Tricky Representations: Buddhism in the Cinema During Socialism in Mongolia
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Tricky Representations: Buddhism in the Cinema during Socialism in Mongolia Manduhai Buyandelger Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Mass. (USA) The socialist state regarded religion as an venues. The idea that all societies go through obstacle to modernization and an opiate of the the same stages of development once masses. From late 1937 through early 1939, propagated by the European enlightenment Mongolia eliminated religion along with the theorists was reinforced in Mongolia as a part intelligentsia, the upper classes, and political of socialist revolution in the 1921 and leaders. In the span of about 18 months, 800 subsequent nation-building processes. Buddhist temple compounds (5,953 buildings) Ideologically, religion was seen as a remnant became ash heaps [Fig. 1]. Of 85,000 lamas, of the past and primitive superstition that 20,356 were killed and the rest were jailed, impeded modernization and progress. In order sent to labor camps, or forced to adopt lay to succeed the socialist state needed devoted professions. By 1939 there were no official and dutiful followers who believed in the categories of religious practitioners registered ideology of socialism and nothing else. The state in the census, and Mongolia became a classless sanctioned mass media and art to shape and atheistic society (Baabar 1996). people’s minds, to produce culture that would transform the populace from devoted Buddhist to atheist citizens of a modernizing socialist country. Yet the making of anti-religious propaganda films was a complex task and required an immense creativity on the side of the filmmakers. That is because Buddhism was not just a spiritual domain, but a complex cultural mechanism through which people made sense of their daily lives, maintained family memory, and constituted a core of individual and national identity. In order to eliminate religion in its Copyright © 2004 Daniel C. Waugh entirety, the state needed to create new Fig. 1. The ruins of the Manjir Monastery, Tuv aimag. identities and tools that substituted for religion. In other words, the elimination of religion was Yet the destruction of the tangible structures as much an act of destruction as an attempt at of Buddhism did not eliminate religion from the the creation of a new culture. The filmmakers’ people’s minds. While the state was able to tasks therefore were more complex than it was eradicate the public practices of religion — its originally perceived. Many films inevitably institutions, ceremonies, and overall presence offered a redefined understanding of religion, in major events — it was also paranoid, and history, and national identity that were beyond rightly so, about the existence of religion in the mandate and the expectations of the state. private spaces and belief, an intangible entity The anti-religious propaganda art had to create that could challenge the power of the secular something new that was equally if not more state. The people’s beliefs were the hardest to convincing and truthful than religion. The change. Aware of that, the socialist state socialist government was attempting to alter delegated the task of eradicating religion from the minds of the Buddhist nation that had been the minds of people to cultural production: to shaped for almost three centuries in a matter literature, arts, and cinema amongst many other of a few decades. Therefore, in order to The Silk Road 6/1 (2008), pp. 54-62 54 comprehend the specific creativity on the side battle to win the devotions of the populace, of the filmmakers in representing a redefined Buddhism had been transformed to fit the understanding of Buddhism beyond a simplistic expectations of the Mongols and replaced magic atheistic message, it is helpful to revisit briefly rituals, oral narratives, medicine, theatrical the penetration of Buddhism to Mongolia. performances, and many other venues of social life. It took several hundred years, violent and Buddhism’s path in Mongolia peaceful measures, creative remodeling of existing rituals, eco- Buddhism in Mongolia nomic and legal sup- fought a centuries-long port by the local battle with the local princes and the insti- shamanic and other tutions of Dalai Lama folk religious practices and many other ways in order to become a for Buddhism to be- major religion, one that come a major religion. also carries local By the end of the variations. It is known 19th century, there that Buddhism was were about 800 introduced to Mongolia monasteries and over th in the 13 century to a hundred thousand the ruling elite. lamas in a country Although it did not with a population of spread among the less than 700.000 larger populace, dif- Copyright © Copyright 2005 Daniel C. Waugh people. The history ferent local branches of Fig. 2 (above). Mannequins of the 8th books indicate that a Buddhism, mostly Jebsumdamba Khutugtu or Bogdo Khan (1870- son from every family different versions of 1924), the theocratic ruler of Mongolia, and his wife became a monk the Red Hat sect, (the Dondogdulam (1870-1923). National Museum of (Heissig 1980). Be- Nya-ma-pa sect) Mongolian History, Ulaanbaatar. sides being almost the seeped over the border sole spiritual force, the Fig. 3 (below). The winter palace of the Bogdo Khan. from Tibet and de- Buddhist church also posited its specific Painting by B. Sharav? (copy by D. Djadambaa), early 20th century. Museum of Fine Arts, became the main teachings and practices Ulaanbaatar. economic and political in various corners of power in the country. Mongolia. Thus, often different The local monasteries owned monasteries in various locations large portions of land and had maintained their specific livestock. And the monarch, the local and historical identities and Holy Enlightened Bogdo Khan became integrated with the oral [Figs. 2, 3] was more of a histories of the local population. spiritual leader than a political The Red Hat sect is also seen as one. More specifically, the third a derivative of Bon-po, Tibetan Dalai Lama requested that the shamanism. Its resemblance Mongol khans destroy onggots with Mongolian shamanism, (the images and figures that especially rituals of possession, represented shamanic spirits) also made it popular among and punish shamans and their ordinary people. clients by taking away their Since the 17th century, the livestock (Heissig 1980). To Copyright © Copyright 2005 Daniel C. Waugh Yellow Hat sect of Mahayana attract believers, the lamas took Buddhism began its mass conversion with on the roles of shamans by offering the rituals support of the institution of the Dalai Lama in of healing, magic, and exorcism. The latter were Tibet, the ruling elite of Mongolia, and the adopted from Bon-po (Tibetan shamanism) Manchu Qing colonial administration. In its where the lama oracles go into trance and were 55 meant to substitute for Mongol previously arrested had to be shamanic spirit possession. released after only a year The Buddhist missionaries also because of ‘unrest among the replaced the functions of people’ over his incarceration” shamans by incorporating the (Damdinsüren et al. 2005, p. rituals of worship of mountain 102). Perhaps the most telling cairns (ovoos) [Fig. 4], and by phrase between Stalin and introducing various deities Genden that encapsulates the who protect livestock and life. power of the Buddhist church Buddhism also offered in- is the following. In an interview dividual identifications with in 1934 with Genden, then the the personalized Lamaist prime-minister of Mongolia, deities which replaced the Stalin noted “It looks as if there shamanic guardian spirits and is a state (uls) within your ancestors. The lamas taught state. One government is tarani (magic spells) for Genden’s government. The individuals’ protection, de- other is the lama’s. But the struction of evil, good luck, lama’s government is strong” and healing of illnesses. For © Copyright 2005 Daniel C. Waugh (Damdinsüren et al. 2005, p. each illness and body organ Fig. 4.The top of a Mongolian 102). ovoo, incorporating a Buddhist there was a separate tarani. Eradicating religion from Lamas prescribed healing prayer flag and the Wheel of the Law. the people’s minds packages consisting of taranis, herbal medicine, and rituals of cleansing and Besides the devotion on the side of the deflection that the clients could perform at populace, there were other problems in home. Buddhism promulgated itself as a more representing Buddhism in a negative light. The advanced spiritual practice as it operated not writers and producers of movies operated within through the spirits of the deceased or animals an extremely narrow cultural space under heavy and nature, but by communicating with gods censorship; the state allowed only a few and deities (sahius). The missionaries prohibited stereotyped images in the literature and films shamanic blood sacrifice as cruel and barbaric, about the socialist revolution in 1921 and the and instead, propagated Buddhism with its dairy following struggle for nation-building. The offering as a more humanistic, gentle, and images included the Buddhist lamas as superior practice. Unlike in shamanism, which counterrevolutionaries, as the upper-class only has a celestial realm, Buddhism’s upper exploiting ordinary herdsmen, and amoral and (heaven) and lower world (hell) were meant to hypocritical individuals who indulged in sex, induce terror among non-believers. deception, and corruption. The top clergy were By the early 20th century, Buddhism became cruel terrorists (eserguu), bandits, betrayers of so strong that the Revolutionary Mongolian the nation, allies with Chinese politicians and government did not even consider abolishing it rich merchants. Most importantly, in the films until the Soviet leaders pushed them to do so. on revolution, the lamas used the most sadistic In his paper about the measures that the state tortures towards the revolutionaries. The most took to pave its road to violence in 1937 and horrific image is one of lamas worshipping their thereafter, anthropologist Chris Kaplonski banners with a heart that was pulled out while (2008) notes that the Mongolian government the victim was still alive.