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“A Great Leap Forward:” Department-Building in the Sciences at Duke University and Medical School

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“A Great Leap Forward:” Department-Building in the Sciences at Duke University and Medical School Amit Patel/1 “A Great Leap Forward:” Department-Building in the Sciences at Duke University and Medical School Amit Patel 2005 – 2006 Senior History Honors Thesis Advisor: Dr. Sy Mauskopf Amit Patel/2 “A Great Leap Forward:” Department-Building in the Sciences at Duke University and Medical School Senior History Honors Thesis Amit Patel Advisor: Dr. Sy Mauskopf Table of Contents Thesis Acknowledgements …3 Thesis Introduction …5 Chapter One: Blazing a Path for the Duke Sciences The Department of Chemistry at Duke University Under Drs. Paul Gross and Marcus Hobbs (1920 – 1954) …13 Chapter Two: Taking Duke Medicine to New Heights The Department of Biochemistry at the Duke University School of Medicine Under Dr. Philip Handler (1950 – 1969) …50 Chapter Three: Growing into Chaos The Department of Anatomy at the Duke University School of Medicine Under Dr. J. David Robertson (1966 – 1988) …84 Thesis Conclusion …123 Thesis Bibliography …135 Amit Patel/3 “A Great Leap Forward:” Department-Building in the Sciences at Duke University and Medical School Senior History Honors Thesis Amit Patel Advisor: Dr. Sy Mauskopf Acknowledgements First and foremost I must thank my mentor and advisor Sy Mauskopf for his guidance and support and being the incredible individual that he is. Without him, I would not even be majoring in history, let alone writing an honors thesis. Without him, I would be neither the scholar nor the person I am today. Janet Ewald, my thesis seminar professor, helped guide my investigations, gave important feedback on my writing, and kept me motivated throughout the academic year to put forth my best on this project. Alex Roland, my departmental advisor, helped convince me to write a thesis and provided valuable help in the early stages of brainstorming. I must also thank Elizabeth Fenn, Barry Gaspar, Vasant Kaiwar, Michael McVaugh, Laura Schlossberg, Adam Seipp, and the rest of my history professors who have fostered my interest in history and my skills in historical investigation and writing. I could not have carried out this project without the help of the Duke University Archives staff, especially Tom Harkins and Tim Pyatt. They guided me as I waded through boxes and boxes of archival materials and pointed me onto further resources. Tom, in particular, provided a constant source of support and advice for a year-and-a-half throughout my project. Likewise, my project would have been impossible without the help of the Duke University Medical Center Archives staff, especially Russell Koonts, Emily Glenn, and Jessica Roseberry. They helped point me to the multitude of valuable resources available there and made sure that the many afternoons I spent there were informative and Amit Patel/4 helpful. Moreover, Barbara Busse at the History of Medicine Collections at the Duke University Medical Center Library helped me in the later stages of my project. I must also thank the individuals who took the time to talk with me about their respective departments: Cary Gravatt and Marcus Hobbs for Chapter One; Irwin Fridovich, Robert Hill, and K.V. Rajagopalan for Chapter Two; and Nell Cant, Bill Hylander, Rich Kay, and Psyche Lee for Chapter Three. These conversations helped me humanize the chairmen beyond what I learned from archival materials and afforded insight into the charismatic human beings they were. After all, individuals are what history is all about. Finally, I would not be where I am today if not for the sacrifices and support of my parents and grandparents. They have always stood behind me in every decision I have made and every endeavor I have undertaken. I can never thank them enough for who they are and what they have done. My sister Meenal and my girlfriend Seema have also stood behind me every step of the way; they are the two people who believe in me the most. And last but not least, I must thank God for giving me the opportunities that I am blessed to enjoy. Amit Patel/5 “A Great Leap Forward:” Department-Building in the Sciences at Duke University and Medical School Senior History Honors Thesis Amit Patel Advisor: Dr. Sy Mauskopf Thesis Introduction If someone had suggested in 1920 that a prominent scientific center could be built in the Southern United States, he or she would have been laughed at. At that time, the South lagged far behind the North in terms of higher education, especially science. For just under a century, since about 1830, Southern higher education had mirrored the withdrawal of the South from the primary currents of American intellectual life. However, 1920 marked a watershed in Southern higher education.1 Although higher education in the South may still lag behind higher education in the nation as a whole by most metrics of quantity and quality, it has come a long way and narrowed this gap since the early 20th century.2 All within the two decades after 1920, the University of Virginia appointed its first president, the University of North Carolina emerged on a national stage, Vanderbilt University freed itself of its sectarian ties, Emory University moved to Atlanta, the Rice Institute opened in Houston, 1 Cartter, Allan M. “The Role of Higher Education in the Changing South.” The South in Continuity and Change. Eds. John C. McKinney and Edgar T. Thompson. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1965: 277 – 297. Cartter divides the history of higher education in the South into three periods: 1694-1830, when collegiate education garnered respect and grew, 1830-1920, when Southern higher education mirrored the withdrawal of the South from the primary currents of American intellectual life, and 1920-present, when the growth of major universities in the South headlined an emergence of education. Although Cartter’s groupings oversimplify the important developments that necessitate subdivisions within his third period, his approach is useful because it marks 1920 as the turning point when Southern higher education began its rise. 2 Blackwell, Gordon W. “Higher Education in the South in the Next 20 Years.” The Future South and Higher Education. Atlanta, GA: Southern Regional Education Board, 1968: 69 – 116. Amit Patel/6 and the University of Texas started developing strong graduate programs.3 Until this time, most Southern universities had considered themselves primarily undergraduate institutions, serving a “distinctly regional character and tradition.” Soon afterwards, however, this self- perception began to change and these institutions began to strive to become places of excellence in terms of national, not regional, standards.4 By the 1960s, a historian of science wrote about the “ever-accelerating emergence of major universities [in the South] whose remarkable, even explosive development” pointed forward to the next decades when “a number of first-class centers of excellence” would develop in the South.5 His prediction rang true, as Duke led a group of Southern institutions –including Vanderbilt, North Carolina, and Emory- into the upper tiers of American higher education by the 1980s. Focusing on Duke, my thesis is a pioneer study of the rise of Southern contributions to science. It explores how Duke, a small Southern university, achieved such scientific prominence in a relatively short period (1920 – 1988) by tracing four entrepreneurial, charismatic individuals and the science departments they chaired at Duke University and Medical School. Although my story is driven by these four individuals, it steps back to acknowledge the layers of context surrounding them and their departments. The University itself provides one setting. At Duke, battles were fought in the late 1950s over whether Duke should remain a regional institution dedicated to teaching or aspire to national prominence and research excellence, a struggle that has become known as the Paul Gross- Hollis Edens Affair. Moving outwards to the North Carolina Piedmont in the 1960s, 3 Cartter, Allan M. “The Role of Higher Education in the Changing South.” The South in Continuity and Change. Eds. John C. McKinney and Edgar T. Thompson. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1965: 277 – 297. 4 Pollard, William G. Atomic Energy and Southern Science. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 1966: 11. 5 Pollard, William G. Atomic Energy and Southern Science. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 1966: 9. Amit Patel/7 Research Triangle Park, now one of the world’s foremost science/industrial centers, emerged in the fields and pine woods bounded by Chapel Hill, Raleigh, and Durham. Marcus Hobbs, a Duke chemist, played a crucial role in this endeavor. On the broader, Southern level, the civil rights movement and desegregation, which swept over Duke in the early 1960s, changed perceptions of the South as a backwards place. And on a national level, World War II sparked government support for science, which Paul Gross and Philip Handler –respectively, former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and former president of the National Academy of Sciences—sought to sustain. This government support, especially from the National Institutes of Health, facilitated the emergence of the “big science” characterized by larger labs and more expensive equipment. The 1924 bequest of James B. Duke “created overnight the potential for a great private university.”6 By the 1980s, Duke University had developed in this remarkably short time from a regional college of modest pretensions into a research-oriented institution of international renown. Also by this time, the Duke University Medical School had undergone a similar transformation, pushing from its relatively recent beginnings in 1929 into the upper tiers of medical schools across the nation. During this “great leap forward,” which was far from inevitable, Duke relied upon the leadership and contributions of many administrators and faculty to realize the potential of Duke’s original bequest. Among the individuals vital to its extraordinary development stand those often overlooked amidst the long shadows of the Dukes and Duke’s presidents: the scientists who built and developed their respective academic departments.
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