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Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Volume 54 Article 12 Issue 4 December Winter 1963 Physiological Prinicples of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Frank R. Dutra Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc Part of the Criminal Law Commons, Criminology Commons, and the Criminology and Criminal Justice Commons Recommended Citation Frank R. Dutra, Physiological Prinicples of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning, 54 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 513 (1963) This Criminology is brought to you for free and open access by Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology by an authorized editor of Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. POLICE SCIENCE PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING FRANK R. DUTRA Frank R. Dutra, M.D., is Pathologist, Eden Hospital, Castro Valley, California, and Associate Clinical Professor of Pathology, University of California Medical School, San Francisco. Dr. Dutra is a Diplomate of the American Board of Pathology in Anatomical Pathology and Forensic Pathology, and was formerly Associate Professor of Forensic Pathology, University of Cincinnati Medical School, and Pathologist for the Coroner of Hamilton County, Ohio. Dr. Dutra has served as an Associate Editor of this Journal for a number of years and is the author of more than sixty publications on pa- thology and legal medicine.-EDITOR "But the carbon monoxide, in displacing the air is as rapid as the flow from the alveoli into the oxygen that it had expelled from the blood, blood. The time required for the blood to reach remained chemically combined in the blood ... this state of equilibrium is essentially identical at so that death came through death of the mole- different concentrations of carbon monoxide in the cules of blood, or in other words by stopping atmosphere when the rate and depth of respiration their exercise of a physiological property es- are constant. sential to life". Claude Bernard (1813-1878) When a person inhales air containing carbon This statement, first printed a century ago, indi- monoxide, the quantity of this gas passing into cates the earliest understanding of the fact that the blood and combining with hemoglobin before the primary toxic effect of carbon monoxide de- equilibrium is established depends upon the partial pends upon the ability of the gas to combine with pressures of carbon monoxide and oxygen and on hemoglobin and to interfere with the transport of the relative affinity of hemoglobin for each of the oxygen by hemoglobin throughout the body. All two gases. With the relative affinity of human other results of carbon monoxide poisoning are hemoglobin for carbon monoxide and oxygen es- secondary to the reduction in the supply of oxygen tablished as 210:1, if the concentration of carbon to the tissues during the period of intoxication. monoxide in the air is known, it is possible to The combination of hemoglobin and carbon predict by the formula of Sayers and Yant (2) the monoxide is entirely reversible, and neither the proportion of hemoglobin that will be combined hemoglobin nor the erythrocytes are damaged by with this gas when equilibrium is attained: an interlude of carbon monoxide transport. % Hb combined with CO ABSOREpT0N or CARBON MON0XIDE aCO X tCO During the early part of a period of exposure to (aCO X tCO) + (aOs X tO.) X 100 carbon monoxide, about half of the total quantity a = relative affinity of Hb for the gas of the gas which enters the lungs passes across the t = percentage of the gas in the alveolar alveolar walls into the blood. It enters the erythro- air cytes and combines with hemoglobin to form Thus, a concentration of 0.05 percent (500 p.p.m.) carboxyhemoglobin, a compound structurally anal- of carbon monoxide in the pulmonary air (which ogous to oxyhemoglobin (1). contains approximately 15 percent of oxygen), As more and more of the hemoglobin combines would result in an equilibrium at which about 41 with carbon monoxide, the rate of retention of the percent of the hemoglobin would be in combination inhaled carbon monoxide diminishes considerably. with carbon monoxide: After a time, for any given sublethal concentration % Hb combined with CO of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere, the concen- tration of the gas in the blood will reach an 210 X 0.05 equilibrium with that of the atmosphere, so that (210 X 0.05) + (1 X 15) X 100 the flow of the gas from the blood into the alveolar - 41.2% FRANK R. DUTRA [Vol. 54 The blood of a resting human being who is obtained by multiplying the square meters of exposed to a low, constant concentration of carbon body surface by 3; the body surface area can be monoxide will reach half the final saturation in obtained by conversion charts from height and approximately 47 minutes, and will be maximally weight or may be calculated by the DuBois saturated for this atmospheric concentration at method.) approximately 5 hours after the start of the ex- A nomogram developed from human experi- posure (3). Experiments indicate that when the mental data by Forbes, Sargent, and Roughton (1) concentration exceeds 0.07 percent (700 p.p.m.) of graphically depicts the rate of absorption of carbon carbon monoxide in the atmosphere the rate of monoxide from air containing various concen- rise of blood concentration toward saturation may trations of the gas, and this permits easy estimation be somewhat more rapid (4). Equilibrium will be of the concentration of carbon monoxide in the reached more rapidly in the blood of small mam- blood at any time during a period of exposure when mals which have a high rate of respiratory exchange the atmospheric concentration of carbon monoxide per unit of body weight (5). is known (Fig. 1). The rate of absorption is greatly increased by physical activity, the resting rate being approxi- COMBINING WITH HEMOGLOBIN mately doubled during moderate exercise such as walking, and tripled during heavy exercise (4). Each molecule of hemoglobin can combine with Even though the final equilibrium is the same, from one to four molecules of either oxygen or regardless of the rate with which it is achieved, carbon monoxide. However, hemoglobin has a the person who is engaged in some physical activity much greater affinity for carbon monoxide than is more likely to suffer injury from carbon mon- for oxygen, accounting for the harmful effects of oxide than is one exposed to the same atmosphere carbon monoxide when the ratio of carbon mon- at rest. The reasons for this are that the former will oxide to air is relatively low. In 1929, Sendroy, attain maximal saturation more rapidly, thereby Liu, and Van Slyke (7) observed a constant re- suffering a longer period of oxygen deficiency to lationship between the affinity of human hemo- his tissues, and that the oxygen requirement of his globin for carbon monoxide and for oxygen, this tissues is greater because of his activity. relationship being 210:1. In none of their de- An equation that has proved to be of practical terminations was the variation from the average value for calculating the rate of absorption of greater than -2.5 per cent. A number of samples carbon monoxide has been presented by Pace, of ox blood were also examined, and a relationship Consolazio, White, and Behnke (6). Its validity of 179:1 was constant with bloods from 10 different is said to be high until the concentration in the oxen. blood has reached one-third of the predicted The differential affinity of hemoglobin for two equilibrium for the concentration under consider- gases is the ratio between the partial pressures of ation; as the concentration in the blood increases the gases that will saturate the hemoglobin to the beyond this, the rate of uptake of carbon monoxide same degree with each. This ratio can be ascer- diminishes considerably so that the formula is not tained empirically by mixing the two gases (each at a known partial pressure) with a solution of applicable. Assuming that the blood contains no hemoglobin, after which the concentrations of carbon monoxide when the exposure begins, the oxyhemoglobin and carboxyhemoglobin are de- calculation is as follows: termined. % Hb combined with CO aCO HbCO X p0 Relative affinity of hemoglobin: -C = HbO X pC0 % CO in Air X Minute Volume X Exposure Time a2 HbO2XpCO 46.5 X Blood Volume As an examr-le, consider that after a mixture of X 10,000 oxygen at a partial pressure of 28 mm. Hg and (The minute volume is the volume of respiration carbon monoxide at a partial pressure of 0.133 in liters per minute, corrected to S.T.P.; ex- mm. Hg attains equilibrium with a solution of posure time is the duration of exposure in human hemoglobin, exactly 50 percent of the minutes; blood volume is expressed in liters, and hemoglobin is combined with oxygen and 50 for the purposes of this calculation it may be percent with carbon monoxide. Then, applying 19631 CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING ~;~7 C~Jj~4 ~jI 0, *1 1 ~) 410 II ..... do-?561 3?-8 % I'M ",0 24.6% A *1 24.6 Co~bb 2E •aluo*t ttc . C..... t-M 14.0% Minuts of i IonsureA icordinoto Scales fio~n Relow 2o 250 - ---- - -- 6-==----- ---- 'Rest Pdlse 70 Lt. Act. Pulse 80 2O0 2- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Lt Work Pulse 110 0 30- 0 600 Hd Work - - - --- --. Pulse355 FIGUREn 1 the 20 minute line are 20 minutes. The equilibrium values which each curve approaches and which would Nomogram for estimating human rate of absorption at infinite time are indicated after the final blood concentration of carbon monoxide be reached and symbol "t = 0".
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