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Grace 105

The Political Philosophy of

Grace Lee and self-sufficiency; and a viable national defense system.3 Introduction This paper begins with a discussion of the The political philosophy known as juche three key components of the juche – became the official autarkic state ideology of the political, economic and military independence – Democratic People’s of Korea (DPRK) as promulgated by the DPRK. The second section in 1972.1 Although foreign scholars often describe is a discussion of the ideological origins of the juche as “self-reliance,” the true meaning of the juche philosophy, followed by a third section on term is much more nuanced. Il Sung the philosophical bases of the juche idea. The explained: paper concludes with an examination of juche as a political body of thought and an evaluation of Establishing juche means, in a nutshell, the success with which juche policies have being the master of revolution and responded to the political and economic realities reconstruction in one’s own country. This of . means holding fast to an independent position, rejecting dependence on others, Key Components of the Juche Ideology using one’s own brains, believing in The governing principles of juche were one’s own strength, displaying the clearly expressed by Kim Il Sung in a speech revolutionary spirit of self-reliance, and entitled “Let Us Defend the Revolutionary Spirit thus solving one’s own problems for of Independence, Self-Reliance, and Self-defense oneself on one’s own responsibility under More Thoroughly in All Fields of State Activities,” all circumstances. which he delivered to the Supreme People’s The DPRK claims that juche is Kim Il Sung’s Assembly on December 16, 1967.4 In it, he creative application of Marxist-Leninist principles declared that to the modern political realities in North Korea.2 Kim Il Sung and his son Il have …the Government of the Republic will successfully wielded the juche idea as a political implement with all consistency the line shibboleth to evoke a fiercely nationalistic drive of independence, self-sustenance, and for North Korean independence and to justify self-defense to consolidate the political policies of self-reliance and self-denial in the face independence of the country (chaju), of and economic stagnation in North build up more solidly the foundations Korea. Kim Il Sung envisioned three specific of an independent national economy applications of juche philosophy: political and capable of insuring the complete ideological independence, especially from the unification, independence, and and ; economic self-reliance prosperity of our (charip) and

1 , The Two (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1997), 401. 2 Yuk-Sa , ed. Juche! The Speeches and of Kim Il Sung (New York: Grossman Publishers, 1972), 157. 3 Tai Sung An, North Korea in Transition: From to Dynasty (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, c1983), 58-9. 4 Li, Juche, 149-206. Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs 106 The Political Philosophy of Juche increasing the country’s defense Sung was highly sensitive to the problems of capabilities, so as to safeguard the flunkeyism towards Moscow and and the security of the fatherland reliably by inevitable Marxist-Leninist dogmatism that he Korea our own force (chawi), by splendidly abhorred during his guerrilla days. In constructing embodying our Party’s idea of juche the socialist revolution in North Korea, he warned in all fields.5 that the North must “…resolutely repudiate the tendency to swallow things of others Chaju: Domestic and Foreign Independence undigested or imitate them mechanically.”8 The principle of political independence is one Furthermore, he claimed that his regime’s of the central tenets of juche ideology. With “success” was credited to the independent manner respect to international relations, the principles in which all problems were solved, conforming of juche stress complete equality and mutual Marxist-Leninist principles to the specific respect among . Furthermore, juche conditions of North Korea without altering their ideology asserts that every state has the right of fundamental substance. self-determination in order to secure the happiness Domestically, Kim asserted that it was and prosperity of its people as it best sees fit. These imperative to build internal political forces to political tenets – equal and non- ensure chaju. The pivotal factor in the success of intervention – would satisfy the fierce desire for achieving chaju would be the extent to which the respect and security of a small and weak nation- people rallied around the party and the leader Kim state such as North Korea. Il Sung, and later Kim Jong Il himself. This In practice, this political stance has caused insistence on internal unity of support, stemming North Korea to truly become a hermit kingdom perhaps from the elder Kim’s disgust with internal because of the huge stigma juche places upon factionalism before the Korean , conveniently cooperation with outside powers. According to helped to justify his consolidation of personal juche as interpreted by the DPRK, yielding to power. foreign pressure or tolerating foreign intervention would make it impossible to maintain chaju, or Charip: Economic Independence the defense of national independence and An independent and self-sufficient national sovereignty. This in turn would threaten the economy is necessary both in order to secure nation’s ability to defend the interests of the political integrity and to achieve national people, since political independence is seen as prosperity. Charip – economic independence – is being absolutely critical for economic self- seen as the material basis for chaju, or political sustenance and military self-defense. Kim Jong independence. Kim Il Sung feared that economic Il predicted that dependence on foreign powers dependence on foreign aid would render the state would lead to the failure of the socialist revolution a political of other countries. He believed in Korea.6; 7 that it would be impossible to successfully build Among countries that he considered socialist a socialist republic without the material and peers, such as China, the USSR, and several technical foundations that would come from an African countries, Kim Il Sung urged cooperation independent national economy. This economy and stressed the need for mutual support and would consist of a powerful base of heavy industry limited dependence. However, while with the machine-building industry at its core, acknowledging that it was important to learn from which would equip light industry, agriculture, the examples of other socialist countries, Kim Il transport, and all other branches of the economy.9

5 Li, Juche, 156. 6 Li, Juche, 157-8. 7 Jong Il Kim, Accomplishing Juche Revolutionary Cause (, D.P.R.K.: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1990), 47. 8 Li, Juche, 159. 9 Li, Juche, 160. Volume 3 | Number 1 | Spring 2003 Grace Lee 107

According to Kim Jong Il, Kim Il Sung: “We do not want war, nor are we Korea afraid of it, nor do we beg peace from the building an independent national imperialists.”12 The decidedly belligerent policy economy means building an economy of countering any perceived “imperialist moves which is free from dependence on of aggression and war” with was seen as others and which stands on its own feet, the best way to defend national independence and an economy which serves one’s own to win the revolutionary cause.13 The people and develops on the strength of implementation of this self-reliant defense system the resources of one’s own country and would involve the mobilization of the whole by the efforts of one’s people.10 country and the complete inculcation of ideology Independent food production was seen as being in the armed forces. Those who were not directly of particular significance because successful taking up arms were to contribute to the farming would provide the people with stabilized construction and maintenance of the domestic living conditions and means to independently defense industry and remain ideologically support themselves. Just as important to the prepared, so that the home front would be united survival and independence of the national in a sense of socio-political superiority.14 economy was the establishment of reliable and Although Kim Il Sung conceded that foreign independent sources of raw materials and fuel. support played a secondary role in the holistic Extensive modernization of the economy and war against foreign “imperialists” and training for technically-minded cadres were “aggressors,” he heavily emphasized that the considered indispensable for the construction of decisive factor would be the preparation of an independent national economy as well. internal domestic purposes.15 Thus he pledged the Kim Il Sung was careful to maintain that government to prepare the Korean people and the building an independent national economy on army thoroughly and ideologically to cope with juche principles of self-reliance was not war and to make full material preparations to synonymous with building an isolated economy. defend the country by relying on an independent Looking at the size of American aid to South national economy.16 Korea, which equaled its fledgling economy’s during the immediate Origins of the Juche Philosophy post-war years, Kim Il Sung recognized that North There are three major schools of thought Korea would not be able to survive without regarding the origins of the juche ideology. The significant aid from its communist sponsors. first of these is the instrumental perspective, Thus, he encouraged close economic and technical which emphasizes domestic and international cooperation between socialist countries and relations factors. The second perspective focuses newly-emerging nations as an aid in economic on the influence of traditional Korean politics. development and ideological unity.11 The last viewpoint considers juche to be original political thought stemming directly from the life Chawi: Military Independence experiences of Kim Il Sung. The last of independence is self-reliance in defense, a characteristic fundamental in juche Instrumental Perspective philosophy to an independent . The The instrumentalist viewpoint focuses on North Korean attitude towards military both domestic and foreign political factors as the confrontation was summed up in this manner by root of the juche ideology. Some scholars believe

10 Kim, Accomplishing, 48. 11 Kim, Accomplishing, 48-52. 12 Kim, Accomplishing, 53. 13 Kim, Accomplishing, 53. 14 Kim, Accomplishing, 52-5. 15 Li, Juche, 162. 16 Li, Juche, 163. Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs 108 The Political Philosophy of Juche that Kim’s unstable power during and - principles to pursue immediately following the caused capitalist gains.19

Korea him to deploy ideological in order to consolidate his political position, using the Traditional Political Culture juche principle of national solidarity as a The second perspective is more long-term domestic instrument of personal cult-building.17 and focuses on the influence of traditional To this end, Kim Il Sung forbade any other political culture in Korea. The scholars in this ideology from being discussed or taught in second camp argue that juche is a reflection of North Korea. Since the content and application a centuries-old tradition of independence from of the juche ideology were very ambiguous until foreign powers. Strategically located at a the late 1960s, Kim Il Sung was the only one peninsular tip of the East Asian , who could successfully wield and implement Korea has long been a pawn of contention the philosophy. Thus, implementing and between its two powerful neighbors, China and executing policies based on juche effectively . From the earliest recorded history, the consolidated Kim Il Sung’s absolute political Korean people have fought fiercely to maintain power and indirectly provided ideological their independence in the face of multiple justification for his dictatorship in North invasions by , Manchurians, Han Korea.18 Chinese and Japanese pirates and samurais. The Perhaps more saliently, juche as the sum total of these invasions may qualify Korea guiding principle of was utilized as the most oft-invaded territory in the . as a means of balancing power between the Under the Yi Dynasty, which ruled Korea from Soviet Union and China, and as a means to curb 1392 until the Japanese annexation in 1910, the Soviet and Chinese influence in the country. Korea became a highly defensive state with a Kim’s wariness of Sino-Soviet involvement in foreign policy of isolation towards the outside North Korean domestic affairs was exacerbated world. When Kim Il Sung came to power in by his personal dislike of the Soviets and the North Korea in 1945, he arguably reverted to country’s national inferiority complex towards the highly isolationist policies of pre-modern major powers. Kim became uneasy about the Korea. Soviet Union’s gradual movement towards Furthermore, this viewpoint encompasses with the in the exposition of juche as a brand of Korean the 1960s. However, because of the economic Leninist , a “creative adoption of and military aid Pyongyang was receiving from Marxism-Leninism” peculiarly suited to the Moscow, as well as Kim’s professed value for Korean situation, described by Kim Jong Il as unity in the Marxism-Leninism struggle against a difficult and complex revolution , North Korea continued to support which had to deal with the tasks of the Soviet positions on most issues. Gradually, anti-imperialist, national-liberation North Korea began to use the juche tenet of revolution, with formidable Japanese foreign non-intervention and national self- imperialism as the target, and those of determination as an ideological excuse for the anti-feudal, democratic revolution cordoning off its governance from Moscow and simultaneously.20 Beijing. Eventually, North Korea repudiated both the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic Baek Nam Un, a Korean sociologist who later of China as a socialist imperialist state, aided Kim Il Sung, said that the situation in accusing its leaders of abandoning pure Korea requires an independent and creative

17 Dae-Ho Byun, North Korea’s Foreign Policy (, R..K: Research Center for Peace and Unification of Korea, 1991), 55-6, 60. 18 Byun, North, 71-2. 19 Byun, North, 62-76. 20 Kim, Accomplishing, 18. Volume 3 | Number 1 | Spring 2003 Grace Lee 109 adoption of Marxism and Leninism, and a Philosophical Underpinnings of Juche Korea peculiar synthesis of nationalism and . Ideology Kim Il Sung himself said: The juche idea is a Weltanschauung, or world view, that affirms the penultimate value To establish juche is a question of of man’s interests. According to juche ideology, special importance for us in the light man has ultimate control over the world and of of our country’s geographical situation his own destiny because he alone has chajusong, and environments, of the peculiarities or creativity and consciousness. Adherents to of its historical development, and the the juche philosophy claim that this viewpoint complex and arduous of our of man as dominating and reshaping the world revolution. 21 is a unique contribution of juche ideology to Individualism: Kim Il Sung’s Original Thought the body of philosophical knowledge. Despite The third viewpoint is the North Koreans’ this claim to originality, there is nothing view of juche as a prime example of their late particularly revolutionary or novel in the tenets ’s brilliance of the juche philosophy. Kim and originality. This last group Il Sung’s policy stances on insists that juche was the “ KIM IL SUNG'S POLICY STANCES subjects such as the class ON SUBJECTS SUCH AS THE intellectual result of Kim Il CLASS STRUGGLE, THE IDEA OF struggle, the idea of the mass Sung’s highly exaggerated and THE MASS LINE, THE BELIEF IN line, the role of the single romanticized personal ONE'S OWN CAPABILITIES WERE great leader in history and the experience as a guerrilla ALL DRAWN PRIMARILY FROM importance of belief in one’s CHINESE AND EASTERN - fighting against the Japanese in PEAN THOUGHT. KIM IL SUNG'S own capabilities were all the 1930s. This immediate GENIUS LAY IN HIS ABILITY TO drawn primarily from attribution of juche to Kim Il FUSE THESE ELEMENTS TO- Chinese and Eastern Sung’s personal history is GETHER TO CAPITALIZE ON THE European thought. Kim Il NORTH KOREAN DRIVE FOR emphasized by his son and INDEPENDENCE. Sung’s genius lay in his heir Kim Jong Il in his book ability to fuse these elements . He argues ” together to capitalize on the that his father “put forward a juche-oriented North Korean drive for independence. line for the Korean revolution” and that “…this was a historical event which heralded the Debt to Maoist Thought creation of the juche idea and the birth of the Kim’s early knowledge of juche-oriented revolutionary line.”22 Kim Il came from the Chinese communist guerrilla Sung himself had at times maintained that the army with which he trained from 1935 to 1941. juche ideology grew out of two major During this time, he was tutored and influenced frustrations he felt with the Korean revolution by Wei Zhengmin, a superior Chinese political during the anti-Japanese struggle: first, the officer in his guerrilla group. While Kim never revolutionary vanguard had lost contact with acknowledged the extent of his subordination to the proletarian masses and were waging a and affiliation with the Chinese , theoretical battle without mass support; and many scholars contend that Kim was a member second, that “flunkeyism” – seeking Moscow’s of the CCP.24 By the end of the Korean War, favor – and factionalism were corrupting the Chinese influence in North Korea had overtaken revolution from the inside.23 that of the Soviet Union. Kim closely followed

21 Li, Juche, 157. 22 Kim, Accomplishing, 19. 23 Kim, Accomplishing, 18. 24 Byun, North, 62-3. Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs 110 The Political Philosophy of Juche ’s political thought and action, which Korea’s sole political philosophy by the DPRK in heavily influenced the development of the DPRK’s the early 1960s. Following this formal linkage of political institutions in the late and . the juche ideology with North Korean Korea One example of this emulation was the North nationalism, the inferiority implications of Korean strategy of Chollima Undong, which was acknowledging such a great debt to a foreign inspired by Mao Zedong’s leader was probably insurmountable both for the movement of 1958-1960.25 The multi-year consistency of the independent juche ideology and economic plans, stress upon rural self-sufficiency for Kim’s personal pride.30 and nationalistic and revolutionary fervor that inspired the Great Leap Forward are all Korean and Confucian Roots characteristics of the juche ideology of economic The juche ideology that is trumpeted by North self-sufficiency. Kim’s assertion that Korea as Kim Il Sung’s ingenious and original contribution to the body of political philosophy …if one lacks the revolutionary spirit is really drawn from a centuries-old tradition of of self-reliance, one will lose faith in Korean political thought. Kim himself has one’s own strength, fail to try to tap acknowledged that he drew the term and idea of the inner resources of one’s country, juche from Korean scholars in the early twentieth grow indolent and loose, and fall into century, who in turn drew inspiration from passivism [sic] and conservatism Confucian ideas dating back to the original state is highly reminiscent of the ’an era of the CCP, philosophy of independence espoused by Korean during which a belief in the power of the will to rulers. The tradition of strong nationalism among overcome seemingly impossible barriers was the Korean people coexisted with another tradition permanently embedded into Maoist thought.26; 27 called sadaechuii, in which the Confucian The underlying principle of the juche officials and educated elite groups jockeyed for ideology is the faithful application of Marxism- foreign support through sycophancy.31 Kim’s Leninism in a case-specific manner that would juche ideology may represent his reaction to the best suit the history, political conditions and slave mentality of sadaechuii as well as an current realities of the country. This theory of indebtedness to the original nationalistic strain different means to the penultimate goal of of Korean political culture. Aside from its communism was first stressed by Mao Zedong, tremendous appeal to the deep traditional Korean especially during the rectification campaign of antipathy towards foreign influence, juche serves 1942-44 on the need to “sinify” Marxism- to intensify the nationalism of the North Korean Leninism and halt the mechanical and dogmatic people, who are told that world acceptance of the Soviet model as the “universal originated from the Korean peninsula.32 truth.”28; 29 Thus, the main tenet of Kim Il Sung’s thought can be directly attributed and traced to Application to Society Mao. Indoctrination in juche ideology was seen as Despite the overwhelming evidence, Kim Il the primary concern in the revolutionary struggle Sung was never willing to publicly acknowledge for chajusong and the subsequent construction of his ideological debt to Mao, especially after the a socialist republic.33 Establishing a juche mindset institutionalization of the juche ideology as North meant the promotion of the attitude that the

25 An, North, 62-3. 26 Li, Juche, 160. 27 Kenneth Lieberthal, Governing China: From Revolution Through Reform (New York; : W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1995), 48-52. 28 An, North, 62. 29 Byun, North, 68-9. 30 An, North, 63. 31 An, North, 35-6. 32 Oberdorfer, Two, 19. 33 Kim, Accomplishing, 37. Volume 3 | Number 1 | Spring 2003 Grace Lee 111

Korean people could solve all of their problems expenditures, despite the famine sweeping Korea by their own talents and initiative. Cultivating through the populace. Due to the power and a sense of national dignity and revolutionary influence of one man, the Great Leader, the pride was especially important, as evidenced juche philosophy became inextricably by the great lengths to which cultural aspects embedded in the economic, political, military of North Korean life such as music and and cultural aspects of life in the DPRK. entertainment were monopolized and dictated by the Party under Kim Jong Il, Kim Il Sung’s Conclusion son and successor.34 Despite the repeated and strong The Kim Il Sung regime instructed the on juche’s loyalty to the principles of Marxism- North Korean people in the juche ideology Leninism, juche as philosophical thought does using an analogy drawn from human anatomy. not strictly adhere to Marxist-Leninist The Great Leader is the brain that makes principles as North Korea purports. First, the decisions and issues orders, the Party is the fundamental tenets of juche – that man is the nervous system that channels master of all things and information, and the people decides everything, and that an are the bone and muscle that “ MARX BELIEVED THAT ideological consciousness physically execute the FIGURES HAD NO CONTROL OVER determines human behavior in THE GENERAL TREND OF PRE- 35 orders. This belief system, DETERMINED HUMAN DEVEL- historical development – inculcated in North Koreans OPMENT, AND HE DID NOT GIVE contradict ’s since early childhood, made MAN AN EXALTED POSITION IN THE proposition of economic them docile and loyal to Kim HIERARCHY OF HISTORICAL determinism. Marx believed FACTORS OF IMPORTANCE. KIM IL Il Sung even in the face of SUNG, IN CONTRAST, SAW HIM- that individual figures had no and energy crises that SELF AS AN ABSOLUTELY ESSEN- control over the general trend have devastated the country. TIAL FIGURE IN THE STRUGGLE OF of predetermined human The juche ideology was THE WORKING MASSES AGAINST development, and he did not THE OPPRESSIVE MIDDLE CLASS. widely supported among the give man an exalted position in North Korean populace ” the hierarchy of historical because of the doctrine that the success of the factors of importance. Kim Il Sung, in contrast, socialist revolution depends upon the extent to saw himself as an absolutely essential figure in which the masses rally around and support the the struggle of the working masses against the . When Kim Il Sung unilaterally oppressive middle class.36; 37 declared juche to be the governing principle of Juche also diverges from Lenin’s focus on all aspects of North Korean life, as well as the the educating and organizing functions of the ideological basis of all state policies, the elite revolutionary vanguard. philosophy gained the full authority of Kim Il is inherent in the juche ideology because the Sung’s godlike status. Having established the guidance of an “exceptionally brilliant and infallibility of the juche philosophy and outstanding leader” is considered essential to consolidated their own political power, Kim Il the mobilization of the masses of the working Sung and Kim Jong Il were able to use juche class.38 Unlike Lenin, Kim Il Sung’s regime principles of self-sustenance and political and advocated a single leader-headed revolutionary military independence as justification for hierarchy rather than a core of outstanding and policies such as the routing of a huge percentage committed leaders to lead the revolutionary of national income towards military struggle.39

34 Kim, Accomplishing, 20-3, 42-4. 35 Oberdorfer, Two, 20. 36 Kim, Accomplishing, 28. 37 Byun, North, 87-8. 38 An, North, 57-63. 39 An, North, 61-2. Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs 112 The Political Philosophy of Juche North Korea’s preoccupation with Domestically, the juche idea has been used independence and its have engaged to legitimize Kim Il Sung’s of

Korea the country in a dangerous game of “Marxism-Leninism” and the consolidation of the with the United States. Over the Stalinist system under Kim Il Sung’s personal years, this has led to near-catastrophic military power in North Korea. Furthermore, the juche tension with the United States and with South idea has helped to shore up North Korean national Korea, especially along the Korean pride in the face of politico-economic competition , which is already the most with . Kim Il Sung used the juche heavily armed land zone in the world. The ideology and its emphasis on the supreme DPRK has taken a particularly hard-line stance importance of man and its message of self- on the issue of peninsular reunification. Kim sufficiency to stir up nationalism and Il Sung declared that any cooperation with revolutionary energy in the North Korean people. foreign attempts to mediate or interfere would Internationally, Kim Il Sung used the juche be unthinkable because it would effectively place ideology as a justification for the elimination of the the destiny of Korea in the hands of foreigners, influence of the USSR and the PRC. Political directly contrary to the juche principle of national independence from its bigger neighbors has always self-determination.40 been a quest of key importance in Korean history. In economic and military affairs, North Korea Kim Il Sung understood that as long as North Korea is far from the independence and self-sufficiency avoided siding either with the Soviet Union or China to which it aspires. The country is in the throes unilaterally, North Korea could remain relatively of famine and is plagued by a chronic energy autonomous in its domestic and foreign policy; this crisis. Far from relying on its own energy sources careful balancing act of neutrality was expressed in and agricultural production, the DPRK has been the form of the juche ideology. reduced to a recipient of food aid from South North Korea marks the last frontier of Korea, the United States and other countries in isolationism in the world today. Because its the international community it had previously policies and behavior may be explained by the disdained as “imperialist aggressors.” Despite the state ideology of juche, an understanding of the huge portion of its shrinking GDP that goes to origins, components and philosophical military spending, Pyongyang is still dependent underpinnings of the juche ideology is essential on Moscow and Beijing for weaponry and to an understanding of the North Korean state technology. and its people.

40 Li, Juche, 159. Volume 3 | Number 1 | Spring 2003