, and the involvement of community members in planning aspects of the curriculum are some of the main ways of bringing parents and others into the educational process. The schools should also seek ways to become involved in the community.

47. OTHER RECENT PUBLICATIONS

SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURES FOR SCHOOL-COMMUNITY BASED DECISION SHARING A REVIEW OF SCHOOL/COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIPS

Editor: Greg Andrews Prepared for the Australian Council of State School Organisations Inc. A collection of 24 case studies that describe by: Catherine Blakers a range of school-level decision making Australian Council of State School structures currently being used in schools Organisations Inc. February 1980. throughout Australia. The case studies range from descriptions of mandated systemic The comprehensive review of the concepts and structures (such as School Councils and issues that come under the umbrella of Boards) through to committee structures "community involvement" includes discussion of - in individual schools. Overseas examples are also included (UK, USA and Italy). .developments in community involvement. .concepts of community involvement These case studies were prepared as background and participation in schooling. resource material for the NSW School Based .issues arising in the development Decision Sharing Project Conference, May 1980. and processes of community involvement.

Price: $4.00 (.90t postage) For information about availability contact:

Available from: ACSSO Room 5 Greg Andrews Lyneham High School c/o Sydney Inner City Education Centre Goodwin Street 37 Cavendish Street LYNEHAM ACT 2602 STANMORE NSW 2048 Phone (062) 47 7883

48. CHOICE AND DIVERSITY PROJECT

DISCOURSE Some recent publications:

THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL STUDIES * Discussion Paper No. 1: Choice in Education Sources of Present Administrative Practice A new journal for those working in June 1980. education - scholars, teachers, administrators, policy-makers, * Annotated Reading List : April 1980. planners - is about to be launched. * Descriptions of Choice and Diversity The first issue is due for publication in Practice. Numbers 1-5. in September. After this it should appear twice This project is a joint Schools Commission/State yearly. The journal is also calling Education Departments initiative. Contacts include: for manuscripts of 1500-4000 words, on educational issues. Nationally: Victoria: More information and subscription The Secretary David Pettit rates can be obtained from: Schools Commission Department of Education (ox 34 Central Regional Office Salvatore D'Urso 1+'ODEN ACT 2600 226 Dandenong Road Editor : DISCOURSE EAST ST. KILDA 3182 Department of Education University of Queensland South Australia: New South Wales: St. Lucia, Queensland 4067 John Halsey Dr. F. Sharpe 17 Floor GPO Box 33 Education Centre SYDNEY NSW 2001 31 Flinders Street ADELAIDE 5000

49. SOME IMPRESSIONS OF COMMUNITY EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES By: Terry Tierney Deputy-Principal The Parks Community Education Centre, South Australia

The title of this paper is midleading in that my impressions are based primarily upon my experience in the State of Michigan. It would be very unwise Terry Tierney's article was first to generalise for the entire country on the basis published in Cоп unity Education of knowledge of one state: probably more so than No. 3 Autumn 1980, the journal of to regard a state such as Victoria or Queensland the School and Community Unit of as representative of Australia. Despite this the Education Department of South disclaimer, I do believe there are some general- Australia. We thank both Terry and the Unit for permission to isations which can be made with reasonable accuracy. reprint it.

The public schooling system in the USA is impinged The Community Education journal has upon by three levels of government, but, unlike the just resumed publication. The Australian scene, local government is the most editors are looking for suggestions significant of the three levels. The state and and contributions (particularly of federal governments make a substantial financial the case-study type). commitment to the support of the public schooling system. Such support is often by way of tied So, if you need more information grants and serves as a level to promote certain about the Unit or you have any bright philosophies or to force implementation of ideas or articles, contact: government policies or court decisions. Kevin Griffiths School & Community Consultant In most cases the local school authority still has Central Western Regional great freedom in the determination of policies and Education Office, programmes; even to the extent of refusing federal Mary Street or state funding in some instances. It was my PENNINGTON, S.A. 5013 impression that more and more local bodies were bending to the will of the state and federal bodies which had control of large and more flexible funding I have raised this issue because, with few exceptions, sources. During the period of my stay a number I gained the impression that much of what was done in of local authorities had encountered financial the name of community education was motivated by difficulties and were being bailed out by state economic considerations. This impression was and, more often, by federal supports. It seemed crystalised by a visit to the City of Flint, Michigan, probable that in such cases control would pass to which is acknowledged by most Americans as the birth- the body with the funding responsibility. place of community education in their country.

50. In the depression years of the 1930's Charles engaging of people to conduct such activities. Stewart Mott, a wealthy industrialist, began While I consider such a person to be vital to the committing large sums of money to enable the success of any community education venture I am greater use of school (and other community) convinced that other factors are equally vital. facilities for, at that time, primarily physical recreational activities. Too often there was very little evidence of other members of staff having any commitment to or Gradually the movement broadened to encompass involvement with the community education programme. recreational, cultural and educational activities This resulted in a situation where the entire with the underlying assumption that involvement programme revolved around the community school would eventually result in a R-ocess which would coordinator and would collapse if that person produce "better" citizens. ceased his or her employment. I did suspect that in many cases the community school coordinators Just prior to my visit the directors of the were deliberately seeking to make themselves foundation established by C.S. Mott' announced that indispensable as a ploy to safeguarding their funds would no longer be granted automatically to positions. the Flint school system. In the preceding 10 years the city of Flint, with a population of less than In most cases in Michigan i felt that the "Fourth 200,000 had received $US 96 million to support Friday Count" was the most insidious factor in the community education. struggle being conducted in the field of community education. Because of state involvement in the The withdrawal of the funds had resulted in the funding of community education most school systems retrenching of many community school coordinators in Michigan were structured to ensure maximum and the cessation of virtually all programmes in funding through the relevant grants. schools where this had happened. To my way of thinking this was what would happen in most other The grants themselves were based primarily on a per cities in Michigan if funding was cut or drastically capita funding formula, with the amount being reduced. The depressing feature of the exercise, determined by the number of participants on the rolls however, was that, where such cuts were made, there on the fourth Friday of each month. This resulted in was often very little of lasting value to show for practices which bore the name of community education the ten years' funding. but which were in effect struggles to get maximum enrolment and thereby attract greater state funds In many of the Michigan school systems the community which in turn could supplement other school school coordinator is the person responsible for the programmes. promotion of programmes and activities and the There was very little concern with the quality of the courses ("give the suckers what they want") and almost no concern with the broader philosophical 1. In the Mott Foundation expected to 1977/78 reasons for extending educational opportunities commit some $US 30 million to "Community Education" or promoting community development. projects.

51. This is not to say that there were not some out- standing examples of community education. In a state of over 9,000,000 people where nearly every school is involved in community education in some form or other, there must be some successes.

1 was more interested in trying to analyse why the failures occurred and i believe it comes down to three factors:

* Community education is a concept. It is not a programme; it is not a curriculum; it is a philosophical approach to education and indeed to living. Unless a person has some form of commitment to that philosophy, long lasting results are unlikely.

* While a community school coordinator is vital and even essential, that person must not work in isolation from the staff and must not become indispensable. All staff and eventually all community members should be committed and involved and the coordinator should see his or her job as being self destructing within 3-5 years. The good programmes are those which continue despite changing personnel.

* The philosophical basis of the process needs to be very clear or the whole issue can easily be side-tracked. I believe this has happened in Michigan. Too many people are wrestling with the "how" before considering the "why".

52. LATE SUPPLEMENT

A REPLY TO MARGARET CLARK'S EVALUATION

by Garry Donnelly. 3. The description of Jervis Bay Village is incorrect. Only 8 of the 26 households had been Garry was Principal of Jervis Bay Primary School in Jervis Bay for more than four years and three from January 1976 to December 1979, and, although of these were the Aboriginal families who "moved not at the school diwing the actual imp Zementation there recentl ". of Ann Nugent's curriculum project, had supported у Ann's work through its earlier stages. He here However, rather than dwell on these minor points records his response to Margaret Clark's article ( ••1'•)7 ',' I'd prefer to attempt to defend the school and I eSGG pp. .L' -V1/ . staff from those sections of the evaluation which do not do credit to, or truly represent, the practices of the school during the period 1976-1979.

One could. quibble over a few inaccuracies in While 1 was not at Jervis Bay for Ann's project of Margaret Clark's evaluation of Ann Nugent's 1974 1 did hear various parental comments about it Jervis Bay/Wreck Bay Innovations Project, such as - and at times my decisions were affected by those comments. Also, I was not at Jervis Bay when Ann's 1. Clark's evaluation reports the Wreck Bay project was put into practce but I was there for the residents as being critical of their own teachers developmental period of the project from February who "denigrated them because they were Aboriginal". 1979 to December 1979. I was assured on a number of occasions that the education experienced by the children at Jervis During my first year at Jervis Bay School, I became Bay Primary is very different from that received aware that the school's curriculum didn't truly cater by the adult residents in that theirs consisted for the needs of the Aboriginal children from Wreck of whatever the settlement manager offered. Such Bay. Already Ann's project of 1974 had been undertaken managers were not normally trained teachers. but there was a residual of resentment among some white parents concerning that project and so caution was necessary before another project could be undertaken. 2. The 1976 incident of "Captain Cook's landing" seems incompletely reported. 1 had been informed Then in 1978, Ann approached me and outlined her plans by staff involved that the Aboriginal children had for her project, which I felt was commendable for a requested to be cast as the natives. Could the number of reasons:- teacher have afforded to have ignored such a _ request? Was the dispute over the word "primitive"? 1 It provided an opportunity for positive input by the Aboriginal children. They would have the prior knowledge thus strengthening their feeling My experience with the parent groups over the four of worth. years suggests to me that Clark's view is that of the outsider, visiting the school briefly and lacking 2. The Wreck Bay community, by providing the back- important and relevant background. As principal of ground material, may see that it has a positive the school I'd had to deal with a variety of people contribution to the school. wanting to photograph or write about Aboriginal children as exhibits, rather than as pupils at an 3. It appeared to avoid some of the elements which integrated school. Even the Department of Aboriginal had been unacceptable to some of the white Affairs caused embarrassment to Aboriginal children, community after 1974. other pupils and those adults who watched a most ill- conceived episode on the school oval. Parents were 4. The material was educationally sound, innovative made aware of these inappropriate episodes and they and Ann had the interest of the Wreck Bay would be more likely to discuss such matters rather community at heart. than the more delicate matters of black-white relationships, or the academic side of the project. When .the project was first mentioned to parents in 1979, I tried to assure them of the worth of the CONSTRAINTS research and materials. I felt that Jervis Bay School, as the only ACT school with a considerable Clark reports that the picture which came through to Aboriginal enrolment, had a responsibility to co- the innovator at this point (1976) was that (inter operate with innovators and researchers in worth- alia): while projects not only for that school but for schools elsewhere. In her evaluation Margaret "The school completely failed to recognize Clark asserts: the cultural diversity of the student population." • "the aspect most approved of was that the materials were thoroughly researched, well 1 dispute this view. During my time at Jervis Bay produced and funded by the Schools Commission - the publicly expressed and practised policy of the that is they were respectable and good for school was one of social equality. In fact when white the image of the school. parents felt that the Aboriginal children were being granted privileges, some were quite vocal in their .there was a feeling of relief that this criticism. However, the staff recognized the lack of innovation would not disrupt the school's equality of educational opportunity between the black daily routine." and the white children, caused by the general lack of traditional educational experience of the black parents. She then comments: We endeavoured to lessen this gap by attempting to make the early years more practical, introduction of the "The last two points were those that were voiced Mount Gravatt Language Scheme and other practices,but more generally. It is clear that what were really were faced with the constraints of lack of communication the extraneous features of the curriculum were between the school and the Wreck Bay community and the those that mattered most to the community." staffing constraints imposed by a generally unsympathetic schools system. COMMUNICATION of Vanzetti.

Despite these staffing constraints, efforts were made As I argue against the lack of recognition of to improve communication between the school and the diversity, I dispute the assertion that "the school community. Some examples are: operated on a cultural deficit model (the problem is theirs, not ours)". The problem was theirs a) ly meeting with parents at Wreck Bay to and ours, but how was it to be overcome without discuss what they wanted for their children help? from the school. b) Attendance in my own time at the Wreck Bay STAFFING CONSTØINT library to encourage children to use this facility. Although the community had a Until 1976 there was no special class for children part-time paid librarian, the facility was unable to cope with the general academic stream. little used. After the class was set up, Aboriginal children were represented in that class more than they were in the с) Our continued efforts to resume the homework total school population. It was hoped that a part of classes at Wreck Bay. the special teacher's time would have been spent d) Regular informal discussions with.the working with the Aboriginal parents at Wreck Bay recognized male leader of the Wreck Bay but despite our efforts such a staffing arrangement community. was not forthcoming. In fact, during one period the school, despite the special needs of the Aboriginal e) Each Wreck Bay household was invited to a pupils, was approximately 1.5 staff members below special display mounted by Alex Barlow of another school of equal size in Canberra. the Aboriginal Institute of the Jervis Bay School. The response was nil. Further, little regard to permanency was paid when staff was appointed to the school. Without some At my early meeting with the Wreck Bay parents degree of permanency it was not likely that any I was told that they were generally satisfied with worthwhile staff project could be undertaken within the school, as they did later in A Survey of Parent the school or an understanding developed by teachers. Opinion at the Jervis Bay Primary School by Noel Vanzetti, 1978. It has been noted by Kevin Lay and While I applaud Ann's efforts and appreciate the need Ann Nugent that Aboriginal parents have ambivalent for continued debate over questions related to attitudes to schooling but the problem remains - educational equality, I feel that any criticism must how can the school provide for the needs of their take into account the practical constraints placed on children if they won't express these views except those schools being evaluated. when political "clout" is sought?

I also believe the Wreck Bay response was more forceful * * * * * * * * with Clark and Nugent than with Vanzetti because they were offered a more sympathetic view of their "situation" than the anonymous, objective methodology

iii

Library Digitised Collections

Author/s: Pope, Beverley

Title: School and Community news, Volume 4, no. 2

Date: 1980

Persistent Link: http://hdl.handle.net/11343/115650