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1 ALEJANDRO III Y LA REPRESIÓN Dedicamos Esta Lectura Al Zar

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1 ALEJANDRO III Y LA REPRESIÓN Dedicamos Esta Lectura Al Zar Universidad de Puerto Rico/Recinto de Río Piedras/Facultad de Humanidades/Departamento de Historia HIST 4176- Historia cultural de Rusia/Dra. Nélida Muñoz de Frontera ALEJANDRO III Y LA REPRESIÓN Dedicamos esta lectura al Zar Alejandro III y su época. Debido a sus políticas conservadoras de represión y censura, los grupos políticos buscaron soluciones drásticas, o se fueron al exilio para analizar el futuro de Rusia. Mientras tanto, los artistas crearon obras de impacto social. I. Alejandro III y su familia Alejandro III fue el penúltimo zar de Rusia. Luego de la muerte de su hermano mayor (por meningitis), quien se había prometido a Dagmar de Dinamarca, Alejandro se casó con ella, pues se lo había pedido su hermano en el lecho de muerte. Ésta era la primera vez que un heredero al trono (y luego zar) rompía con la tradición de casarse con una princesa alemana.1 Alejandro III como Zarevich, en fotografía (1865) de Sergei Lvovich Levitsky (1819-1898), de la colección privada Di Rocco Wieler, Toronto (izquierda); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tsarevitch_Alexander_later_Alexander_III_1865_by_Sergei_Levitsky.jpg. Princesa Dagmar (derecha); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Princess_Dagmar_of_Denmark_Empress_consort_of_Alexander_III_1870_by_Sergei_Levitsky.jpg. (Consulta: 25 de marzo de 2012). Ceremonia de coronación del Zar Alejandro III, en la Catedral Uspensky de Moscú (27 de mayo de 1883) por el artista Georges Becker; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sz%C3%A1sakoron%C3%A1z%C3%A1sa.jpg (Consulta: 25 de marzo de 2012). 1 Zares y esposas alemanas: Pedro III (Catalina II), Pablo I (Wilhelmina Luisa de Hesse-Darmstadt y Sofía Dorotea de Würtemberg), Alejandro I (Luisa de Baden), Nicolás I (Carlota de Prusia) y Alejandro II (Marie de Hesse). 1 Universidad de Puerto Rico/Recinto de Río Piedras/Facultad de Humanidades/Departamento de Historia HIST 4176- Historia cultural de Rusia/Dra. Nélida Muñoz de Frontera El Zarevich Alejandro se casó con María Feodorovna (el nombre que tomó Dagmar de Dinamarca al convertirse en la esposa del heredero al trono) en 1866, y la ceremonia nupcial tuvo lugar en la Capilla del Palacio de Invierno. Tendría 6 hijos: Nicolás, Alexander (quien murió de meningitis igual que su tío), Jorge (quien murió de tuberculosis), Xenia, Miguel y Olga. La coronación, como Zar Alejandro III tendría lugar en 1883 en Moscú. II. Contrarreformas y antisemitismo Amedrentado por el asesinato de su padre a manos de los populistas radicales, Alejandro III inició un plan de contrarreformas tan pronto tomó el trono. Por eso se le ha comparado con Nicolás I (su abuelo), quien persiguió a los decembristas tras la muerte de su predecesor. Alejandro tenía fe en los principios de Autocracia, Ortodoxismo y Nacionalidad. Para enfatizar su autoridad en Rusia, nombró a un nuevo Ministro del Interior, el Conde Ignatiev, que luego sería sustituido por Dmitry Tolstoy. También emitió una ley para permitirle al gobierno decretar el estado de emergencia (ley marcial), de forma que se pudiese controlar la prensa liberal, despedir oficiales, cerrar escuelas y transferir casos de las cortes civiles a las militares. La ley de emergencia, concebida como algo temporero, estuvo en vigencia hasta 1917 (por lo que incluyó las administraciones de Alejandro III y su hijo Nicolás II). En 1885 se modificó el Acta Judicial (previamente aprobada por Alejandro II en 1864). Se le extendieron poderes al Ministro de Justicia para que pudiese exigirles a los jueces una explicación sobre cualquiera de sus decisiones. No se les permitió a los judíos practicar la abogacía, a menos que recibieran el consentimiento del Ministro de Justicia. Se les eliminó el derecho a juicio por jurado a los acusados de intento de asesinato de oficiales públicos. En 1889 Alejandro III dictó una ley para abolir los jueces de paz y establecer un nuevo tipo de oficial, el capitán de la tierra (zemskii nachalnik), que respondería al Ministro del Interior. Deseaba una supervisión bien estricta de los campesinos, para multarlos, arrestarlos o enviarlos a prisión. La nueva Ley del Zemstvo de 1890 tuvo como objeto alterar la emitida por su padre en 1864. Los miembros del zemstvo que eran parte de un condado, se dividieron en tres categorías: nobles, campesinos y otros. Si había algún judío, éste no tenía derecho al voto. El control de los zemstvos a nivel de condado y de distrito estaría en manos de los nobles, pues éstos tendrían el 57% de los asientos en las asambleas. El 33% de los lugares les correspondería a los campesinos, mientras que el otro 10% era para los “otros”, es decir, para las personas que no fuesen ni nobles ni campesinos, como podían ser los burgueses (comerciantes, artesanos, etc.) El gobernador de la provincia tenía el derecho de vetar, suspender o enmendar las decisiones de los condados y distritos. El Acta Municipal de 1892 modificó el decreto previo de 1870, exigiendo un mayor número de propiedades para poder participar en las elecciones. Sólo los judíos que vivían en la Empalizada (lugar seleccionado al oeste de Rusia, para concentrar a los judíos y aislarlos del resto de la población) podían votar en las decisiones municipales, aunque ocuparían únicamente el 10% de los lugares en la asamblea municipal. 2 Universidad de Puerto Rico/Recinto de Río Piedras/Facultad de Humanidades/Departamento de Historia HIST 4176- Historia cultural de Rusia/Dra. Nélida Muñoz de Frontera Mapa mostrando la concentración de judíos en Rusia, incluyendo Polonia. Archivo: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_showing_percentage_of_Jews_in_the_Pale_of_Settlement_and_Congress_Poland,_c._1905.png (Consulta: 25 de marzo de 2012). Típico shetl o pueblo provincial con gran concentración de judíos. Este pueblo es Lachva, en Polonia. Archivo: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lakhva1926.jpg (Consulta: 25 de marzo de 2012). 3 Universidad de Puerto Rico/Recinto de Río Piedras/Facultad de Humanidades/Departamento de Historia HIST 4176- Historia cultural de Rusia/Dra. Nélida Muñoz de Frontera Tumbas judías en Ucrania. Archivo: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Medzhibozh_graves.jpg (Consulta: 25 de marzo de 2012). La censura de la época de Alejandro III afectó las publicaciones, pues un comité presidido por el Procurador General del Santo Sínodo podía impedir cualquier tipo de publicación (libro o artículo), y tenía el poder de cerrar cualquier imprenta impidiendo así las nuevas publicaciones o la continuación de las revistas ya establecidas. El Código Universitario de 1863 fue sustituido por uno nuevo en 1884. Los profesores y oficiales serían nombrados por el Ministro de Educación, no existirían asociaciones estudiantiles, no podrían matricularse mujeres, y la entrada a los gimnasios estaría limitada a los hijos de la nobleza, los oficiales gubernamentales y los comerciantes ricos. Los judíos ocuparían un 10% de la matrícula universitaria o de los espacios en las escuelas secundarias dentro de la Empalizada. Fuera de la misma sólo podrían ocupar el 5% de la matrícula, y en San Petersburgo y Moscú el 3%. Alejandro III determinó que las escuelas religiosas católicas y protestantes estarían supervisadas por el Ministerio de Educación. La instrucción en Polonia y las provincias del Báltico (Estonia, Letonia y Lituania) sería en ruso, aunque en los hogares se hablase lituano, polaco, alemán o yiddish. Las persecuciones religiosas fueron la norma durante la administración de Alejandro III. Esto incluyó a los luteranos del Báltico, los católicos de Polonia, los uniatos de Ucrania y los musulmanes de Siberia. Un grupo que sufrió mucho en esta época fue el de los dukhobor, quienes eran bautistas pacifistas y no creían en el servicio militar. Fueron castigados transfiriéndolos a Siberia, y a fin de siglo algunos lograron emigrar a Canadá. Los más que sufrieron fueron los judíos, pues Alejandro III organizó persecuciones llamadas pogroms. Cuando algún grupo judío protestaba, era castigado con brutalidad, lo que incluía pegarle fuego a sus casas, ordenar su salida del pueblo, o enviarlos a prisión. Las medidas temporeras de 1882 les impidieron a los judíos poseer tierras y ocupar puestos gubernamentales. Bajo el liderato del Procurador General del Santo Sínodo, Constantino Pobedonostsev (1880-1905), la persecución fue muy fuerte.2 2 Pobedonostsev publicó Reflexiones de un hombre de estado ruso, una obra que se considera el credo de los reaccionarios, eslavófilos, paneslavistas, antisemitas y defensores de la autocracia. Melvin C. Wren, Western Impact of Tsarist Russia. Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971, 203. 4 Universidad de Puerto Rico/Recinto de Río Piedras/Facultad de Humanidades/Departamento de Historia HIST 4176- Historia cultural de Rusia/Dra. Nélida Muñoz de Frontera Konstantin Pobedonostsev (1827-1907 en fotografía de autor desconocido; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Konstantin_Pobedonostsev.jpg (Consulta: 25 de marzo de 2012). En asuntos internacionales, el Zar Alejandro III era anti-alemán. Tampoco favorecía a las demás potencias europeas. En asuntos locales era defensor del nacionalismo ruso y apoyaba a los otros eslavos de los Balcanes, pues creía en el paneslavismo. Quería verlos libres del dominio de Austria (en Bosnia y Herzegovina), Hungría (en Croacia), y Turquía (en Bulgaria). Apoyaba principalmente a los eslavos ortodoxos, por lo que no simpatizaba con los musulmanes. Suprimió los ideales de otros pueblos cristianos bajo su dominio, en Ucrania, Georgia, Polonia y Finlandia. III. reformas económicas La situación del campesino ruso a fin de siglo era bien difícil. Su pobreza no le permitía hacer los pagos de redención (por los terrenos adquiridos con la emancipación). Tenía que pagar impuestos indirectos por el vodka, azúcar, tabaco, keroseno y fósforos. Por esto, en 1886 Alejandro redujo los pagos de redención (que eventualmente fueron eliminados en 1905). Muchos campesinos se dedicaban a la cosecha del trigo, pero la falta de fertilizantes forzaba a utilizar el sistema de los tres campos, donde una tercera parte del terreno cultivable se dejaba siempre yermo, en lo que recuperaba su fertilidad. Algunos campesinos contrataban a otros para que los ayudasen, pagándoles cuarenta kopeks al día en tiempos de zafra.
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