Participation in Voluntary Youth-Serving Associations and Early Adult Voting Behavior N

Participation in Voluntary Youth-Serving Associations and Early Adult Voting Behavior n

Michelle L. Frisco, University of Wisconsin; Iowa State University Chandra Muller, University of Texas Kyle Dodson, Indiana University

Objective. We investigate adolescent membership in voluntary associations and whether participation in these activities influences voting behavior during early adulthood. Methods. Weighted logistic regression models predicting membership in voluntary associations and voting behavior were estimated using data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988–1994 (NELS). Results. Our findings suggest that membership in voluntary associations varies by race and socioeconomic status (SES). In addition, membership in organizations historically rooted in moral development and civic socialization positively predict voter-registration status and whether or not young adults participated in the first national election that they were eligible to vote in, but this relationship is moderated by both race and SES. Conclusions. Our findings suggest that a large proportion of U.S. teenagers still participate in community-based programs, many of which foster later civic participation, but that all youth do not equally benefit from participation.

Voluntary institutions form a foundation for democracy by promoting civic participation (Tocqueville, 1945). Putnam (1995) argues that the ero- sion in the family and community resulted in a decline in shared activity that fosters civic socialization. It is generally accepted that membership in certain voluntary associations has declined, but there is disagreement about the nature of the decline and whether it indicates communitywide decreases in civic activity (Putnam, 1995; Ladd, 1999; Wuthnow, 1997). Ladd (1999) argues that this concern is overstated, and that children and adolescents still participate in voluntary organizations not represented in most trend

nDirect correspondence to Michelle Frisco, Robert Wood Johnson Health and Society Scholar, Population Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin, 707 WARF Building, 610 N. Walnut St., Madison, WI 53726-2397 [email protected]. Frisco will share data and coding materials with those wishing to replicate this study if proof of authorization from the National Center for Education Statistics to use restricted use data from the National Ed- ucation Longitudinal Study is shown. This research was partially funded by the REU program at the Population Research Center (PRC) at the University of Texas at Austin (UT) and by grants from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Grant R01 HD40428-02, Chandra Muller (PI) and the National Science Foundation, Grant REC- 0126167, Chandra Muller (PI).

SOCIAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY, Volume 85, Number 3, September 2004 r2004 by the Southwestern Social Science Association Early Adult Voting Behavior 661 analyses. Wuthnow (1997) contends that participation declines are con- centrated primarily in marginalized segments of the population. Our study is motivated by these conﬂicting arguments and concern for youths’ civic socialization. We explore which adolescents participate in youth-serving organizations and then assess whether membership in these associations is related to voting behavior in early adulthood, an excellent barometer for the climate of our democratic political life. Further, we posit that the effects of participation on voting behavior may vary according to the emphasis of the organization and that membership may not inﬂuence all adolescents uniformly. This study considers multiple youth-serving associations outside of school: scouts, religious youth groups, nonschool team sports, 4-H, YM/WCA, and boys’ and girls’ clubs. These organizations take varying approaches to youth socialization and have historically served different social classes and racial groups (Fine, 1987; Gustav-Wrathall, 1998; MacLeod, 1983; Putney, 1997; Platt, 1969). Nonetheless, each one strives to help youth develop social skills, focuses on community involvement, and emphasizes responsible and pro-social behavior (UCLA Partnership for Prevention, 2003).

Youth-Serving Organizations

Voluntary youth-serving associations originally garnered public support because of the ways that they socialized youth. The Boy Scouts of America (BSA) first found favor among middle-class parents seeking supplemental moral development for their sons (MacLeod, 1983), while the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) provided facilities and programs for unat- tached young men viewed as a threat by society. Thus, the BSA served children of community supporters, while the YMCA maintained a quality of life in communities through social control of outsiders (Gustav-Wrathall, 1998). Today, there is still widespread backing of these institutions. For instance, Californians recently approved Proposition 49, ‘‘The After School Educa- tion and Safety Program Act of 2002,’’ which will provide funding to these types of organizations because of the benefits attributed to membership (Brown et al., 2002; U.S. Department of Education, U.S. Department of Justice, 2000). The voluntary associations we investigate have public images that reflect their historical roots, and each promotes moral and civic responsibility. Scouting organizations emphasize recreation, leadership, and character building. Nonschool sports organizations, such as Little League, aim to build character and patriotism through team participation (Fine, 1987). 4-H offers diverse community and after-school programs aimed at youth development and positive ties to the community and adults. Members also participate in civic-minded efforts such as the ‘‘Take Your Kids to Vote’’ campaign (Council for Excellence in Government, 2002). The organization 662 Social Science Quarterly and structure of religious youth groups varies, but most encourage pro-social activities and community volunteerism (Smith et al., 2002). The YMCA offers several programs, many of which target at-risk children and teens (YMCA of the U.S.A., 2002). Similarly, the Boys, and Girls, Clubs of America—initiated by members of the 19th-century child-saving movement who created social programs to help morally deficient and delinquent children (Platt, 1969)—also targets disadvantaged youth, but provides programs that offer members positive opportunities (Sweet, 1991). The organizations above have similar missions and each claims to serve all children and teens (Zald and Denton, 1963; YMCA of the U.S.A., 2002; MacLeod, 1983; Marriott, 1994; Parenti, 1993; Sweet, 1991; Mullin, 1996; Taylor, 2002). However, historically, scouting organizations, Little League, and 4-H primarily served privileged and white youth (Howard, 1987; Main, 1991; Moses, 1993; Gelman and Gordon, 1991); and YM/WCA and Boys’ and Girls’ Clubs of America mainly served disadvantaged and minority youth (Binfield, 1973; Platt, 1969). We evaluate whether the populations these organizations currently serve still vary according to race and social class. These institutions are important resources for young people’s socialization, especially during early adolescence. During this critical stage in development, young people’s identities are shaped, they gain independence from parents, and their peers in schools and other social institutions influence them more (Marks and Kuss, 2001). In addition, most adolescents attend middle school at this time, a key transitional period between the nurturing elementary school setting and the more demanding high school years when most extracurricular activities take place within schools. The nonschool voluntary organizations that we investigate provide connections to extra-familial adults and mentors who offer supervision, guidance, and pro-social norms for behavior, may shape adolescents’ identity (Guest and Schneider, 2003), promote adoption of organizational values and morals (Eccles and Barber, 1999; Snyder and Spreitzer, 1992), and ‘‘have a history of giving youth meaningful experiences that have long- lasting political impact’’ (Youniss et al., 2002:142). Thus, we hypothesize that membership in youth-serving associations shapes early adult civic participation.

Youth-Serving Organizations and Early Adult Voting Behavior

Among the voting age population, voter turnout in presidential elections has declined from 63 percent in 1960 to 49 percent in 1996 (Federal Election Commission, 2002). Eighteen to twenty year olds are consistently less likely to be registered voters and to vote in presidential elections (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000b). Only 48 percent of 18–20 year olds were registered to vote and only 39 percent voted for president in 1992, the election year our study investigates (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000b). Early Adult Voting Behavior 663 Minority and lower-class young adults were even less likely to participate in the political system in 1992. About half (51 percent) of white, compared to 43 percent of African-American and 23 percent of Latino/a U.S. 18–20 year olds were registered to vote at this time. Similarly, 41 percent of whites voted compared to 32 percent of African Americans and 16 percent of Latino/as (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000b). Young adults from poor and less-educated backgrounds were also less likely to have voted in the 1992 election (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000b). Miller and Shanks (1996) argue that a generation’s initial voting trends have long-term consequences for the entire population’s turnout rates. De- clining political participation for 18–20 year olds over time and lower rates of political participation among racial minorities and those with fewer resources suggests the importance of analyzing factors that influence this generation’s political behavior. Participation in school-based activities indicates a normative orientation and is associated with young adults’ voting behavior (Youniss et al., 1999). Adults who were involved in student government and debate club (Beck and Jennings, 1982; Youniss, McLennan, and Yates, 1997), and community service projects in high school (Youniss et al., 1997) are more likely to be voters. Instrumental extracurricular activities (those that are a means to a specific end), like student council and debate, predict civic participation better than participation in activities with self-gratification as a main pur- pose, such as band, orchestra, and varsity athletic teams (Glanville, 1999). These studies indicate that school-based activities continue to impact in- dividuals’ behavior during early adulthood. We know less about the ways that membership in nonschool organizations affects young adults’ civic participation. This is an oversight since young people develop a ‘‘sense of citizenship’’ during adolescence (Conover and Searing, 2000). In addition, these institutions are embedded in the community and were founded to help teenagers become responsible citizens, as discussed above. We expect that adolescents’ participation in nonschool voluntary associations impacts later civic engagement, but that some clubs may have a greater influence than others. Associations that historically promoted moral and civic responsibility may be more likely to influence civic participation than those that promoted social control. Membership in individual youth-serving associations may not contribute to later civic participation among all teens equally. As stated above, voluntary organizations originally targeted youth from specific racial and socioeconomic backgrounds, but the clubs we examine have made well- publicized outreach efforts to different segments of the youth population. For instance, the Boy and Girl Scouts of America have specifically targeted African-American and low-income youth (Gelman and Gordon, 1991; Moses, 1993; Mullin, 1996; Parenti, 1993; Taylor, 2002). No research of which we are aware assesses whether these efforts have improved civic participation among all teenagers, or whether membership 664 Social Science Quarterly may benefit some adolescents (such as those in socioeconomic and racial groups that organizations originally targeted) more than others. Youth-serving community associations that promote civic participation may help bridge the gap in voting trends between white and minority young adults and those from different socioeconomic backgrounds if the effects of participation on voting are uniform. However, these organizations typically draw homogeneous participants from geographic areas that may be racially or economically segregated, which calls into question whether the experiences teens have in the clubs and, consequently, their effects are similar.

The Current Study

This study uses data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988–1994 (NELS) to examine who participates in scouts, religious youth groups, nonschool team sports, 4-H, YM/WCA, and boys, and girls, clubs. We then estimate whether voluntary association membership is related to two measures of civic participation—voter registration status in 1992, the year of the ﬁrst presidential election in which our sample was eligible to vote, and whether respondents voted in that election. Finally, we test whether relationships established between voluntary association participation and voting behavior vary by race or SES.

Data and Sample

The NELS is a nationally representative, longitudinal sample of 24,599 eighth graders from 1,057 schools that provides rich data to study citizenship development (Marks and Kuss, 2001). Students were first surveyed in 1988 and were followed up in 1990, 1992, and 1994. In 1988, students were asked about participation in outside-school activities. In 1994, respondents were asked about 1992 voting behavior. Our analyses are confined to the 10,839 U.S.-born respondents of white, African-American, Latino/a, or Asian/Pacific Islander descent who were at least 18 years old in 1992, participated in the 1988 and 1994 surveys, and reported participation in nonschool extracurricular activities in 1988 and voting behavior in 1992. All analyses are weighted using the base year/third follow-up weight and are adjusted for design effects as suggested by Ingles et al. (1994). This method allows researchers to correct for inflated standard errors that may result from the hierarchical nature of the NELS (in the NELS sample design, students are nested in schools, so students within a school are more alike than one would find in a random sample). It also helps to correct for sample selection resulting from attrition. Nonetheless, some groups—particularly racial minorities, those who lived with a single mother in eighth grade, who lived in the Northeast, or who were from urban Early Adult Voting Behavior 665 areas—may be underrepresented. Readers should consider these sample limitations when interpreting results.

Measures

All measures in our study except for voting behavior in 1992 and early academic attainment come from data collected in the 1988 student base year survey. The 1994 third follow-up surveyed respondents about their 1992 voting behavior, when almost all of the young adults (99.67 percent) were ﬁrst eligible to vote. Readers should note that African Americans and more highly educated Americans tend to overreport voting (Silver, Anderson, and Abramson, 1986). Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for all variables in our analyses.

Participation in Voluntary Organizations

In 1988, respondents reported whether they were a member or officer in: (1) scouting, (2) religious youth groups, (3) nonschool team sports, (4) boys’ and girls’ clubs, (5) 4-H, (6) YM/WCA, JCC, or other youth groups, or (7) other youth groups. We could not discern what activities were included in the category ‘‘other youth groups.’’ Thus, we focus on the first six and treat this measure as a control for participation in other types of nonschool-based programs. If respondents reported officer or member status in any of these organizations, they are coded as a participant. Otherwise they are coded as a nonparticipant.

Voting Behavior

Our two self-reported measures of voting behavior, registration and whether respondents voted in the 1992 presidential election, indicate involvement in the ﬁrst election in which most were eligible to vote. A larger proportion of our sample reported being registered voters and voting in the 1992 election than in the population of the United States as a whole, most likely because we excluded respondents born outside of the United States and because politically active young adults were more likely to be retained in our sample.

Race

Students self-reported being white, African American, Latino/a, or Asian/ Pacific Islander. We create dummy variables from these reports that compare minority youth to whites. 666 Social Science Quarterly TABLE 1 Weighted Descriptive Statistics

Mean/Proportion (SD) Voting behavior, 1992 1992 voter registration status 0.707 Voted in 1992 presidential election 0.486 Participation in youth organizations, 1988 Scouts 0.128 Religious youth groups (Relig.) 0.337 Nonschool team sports (Sports) 0.373 4-H 0.092 YM/WCA 0.144 Boys’ and girls’ clubs (B&G clubs) 0.090 Participation in other nonschool activities 0.520 Ofﬁcer in voluntary association 0.106 Other school-based extracurricular activities (#) 3.085 (2.561) Race (ref. 5 white) 0.779 Asian/Pacific Islander (API) 0.021 Latino/a 0.088 African American 0.112 Female 0.513 SES (ref. 5 2nd quartile) 0.225 1st quartile 0.245 3rd quartile 0.254 4th quartile 0.276 Family structure (ref. 5 lives w/mother & father) 0.680 Lives w/mother only 0.147 Lives w/father only 0.028 Lives w/mother & male guardian 0.118 Lives w/father & female guardian 0.027 Lives in other family structure 0.030 Urbanicity (ref. 5 suburban) 0.431 Urban 0.242 Rural 0.327 Region (ref. 5 Northeast) 0.197 Midwest 0.280 South 0.346 West 0.177 Academic attainment High school graduate 0.896 College enrollment (ref. 5 none) 0.394 Enrolled in 2-year college 0.288 Enrolled in 4-year college 0.321 n 5 10,839

SOURCE: NELS. Early Adult Voting Behavior 667 SES

The NELS includes an SES quartile variable created from family income, parents’ education level, and occupation. Dummy variables compare SES in the ﬁrst, third, and fourth quartiles to second quartile SES.

Control Variables

To model voluntary association membership and voting behavior we control for youths, sex, family structure, and the urbanicity and region of their eighth grade school. Our models of voting behavior include the above measures and respondents’ ofﬁcer status in voluntary associations, participation in school-based extracurricular activities (a count of how many), 1992 high school graduation status, and college enrollment after graduation.

Analytic Plan

To begin, we analyze who participates in each organization by regressing voluntary association membership on race, SES, and control variables using weighted logistic regression models. Using the same method, we then predict our measures of voting behavior using a series of nested models. The baseline model includes voluntary organization participation only. Model 2 includes officer status and participation in other nonschool and school-based extracurricular activities. This allows us to test whether relationships found between voluntary association membership and voting behavior are ex- plained by participation in extracurricular activities in general or intensity of involvement. In Model 3, we control for race, SES, gender, family structure, urbanicity, and region to ensure that significant findings are not attributable to respondents’ demographic or community background. A fourth model includes measures of academic attainment because of well-established relationships between it and voting behavior (Verba and Nie, 1972; Wolfinger and Rosenstone, 1980). We constrain models predicting whether respondents voted to registered voters (n 5 7,751). We use interaction terms to evaluate whether relationships between voluntary association membership and voting behavior vary by race and SES. Due to space constraints, we show adjusted probabilities representing these variations. Models used to produce these estimates are available on request. We use the program Amelia to impute missing values of independent variables. Amelia calculates replacement values using a multiple imputation model that is based on an adapted EMis algorithm. Additional informa- tion about this method and the program Amelia can be found in Honaker et al. (2003) and King et al. (2001). Other methods of accounting for 668 Social Science Quarterly missing values, including mean and mode substitution and listwise deletion, produced similar results to those presented here.

Results Participation in Voluntary Organizations During Eighth Grade

Odds ratios in Table 2 suggest that adolescent membership in six voluntary associations varies by race and SES. No minority teens are as likely as whites to participate in religious youth groups. In addition, Latino/as are less likely to participate in scouting and 4-H, and both Latino/as and Asian/ Pacific Islanders are less likely than whites to participate in nonschool team sports. Conversely, African-American teens are 75.7 percent more likely than white teens to participate in YM/WCA and both Latino/as and African Americans are more likely to participate in boys’ and girls’ clubs. African Americans are also predicted to be 44.6 percent and 49.8 percent more likely, respectively, to participate in scouting and 4-H than their white counterparts. SES is also related to teens’ voluntary association membership. Those whose SES is in the highest quartile (the fourth) are predicted to be more than 24 percent more likely to be scouts, twice as likely to belong to religious youth groups, 26.2 percent more likely to be on nonschool sports teams, and 71.5 percent as likely to participate in 4-H than teens with an SES in the second quartile. Those in the third quartile are also more likely than those in the second quartile to participate in religious youth groups. Teens with an SES in the ﬁrst quartile are estimated to be less likely to participate in religious youth groups, nonschool team sports, and YM/WCA programs, but they are more likely to participate in 4-H.

Voluntary Associations and Voting Behavior

We now turn to models estimating voting behavior, shown in Table 3. Odds ratios in Column 1 suggest that membership in scouts, religious youth groups, nonschool team sports, and 4-H are positively related to voter registration status. The positive and significant predicted effects of membership in these organizations remain (although odds ratios for all associations are reduced, with the exception of 4-H, which has a larger estimated effect) even after we control for other measures of voluntary association involvement, sociodemographic background, and academic attainment (see Columns 2, 3, and 4). The last four columns of Table 3 present models estimating the likelihood of voting for president in 1992 among registered voters. Column 5 indicates that junior high school membership in scouts, religious youth groups, and al dl oigBehavior Voting Adult Early

TABLE 2 Odds Ratios from Weighted Logistic Regression Models Predicting Participation in Voluntary Youth-Serving Organizationsa

Scouts Relig. Sports 4-H YM/WCA B&G Clubs Race API 0.915 0.707 n 0.706 n 0.666 0.937 1.377 Latino/a 0.784 n 0.734 nnn 0.831 n 0.615 nn 1.060 1.441 nn African American 1.446 nn 0.762 nnn 1.014 1.498 nnn 1.757 nnn 2.850 nnn SES 1st quartile 0.839 0.758 nnn 0.717 nnn 1.235 n 0.831 n 1.197 3rd quartile 0.972 1.345 nnn 1.065 1.115 0.951 0.846 4th quartile 1.245 nn 2.134 nnn 1.305 nnn 0.715 nn 1.097 0.851 Intercept 1.672 nnn 1.386 nnn 0.028 3.105 nnn 2.036 nnn 2.583 nnn (0.095) (0.073) (0.066) (0.131) (0.093) (0.115) Likelihood ratio 231.374 nnn 749.739 nnn 472.387 nnn 396.022 nnn 111.444 nnn 222.003 nnn df 17 17 17 17 17 17 n 5 10,839 npo0.05; nnpo 0.01; nnnpo 0.001. aAll models control for gender, family structure, urbanicity, and region. SOURCE: NELS. 669 TABLE 3 Quarterly Science Social 670 Odds Ratios from Weighted Logistic Regression Models Predicting 1992 Voting Behaviora

Registered to Vote in 1992 Voted in 1992 Presidential Election 12345678 Participation in Scouts 1.323 nnn 1.303 nnn 1.186 n 1.204 n 1.238 nn 1.187 n 1.192 n 1.201 n Relig. 1.451 nnn 1.397 nnn 1.288 nnn 1.173 nn 1.705 nnn 1.622 nnn 1.325 nnn 1.253 nnn Sports 1.386 nnn 1.324 nnn 1.173 nn 1.125 n 1.107 n 1.037 0.972 0.947 4-H 1.190 n 1.154 1.284 nn 1.349 nnn 0.843 n 0.790 nn 0.866 0.905 YM/WCA 1.050 1.008 1.043 1.069 1.071 1.009 1.054 1.069 B&G clubs 0.860 0.825 n 0.955 1.042 0.725 nnn 0.674 nnn 0.844 0.872 Officer status 1.002 0.971 0.970 1.227 n 1.266 nn 1.274 nn Race API 0.560 nnn 0.505 nnn 0.474 nnn 0.470 nnn Latino/a 0.958 0.954 0.687 nnn 0.663 nnn African American 1.118 1.087 n 0.847 0.823 n SES 1st quartile 0.735 nnn 0.858 n 0.532 nnn 0.605 nnn 3rd quartile 1.074 0.938 1.241 nn 1.132 4th quartile 1.697 nnn 1.240 nn 1.675 nnn 1.436 nnn Intercept 0.606 nnn 0.499 nnn 0.753 nnn 0.013 0.506 nnn 0.370 nnn 0.215 n 0.570 nnn (0.030) (0.038) (0.079) (0.099) (0.036) (0.046) (0.091) (0.127) Likelihood ratio 171.33 nnn 198.43 nnn 489.96 nnn 804.78 nnn 139.58 nnn 171.89 nn 595.76 nnn 714.59 nnn df 6 9 26 29 6 9 26 29 n 10,839 7,751 npo0.05; nnpo0.01; nnnpo 0.001. aModels 2 and 6 add controls for participation in other school-based activities, extracurricular activities, and officer status. Models 3 and 7 include variables from prior models and indicators of gender, family structure, urbanicity, and region. Models 4 and 8 include variables from prior models and controls for academic attainment. SOURCE: NELS. Early Adult Voting Behavior 671 nonschool team sports is positively related to voting, while 4-H and boys’ and girls’ club participation is negatively related to voting. Results in Column 6 indicate that officer status in a voluntary association increases the estimated odds of voting by 22.7 percent and that controlling for other measures of organization involvement explains the significant predicted effect of nonschool sports team membership. Sociodemographic controls, included in Model 7, explain the significant predicted effects of 4-H and boys’ and girls’ club participation, but the odds ratios for scouts, religious youth group participation, and officer status remain significant, even after we include academic attainment in our model (see Column 8). Note, though, that the predicted effect of religious youth group membership is greatly reduced.

Voluntary Associations, Race, and SES

Statistically significant interaction terms between participation in each voluntary association except scouts and young adults’ race and SES suggest that membership may have different effects on civic participation for youth from different backgrounds. Table 4 shows the adjusted probabilities of voter registration and voting by voluntary association membership for demographic subgroups. Whites and teens from families in the second SES quartile are more likely to be registered voters than African-American, Latino/a, and low SES teens who participated in religious organizations. Similarly, Latino/a and Asian-American nonschool team sports participants have lower probabilities of voting for president than their white counterparts. Likewise, the lowest SES youth who participated in sports were less likely to register to vote than those with an SES in the second quartile. Interestingly, the highest SES quartile youth who participated in sports had a lower probability of voting than their nonparticipant counterparts, though as a group they are still more likely to vote than teens whose SES is lower. Latino/a 4-H and boys’ and girls’ club members are less likely to vote than white members. Latino/a YM/WCA participants are also less likely to be registered voters than white participants.

Discussion and Conclusion

This study contributes to the literature on voluntary association membership and civic participation in several important ways. First, we examine whether current participation in youth-serving associations varies by race and SES to assess whether all teens equally access them. We also evaluate the relationship between membership in these organizations and early adult voting behavior so that we can better understand what types of activities promote civic participation among U.S. young adult citizens, the cohort of Americans least likely to vote (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000b). Finally, 672 Social Science Quarterly TABLE 4 Adjusted Probabilities of Being a Registered Voter or Voting for President (1992) by Eighth-Grade (1988) Voluntary Association Participation

Registered Voted Participant Participant Yes No Yes No Religious Youth Groups n Race White (ref.) 0.766 0.707 0.726 0.649 African American 0.730 0.744 0.638 0.636 Latino/a 0.701 0.716 0.538 0.603 SES 2nd quartile (ref.) 0.764 0.703 — — 1st quartile 0.682 0.690 — — Sports n Race White (Ref.) — — 0.711 0.683 Latino/a — — 0.531 0.630 API — — 0.402 0.578 SES 2nd quartile (ref.) 0.751 0.701 0.693 0.649 1st quartile 0.676 0.688 — — 4th quartile — — 0.717 0.758 4-H n Race White (ref.) — — 0.661 0.683 Latino/a — — 0.321 0.607 YM/WCA n Race White (ref.) 0.733 0.722 — — Latino/a 0.576 0.733 — — B&G Clubs n Race White (ref.) — — 0.638 0.684 Latino/a — — 0.379 0.608

SOURCE: NELS. we assess whether these associations vary by race or SES since voluntary associations have not historically targeted all youth equally but now claim to do so. Findings suggesting that Latino/as are less likely to participate in voluntary associations that have traditionally promoted moral and civic responsibility and served whites and the middle class are troubling given the expected U.S. population growth among this racial group (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000a). Conversely, results suggesting that African-American youth are more likely to participate in scouts, 4-H, and YM/WCA programs Early Adult Voting Behavior 673 imply that some organizations’ outreach efforts to this minority group may be working (MacLeod, 1983; Marriott, 1994; Parenti, 1993; Mullin, 1996; Taylor, 2002). Similar efforts might increase participation among Latino/as in the future. Adolescents’ membership in some voluntary associations promotes civic participation. Participation in scouts, religious youth groups, nonschool team sports, and 4-H positively predicts young adults’ voter-registration status, and scouting, religious youth group membership, and leadership positions in voluntary organizations are positively related to voting in a presidential election. These findings suggest that organizations with a historical mission of building moral and civic responsibility may do so more successfully than those without it. Future research should further explore the mechanisms behind relationships this study establishes, such as an organization’s ability to foster social capital, citizenship, and/or self-efficacy. Unfortunately, membership in most voluntary associations during adolescence does not appear to benefit all youth in the same way. Racial minorities—especially Latino/as—who participate in these organizations are not as likely as whites to take part in the democratic process during early adulthood. Additionally, the estimated effect of religious youth group and nonschool sports team membership is negative for low SES youth when compared to higher SES youth. Voluntary associations may offer dissimilar experiences to teens from different racial and socioeconomic backgrounds, at least in terms of promoting participation in democracy. The cultural context of families and communities in which they reside may also influence how voluntary organization membership influences civic participation among youth from different backgrounds. This seems particularly plausible given that Latino/as and Asian/Pacific Islanders (the two groups in our sample most likely to have ties to immigrant communities) who are members of voluntary associations are less likely to participate in the democratic process as young adults. The impact that youth membership in one voluntary association had on early adult voting behavior did not vary by race or SES. Scouting organizations seem to instill civic responsibility into all youth equally well. These findings suggest that organizations can make outreach efforts to underpriv- ileged young people while maintaining their historical mission. Other voluntary associations seeking to increase civic participation in general and among minorities in particular may want use the Boy and Girl Scouts of America as a model. We must note two limitations to our study and results. First, our findings are only applicable to middle school voluntary association membership. This is a critical time period in which to investigate membership and its effect on later civic participation, as noted above, but future research should explore membership trends and effects of participation during childhood and later in the teen years, since their influence could be dependent on youths’ developmental stage. 674 Social Science Quarterly Second, we cannot fully assess whether membership in the organizations examined here influences later voting behavior or if the association is spu- rious or due to selection effects. For example, students who are better in- tegrated into the community may be more likely to participate in these organizations and to vote as adults. Future research should continue to address the mechanisms that foster adult civic participation. Nevertheless, our findings contribute to a growing body of literature that assesses who participates in voluntary associations and the role these organizations play in fostering civic participation. Our results indicate that adolescents are involved in voluntary associations, as Ladd (1999) suggests, but that some marginalized youth are less likely to be members, as Wuthnow (1997) contends. In addition, involvement is related to later civic participation among young adults. Thus, Putnam’s (1995) concern over the negative effects of membership decline is warranted. Future studies must take the important next step of assessing reasons behind differential enrollment patterns and how these activities foster civic engagement. They will provide more answers about debates over membership trends in youth-serving institutions, the important role they may play in increasing U.S. citizens’ political involvement, and how they may better serve young people as they prepare for the transition to adulthood.

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