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Caseyrthesis.Pdf (5.347Mb) ICANN or ICANN’t Represent Internet Users Rebecca E. Casey Thesis submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In Political Science Karen M. Hult, Chair Charles E. Walcott Brent K. Jesiek August 21, 2008 Blacksburg, Virginia Keywords: ICANN, descriptive representation, substantive representation, formal representation, Internet users, ICANN Board of Directors ICANN or ICANN’t Represent Internet Users Rebecca E. Casey ABSTRACT The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is the organization that provides the technical support for the Internet. ICANN is a nonprofit organization based in California and is under contract to the United States Department of Commerce. It has come under attack from many sides because it is contracted through the U.S. government and it is a private entity. One of the main components of the controversy surrounding ICANN is whether it can represent a global society as a private entity and whether that private entity can represent Internet users. I focus my study on ICANN’s Board of Directors. I evaluated the Board on the dimensions of descriptive, substantive, and formal representation (Pitkin 1967). Evaluation of ICANN’s descriptive representation focused on the Board members’ sex, educational backgrounds, and nationalities and compared the geographic representation on the Board to the global distribution of Internet users. The assessment of substantive representation looked at the Board members’ votes to determine if patterns could be viewed based on members’ descriptive characteristics. Finally, the evaluation of ICANN’s formal representation examined its Bylaws, its 2006 contract with the U.S. Department of Commerce, and the California Nonprofit Public Benefit Corporations Code. The analysis found that the descriptive representativeness was low. The ICANN Board does not mirror Internet users: few women have served on the Board, those with technical educational backgrounds dominated, and the regions were not represented proportionate to their use of the Internet. Analysis of substantive representativeness was inconclusive and further investigation is needed. The formal representation analysis suggests that the ICANN Board has been formally representative. iii CONTENTS ACRONYMS……………………………………………………………………… vi FIGURES AND TABLES ……………………………………………………….. vii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION……………………………………………. 1 Introduction………………………………………………………………… 1 ICANN……………………………………………………………………... 2 Significance of the Research……………………………………………….. 3 Thesis Research……………………………………………………………. 5 Overview…………………………………………………………………… 6 CHAPTER TWO BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNET AND THE CREATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ICANN………………………………………... 7 Introduction..................................................................................................7 History of the Internet……………………………………………………… 7 2.1 ARPANET……………………………………………………… 7 2.2 Commercialization of the Internet……………………………... 11 2.3 Creation and Implementation of ICANN………………………. 13 ICANN……………………………………………………………………... 16 2.4 From White Paper to ICANN…………………………………... 16 2.5 Representation Is Expected…………………………………….. 17 2.6 A Series of Key Policy Decisions……………….……………… 18 CHAPTER THREE REPRESENTATION AND METHODOLOGY.……….. 36 Introduction...................................................................................................36 Representation……………………………….……………………………… 36 3.1 Board Emphasis………………………………………………... 36 3.2 Descriptive Representation.……………………………………. 37 3.3 Substantive Representation ……………………………………. 41 3.4 Formal Representation………………………………………… 42 3.5 Other Criteria of Representativeness………………………….. 42 Methodology………………………………………………………………. 43 3.6 Descriptive Representation……………………………………. 43 3.7 Substantive Representation……………………………………. 45 3.8 Formal Representation………………………………………… 48 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS..………………………………………………….. 56 Introduction..................................................................................................56 Descriptive Representation………………………………………………… 56 4.1 Sex……………………………………………………………… 57 4.2 Educational Background………………………………………. 58 4.3 Region………………………………………………………….. 58 4.4 Sex Composition of the Board over Time……………………… 59 4.5 Educational Background of the Board over Time……………... 60 4.6 Regional Composition of the Board over Time………………… 61 4.7 Regional Comparison………………………………………….. 62 4.8 Limitations……………………………………………………... 63 iv 4.9 Summary……………………………………………………….. 63 Substantive Representation………………………………………………… 64 4.10 Sex…………………………………………………………….. 64 4.11 Educational Background……………………………………... 65 4.12 Regions………………………………………………………... 73 4.13 Limitations……………………………………………………. 77 4.14 Summary……………………………………………………… 79 Formal Representation……………………………………………………... 80 4.15 Limitations……………………………………………………. 82 4.16 Summary……………………………………………………… 82 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION…………………………………………......... 84 Introduction………………………………………………………………… 84 Summary of Findings………………………………………………………. 84 Future Studies................................................................................................ 85 Recommendations and Suggestions for ICANN…………………………... 87 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………. 89 APPENDIXES…………………………………………………………………….. 90 A1: ICANN Organization………………………………………………….. 90 A2: Past and Current Board Members According to ICANN’s Website….. 91 A3: How I Determined Board Members and Terms………………………. 93 A4 : ICANN 1998-2008…………………………………………………… 95 A5: Board Members and Assumptions about Last Obtained Degrees…….. 99 A6: Board Members’ Nationalities………………………………………… 100 A7: ICANN Placement of Countries into Regions………………………… 107 A8: Numbers of Internet Users by Country (CIA Fact Sheet)……………... 114 A9: Numbers of Internet Users by Country and ICANN Region………….. 122 A10: Total Number of Board Resolutions Adopted, 1998 to 2007………... 128 A11: Adopted Resolutions Excluded from Analysis………………………. 129 A12: Non-Unanimous Adopted Resolutions Examined…………………… 131 A13: Total Number of Adopted Resolutions by Vote Category…………… 133 A14: Board Duration (in days)…………………………………………….. 134 A15: Members from the North American and Asian Pacific Regions by Nationality………………………………………………………………….. 135 A16:“Western” and “Non-Western” Board Members by Nationality……... 136 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………. 137 v Acronyms ALAC- At-Large Advisory Committee APNIC- Asia Pacific Network Information Center ARIN- American Registry for Internet Numbers ARPA- Advanced Research Projects Administration BWG- Boston Working Group ccTLD- Country Code Top Level Domain DNS- Domain Name System DNSO- Domain Name System Organization GAC- Governmental Advisory Committee GSI- Government Systems Inc gTLD- Generic Top-Level Domain gTLD- MoU- Generic Top-Level Domain Memorandum Understanding IAB- Internet Activities Board IAHC- International Ad Hic Committee IANA- Internet Assigned Numbers Authority IETF- Internet Engineering Task Force IFWP- International Forum on the White Paper INTA- International Trademark Association IP- Internet Protocol ISI- Information Sciences Institute ISOC- Internet Society ITAA- Information Technology Association of America ITAG- IANA Transition Advisors Group NIC- Network Information Center NomCom- Nominating Committee NSF- National Science Foundation NSI- Network Solutions, Inc NTIA- National Telecommunication and Information Administration RFC- Request for Comments RIPE NCC- Reseasux IP Europeen RIR- Regional Internet Registry RSP- Resolution Services Provider SLD- Second-Level Domain SPSS- Statistical Package for Social Sciences SRI- Stanford Research Institute sTLD- Sponsored Top Level Domain TCP/IP- Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocols TLD- Top-level Domain UDRP- Uniform Dispute Resolution Policy URL- Uniform Resource Locator WG-C- Open-Working Group WIPO- World Intellectual Property Organization WITSA- World Information Society WWW- World Wide Web vi Figures and Tables Table 1: Boards’ Terms…………………………………………………………… 56 Figure 1: Males and Females on ICANN Board, 1998-2007……………………… 57 Figure 2: Education of ICANN Board Members, 1998-2007……………………… 58 Figure 3: Regions Represented by ICANN Board Members, 1998-2007…………. 58 Figure 4: Sex Composition of ICANN Boards over Time………………………… 59 Figure 5: Educational Backgrounds of ICANN Board Members over Time……… 60 Figure 6: Technical versus Non-Technical Educational Backgrounds of ICANN Board Members over Time………………………………………………………………... 60 Figure 7: Regional Composition of ICANN Boards over Time…………………… 61 Figure 8: Regional Representation: Comparing Internet Users with the Averages of Board Members from 2005 to 2007………………………………………………………. 62 Figure 9: Educational Background and Votes on Adopted Resolutions on gTLDs.. 65 Figure 10: Technical versus Non-Technical Educational Background and Vote on Adopted Resolutions on gTLDs…………………………………………………… 65 Figure 11: Educational Background and Vote on Adopted Resolutions on ccTLDs 66 Figure 12: Technical versus Non-Technical Educational Background and Vote on Adopted Resolutions on ccTLDs…………………………………………………... 66 Figure 13: Educational Background and Vote on Adopted Resolutions on sTLDs.. 67 Figure 14: Technical versus Non-Technical Educational Background and Vote on Adopted Resolutions on sTLDs……………………………………………………. 68 Figure 15: Educational Background and Vote on Adopted Resolutions on Representation……………………………………………………………………… 69 Figure 16: Technical versus Non-Technical Educational Background and Vote on Adopted Resolutions on Representation……………………………………………
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