DOCSLIB.ORG

The Sign and Seal of Justice

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Sign and Seal of Justice Copyright © 2008 Ave Maria Law Review THE SIGN AND SEAL OF JUSTICE Rafael Alberto Madan † The United States Department of Justice often is asked about the origins and history of its seal and its various elements, and in particular, to render in English the Latin motto that figures prominently thereon: QUI PRO DOMINA JUSTITIA SEQUITUR. These queries are not of merely academic or historical interest. A motto is more than a supermarket jingle, commercial tag-line, or campaign slogan; its function, rather, is to encapsulate the aspirational intention or purpose of an individual or a sociological group—be it a family or society, a people or nation, an entity or † University of Virginia, B.A., with Distinction (1983), and J.D. (1986); General Counsel, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice; Adjunct Instructor (Constitutional Law & Jurisprudence), Christendom College, Front Royal, Virginia; Member of the Bars of Virginia and the District of Columbia. The views expressed herein are the author’s and not necessarily those of the Department, the College, or the Bars (or any (other) of their officers or employees), or of any other person, including any mentioned here. Unless otherwise indicated, the translations of foreign-language texts herein are by the author. Although any errors herein are his entirely, the author is profoundly indebted to the Honorable John David Ashcroft, seventy-ninth Attorney General of these United States, and to the Honorable Paul Drew Clement, lately Solicitor General thereof, who graciously provided the author with access to their respective offices; and also to the following current or former Department of Justice colleagues (placed in alphabetical order, because a qualitative ranking would be much too difficult—and much too fraught with danger): Carl A. Anderson, Bernard Berglind, Andrew T. Bodoh, Gregory C. Brady, Kristopher A. Brambila, Peter M. Brien, Kristen E. Bucher, Rosemary Cavanagh Carradini, John R. Caterini, Sue A. Dirham, James Fort, Liane K. Fowler, Stuart Frisch, Margaret K. Hansen, Tracy A. Henke, Patrick F. Hofer, Ricki D. Kresan, Meleanie R. Lowery, Beth McGarry, Stephen K. Myers, Janet L. Oberla, Ingrid R. Sausjord, Janis A. Sposato, and Nathaniel S. Stewart, without whose invaluable help, kind encouragement, and near-infinite patience, this little project would not have begun, and, anyhow, long ago would have been abandoned or curtailed. The author also gratefully acknowledges (again, alphabetically and for the same reasons) the steady and thoughtful assistance warmly, ably, and generously provided by Robert D. Alt, Daniel E. Collins, James M. Guinivan, Jennifer M. Meade, John F. Trujillo (the author’s nephew), Matthew D. Walz, and Susan A. White, and especially by his own good and excellent parents (Rafael F. and Lilian C. Madan), to whom, with all affection (and in cherished memory of his late—and much-lamented—grandfather and socio, José Alberto Casas, a fine attorney and legal thinker, kindly lesson-teacher and storyteller, and true exemplar of what it means to be pundonoroso), he dedicates this work. 123 AMLR.V7I1.MADAN 3/27/2009 3:54 PM 124 AVE MARIA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 7:1 institution—in a word or succinct phrase. Thus, interest in the Department’s motto (and, derivatively, its seal) is unsurprising: these are, after all, words it is to live by.1 What may be surprising is that none of the serious efforts undertaken to date to arrive at definitive responses to these queries has been entirely successful—in fact, the queries have generated some obscure answers that hark back to before the founding of the Republic and to distant reaches of the world. To go to the heart of these queries, the motto itself has been described as “hopeless: its translation ha[ving] baffled more than one good Latin scholar”;2 “couched in . eliptic [sic] Latin”;3 “a never- ending source of speculation”;4 “a puzzle . [whose] translation is disputed”;5 a puzzle that, perhaps “due to sheer ignorance or to carelessness . , [was caused by] a mistake . in the wording”;6 “a 1. See Richard Lewis “Dick” Thornburgh, Att’y Gen., Address at the 38th Annual Attorney General’s Awards Ceremony, Washington, D.C. 1 (Jan. 26, 1990) (transcript on file at Dep’t of Justice Main Library) (noting that the “motto . bespeaks a great purpose”). 2. JAMES S. EASBY-SMITH, THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE: ITS HISTORY AND FUNCTIONS 14 (1904). 3. Letter from Albert Levitt, Special Assistant to the Att’y Gen., to Roscoe Pound, Dean, Harvard Law School (Sept. 28, 1933), in U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE, THE SEAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE 1, 2 (1940) [hereinafter THE SEAL OF THE DEPARTMENT] (on file at Dep’t of Justice Main Library). 4. HOMER CUMMINGS & CARL MCFARLAND, FEDERAL JUSTICE: CHAPTERS IN THE HISTORY OF JUSTICE AND THE FEDERAL EXECUTIVE 522b (1937). Mr. Cummings was Attorney General from March 4, 1933, to January 2, 1939. 5. Justice Department Is Puzzled by Motto, Nearly Century Old, SUNDAY STAR (Wash., D.C.), Feb. 7, 1937, at B5 [hereinafter Puzzled ]. The news account states that “even Attorney General Cummings can’t say exactly what it means . [and] won’t even attempt to translate it.” Id. The article further quotes an unnamed Department attorney: “[L]ike much other Latin of that period, if it wasn’t bad Latin, it certainly was inaccurate.” Id. 6. Letter from Arthur H. Leavitt, Chief, Div. of Dep’t Archives, The Nat’l Archives, to Homer S. Cummings, Att’y Gen. (Feb. 8, 1937), in THE SEAL OF THE DEPARTMENT, supra note 3, at 9. Mr. Leavitt explains, The only conclusion that I have been able to come to is that [the words] should read “Qui pro domina justitiam sequitur” . I have explained the mistake, if it is a mistake, on one of the following suppositions. The use of the form “justitia” may have been due to sheer ignorance or to carelessness; or the writer, having in mind that certain Latin deponents—utor, furor, etc.—were used with the instrumental ablative, may have assimilated “sequor” into that group. Id. Although sequor (meaning to follow or to pursue) is, of course, a Latin deponent verb (and one not used with the ablative case—taking an accusative as an object), the author disagrees that the motto should read “domina justitiam” (thus making the former term the dative object of sequor, and the latter the accusative) rather than “domina justitia” (in which both terms, together, are the dative object). The English-language translation of Mr. Leavitt’s speculative AMLR.V7I1.MADAN 3/27/2009 3:54 PM Fall 2008] THE SIGN AND SEAL OF JUSTICE 125 ‘hopeless’ grammatical construction that defies translation into understandable English,” but “not a mere hapless archaic expression, [being,] rather[,] a descriptive expression of some classical worth”;7 a focus of “much speculation and disagreement over [its] origins and meaning”;8 and “a somewhat strange Latin . [that] offers as much of a bafflement to some . as [Attorney General Thornburgh] confess[ed] it first did to [him, and that] . is one of the great mysteries of the western world—even to scholars who know Latin.”9 The primary difficulty in responding accurately to the queries arises from the curious fact that it is not now known exactly when the original of the Department’s current seal was adopted or first came into use, or when the motto first appeared on it. The so-called Judiciary Act of 1789, which created the office of the Attorney General10 (antecessor of the Department11), made no express provision for a seal. This omission was left uncorrected for some sixty years, until the Act for Authenticating Certain Records (February 22, 1849), which provided [t]hat all books, papers, documents, and records in the . Attorney- General’s office, may be copied and certified under seal . , and the said Attorney-General shall cause a seal to be made and provided for his office, with such device as the President of the United States shall approve.12 On a now-forgotten day between that one and March 6, 1854, a seal, supposed to incorporate the arms of the United States—which are motto would be “Who pursues (or prosecutes) justice for the sake (or on behalf ) of the lady ”— which surely is wrong: who is “the lady”? 7. Joseph A. Sanches, Origins of the Inscriptions on the Justice Seal, JUSTICE NEWS, Nov. 1969, at 4, 4 (on file at Dep’t of Justice Main Library). 8. ANTONIO VASAIO, JUSTICE MGMT. DIV., U.S. DEP’T OF JUSTICE, THE FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE BUILDING: 1934–1984, at 48 (1984) [hereinafter FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY] (on file at Dep’t of Justice Main Library). 9. Thornburgh, supra note 1. 10. See Judiciary Act of 1789, ch. 20, § 35, 1 Stat. 73, 93 (1789) (codified in relevant part as amended at 28 U.S.C. §§ 503, 511–13, 518(a) (2000)). 11. See Act to Establish the Department of Justice, ch. 150, 16 Stat. 162 (1870) (codified generally as amended at 28 U.S.C. § 501 (2000)); see also ALBERT LANGELUTTIG, THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE OF THE UNITED STATES 7–13 (1927) (summarizing the 1870 Act’s history and providing a conceptual survey of the Department’s functions). 12. Act for Authenticating Certain Records, ch. 61, § 3, 9 Stat. 346, 347 (1849) (codified as amended at 28 U.S.C. § 502 (2000)). AMLR.V7I1.MADAN 3/27/2009 3:54 PM 126 AVE MARIA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 7:1 also depicted on the back of the $1 bill13—was adopted for the Attorney General’s office, presumably with the President’s approval.14 13. E.g., RICHARD S.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Early American Orderly Books, 1748-1817 Reel Listing
    Early American Orderly Books, 1748-1817 Reel Listing Maj. Gen. James Wolfe, Canada. Various Units [Army]: French and Indian Wars. February 12, 1748 - December 15, 1755; May 4 - June 21 - August 19, 1759; May 31 - July 16, 1760; September 12, 1759 October 11 - November 13, 1764 Orders of the 20th Regiment of Foot, commanded by March of the combined British Regular and Col. George Viscount Sackville, and after Oct. 31, Provincial Army, in the campaign at Fort Niagara, 1749 by George Viscount Borg. Wolfe was a Major under the command of Gen. John Prideaux and Sir and then a Lt. Col. in the regiment. Locations: William Johnson. Locations: Oneida Lake, Three Sterling, Canterbury. Maj. Gen. Wolfe was in Rivers, Great Falls, Oswego, Olenoous, command of the troops at Quebec. Orders continue Nidenindequeat, Prideaux Bay, Niagara. Kept by up to the day before the battle at Quebec. Locations: John Mackenzie. March of Provincial troops with the Halifax, Nova Scotia. 112 pages. 44th Royal Highlanders, under the command of Col. Reel: 1, No. 1 Woodhull, to the New York frontier. Locations: Albany, Schnectady, Fort Ontario, Wallighea, Fry, Capt. Horatio Gates, Brigade Major, New York. Conojohary, Fort Stanwix, and Fort Brenington. Kept August 18 - October 12, 1758 by John Petzgold. Return march of Col. Bradstreet's Includes a Return of troops fit for duty at Oneida forces from Detroit at the close of the Pontiac War. Station and a Return of artificers daily employed Locations: Sandusky, Grand Bevier, Fort Schlosser, from the troops, Aug. 26, 1758. Location: Oneida Niagara Falls. 130 pages. Station, New York.
    [Show full text]
  • H. Doc. 108-222
    1776 Biographical Directory York for a fourteen-year term; died in Bronx, N.Y., Decem- R ber 23, 1974; interment in St. Joseph’s Cemetery, Hacken- sack, N.J. RABAUT, Louis Charles, a Representative from Michi- gan; born in Detroit, Mich., December 5, 1886; attended QUINN, Terence John, a Representative from New parochial schools; graduated from Detroit (Mich.) College, York; born in Albany, Albany County, N.Y., October 16, 1836; educated at a private school and the Boys’ Academy 1909; graduated from Detroit College of Law, 1912; admitted in his native city; early in life entered the brewery business to the bar in 1912 and commenced practice in Detroit; also with his father and subsequently became senior member engaged in the building business; delegate to the Democratic of the firm; at the outbreak of the Civil War was second National Conventions, 1936 and 1940; delegate to the Inter- lieutenant in Company B, Twenty-fifth Regiment, New York parliamentary Union at Oslo, Norway, 1939; elected as a State Militia Volunteers, which was ordered to the defense Democrat to the Seventy-fourth and to the five succeeding of Washington, D.C., in April 1861 and assigned to duty Congresses (January 3, 1935-January 3, 1947); unsuccessful at Arlington Heights; member of the common council of Al- candidate for reelection to the Eightieth Congress in 1946; bany 1869-1872; elected a member of the State assembly elected to the Eighty-first and to the six succeeding Con- in 1873; elected as a Democrat to the Forty-fifth Congress gresses (January 3, 1949-November 12, 1961); died on No- and served from March 4, 1877, until his death in Albany, vember 12, 1961, in Hamtramck, Mich; interment in Mount N.Y., June 18, 1878; interment in St.
    [Show full text]
  • Gladstone and the Bank of England: a Study in Mid-Victorian Finance, 1833-1866
    GLADSTONE AND THE BANK OF ENGLAND: A STUDY IN MID-VICTORIAN FINANCE, 1833-1866 Patricia Caernarv en-Smith, B.A. Thesis Prepared for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS May 2007 APPROVED: Denis Paz, Major Professor Adrian Lewis, Committee Member and Chair of the Department of History Laura Stern, Committee Member Sandra L. Terrell, Dean of the Robert B. Toulouse School of Graduate Studies Caernarven-Smith, Patricia. Gladstone and the Bank of England: A Study in Mid- Victorian Finance, 1833-1866. Master of Arts (History), May 2007, 378 pp., 11 tables, bibliography, 275 titles. The topic of this thesis is the confrontations between William Gladstone and the Bank of England. These confrontations have remained a mystery to authors who noted them, but have generally been ignored by others. This thesis demonstrates that Gladstone’s measures taken against the Bank were reasonable, intelligent, and important for the development of nineteenth-century British government finance. To accomplish this task, this thesis refutes the opinions of three twentieth-century authors who have claimed that many of Gladstone’s measures, as well as his reading, were irrational, ridiculous, and impolitic. My primary sources include the Gladstone Diaries, with special attention to a little-used source, Volume 14, the indexes to the Diaries. The day-to-day Diaries and the indexes show how much Gladstone read about financial matters, and suggest that his actions were based to a large extent upon his reading. In addition, I have used Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates and nineteenth-century periodicals and books on banking and finance to understand the political and economic debates of the time.
    [Show full text]
  • First Principles of Polite Learning Are Laid Down in a Way Most Suitable for Trying the Genius, and Advancing the InstrucOn of Youth
    Dedicaon For the dissenters, who conceived this naon, and improve it sll Epigraph Unless we can return a lile more to first principles, & act a lile more upon patrioc ground, I do not know . what may be the issue of the contest. —George Washington to James Warren, March 31, 1779 Contents Cover Title Page Dedicaon Epigraph A Note on Language Chronology Map Prologue Part I: Acquision Chapter 1: The Power of Colonial Classicism Chapter 2: Washington Studies How to Rise in Colonial Society Chapter 3: John Adams Aims to Become an American Cicero Chapter 4: Jefferson Blooms at William & Mary Chapter 5: Madison Breaks Away to Princeton Part II: Applicaon Chapter 6: Adams and the Fuse of Rebellion Chapter 7: Jefferson’s Declaraon of the “American Mind” Chapter 8: Washington Chapter 9: The War Strains the Classical Model Chapter 10: From a Difficult War to an Uneasy Peace Chapter 11: Madison and the Constuon Part III: Americanizaon Chapter 12: The Classical Vision Smashes into American Reality Chapter 13: The Revoluon of 1800 Chapter 14: The End of American Classicism Epilogue Acknowledgments Appendix: The Declaraon of Independence Notes Index About the Author Also by Thomas E. Ricks Copyright About the Publisher A Note on Language I have quoted the words of the Revoluonary generaon as faithfully as possible, including their unusual spellings and surprising capitalizaons. I did this because I think it puts us nearer their world, and also out of respect: I wouldn’t change their words when quong them, so why change their spellings? For some reason, I am fond of George Washington’s apoplecc denunciaon of an “ananominous” leer wrien by a munous officer during the Revoluonary War.
    [Show full text]
  • Medical Heritage of the National Palace of Mafra
    Medical Heritage of the National Palace of Mafra Medical Heritage of the National Palace of Mafra Edited by Maria do Sameiro Barroso, Christopher J. Duffin and Germano de Sousa Medical Heritage of the National Palace of Mafra Edited by Maria do Sameiro Barroso, Christopher J. Duffin and Germano de Sousa This book first published 2020 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2020 by Maria do Sameiro Barroso, Christopher J. Duffin, Germano de Sousa and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-4426-5 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-4426-0 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations ................................................................................... vii Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 Christopher J. Duffin and Maria do Sameiro Barroso Chapter 1 .................................................................................................... 9 The National Palace of Mafra and King John V – some historical and medical insights António Trabulo Chapter 2 .................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • AD AGE MAIN 05-19-03 a 141 AADB 5/16/03 7:55 PM Page 1
    AD AGE MAIN 05-19-03 A 141 AADB 5/16/03 7:55 PM Page 1 May 19, 2003 | Advertising Age | 141 AD AGE’S ’03-’04 NETWORK HOUSEHOLD SHARE ESTIMATES Few new shows wow SUNDAY 7 p.m. (ET) 8 p.m. 9 p.m. 10 p.m. America’s Funniest Home Videos 10-8 Alias The Practice 10.3 8.5 8.5 11.3 60 Minutes Cold Case CBS Sunday Movie buyers in TV upfront 15.8 13.0 10.4 Dateline American Dreams Law & Order: Criminal Intent The Lyon’s Den 10.5 10.0 13.8 12.5 Star vehicles shine;Fox makes inroads on NBC Oliver Beene King of the Hill The Simpsons The Ortegas Malcolm Arrested Dev. No Fox programming 8.0 8.5 11.0 9.0 9.0 8.0 By WAYNE FRIEDMAN p.m. Monday show, “Skin,” is about Smallville: Beginnings Charmed Tarzan & Jane No WB programming and RICHARD LINNETT the romance between the children of 4.0 4.0 3.3 a politician and a porn mogul. MONDAY8 p.m. 9 p.m. 10 p.m. media buying executives don’t ex- “There might be some advertisers Prime Time / Movie of Week Monday Night Football pect many breakout shows from the who are skittish about ‘Skin,’” said 8.0 18.4 broadcast networks’ next season, as Brad Adgate, senior VP-audience re- Yes, Dear Still Standing Raymond Two & Half Men CSI: Miami 12.5 14.0 18.5 15.5 17.3 few shows struck them as instant hits.
    [Show full text]
  • Sitcom Fjernsyn Programmer Liste : Stem P㥠Dine
    Sitcom Fjernsyn Programmer Liste Chespirito https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/chespirito-56905/actors Lab Rats: Elite Force https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/lab-rats%3A-elite-force-20899708/actors Jake & Blake https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/jake-%26-blake-739198/actors Bibin svijet https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/bibin-svijet-1249122/actors Fred's Head https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/fred%27s-head-2905820/actors Blackadder Goes Forth https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/blackadder-goes-forth-2740751/actors Brian O'Brian https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/brian-o%27brian-849637/actors Hello Franceska https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/hello-franceska-12964579/actors Malibu Country https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/malibu-country-210665/actors Maksim Papernik https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/maksim-papernik-4344650/actors Chickens https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/chickens-16957467/actors Toda Max https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/toda-max-7812112/actors Cover Girl https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/cover-girl-3001834/actors Papá soltero https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/pap%C3%A1-soltero-6060301/actors Break Time Masti Time https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/break-time-masti-time-3644055/actors Mi querido Klikowsky https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/mi-querido-klikowsky-5401614/actors Xin Hun Gong Yu https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/xin-hun-gong-yu-20687936/actors Cuando toca la campana https://no.listvote.com/lists/tv/programs/cuando-toca-la-campana-2005409/actors
    [Show full text]
  • The Little Green Book of Tennis
    THE LITTLE GREEN BOOK OF TENNIS SECOND EDITION TOM PARHAM Copyright © 2015 by Tom Parham All rights reserved. No part of the content of this book may be reproduced without the written permission of Mr. Tom Parham 202 Blue Crab Court Emerald Isle, N. C. 28594 ISBN #: 978-0-9851585-3-8 Second Edition LOC #2015956756 Printed and Bound in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 CONTENTS Harvey Penick’s Book...............................................................................................................2 Mentors...................................................................................................................4 Jim Leighton..............................................................................................................................4 Jim Verdieck...............................................................................................................................6 Keep on Learning......................................................................................................................8 If I Die..........................................................................................................................................9 Ten Ground Stroke Fundamentals......................................................................................9 Move! Concentrate! What DoThey Mean?......................................................................12 Balance Is the Key to GoodTennis........................................................................................13
    [Show full text]
  • The Gold Metallurgy of Isaac Newton
    The Gold Metallurgy of Isaac Newton E. G. V. Newman The Royal Mint, London The science of metals had always appealed to Isaac Newton and when, after the conclusion of his remarkable contributions to mathe- matics and physics, he was invited to take charge of the Royal Mint in London he was able not only to display his great gifts as an administrator but also to exercise his interest in metals and alloys and particularly in the metallurgy of gold. For over thirty years Isaac Newton lived the been accorded him for his scientific work despite the secluded life of a scholar. As undergraduate and later endeavours of his friends Samuel Pepys, John Locke Fellow and Professor at Cambridge he was shy and and Christopher Wren to secure for him a public post reserved, careless of his appearance and even more worthy of his stature. He returned to Cambridge and careless of his eating habits. This period came to a there busied himself with experimental work in triumphant conclusion, of course, with the publication chemistry and metallurgy. of the Principia in 1687. It was not until 1696 that an easement came about For a further period of thirty years, apparently by in the form of an appointment that was to effect a an astonishing transformation, Newton served his complete change in his way of life and his financial country as a highly able public official and also as the welfare. This came through the good offices of an leader of the scientific community. The achievements old friend from his undergraduate days at Trinity and the glory of the former period have not un- College whom he had re-encountered as a fellow naturally overshadowed the latter half of his working Member of Parliament, Charles Montagu.
    [Show full text]
  • Histor Y at the Tower
    History at the Tower Your short guide to the history of the Tower of London. Contents Visiting the Tower............................................... Page 2 Brief history of the Tower............................. Page 3 What to see............................................................ Page 5 Frequently asked questions.......................... Page 8 Page 1 Visiting the Tower Unlike most heritage sites, the Tower of London spans almost 1000 years of history, and has been the host of some of the nation’s most significant events. Because of this we would recommend that you plan your trip in advance, using the preliminary visit voucher where possible to ensure your familiarity with the Tower. The following information is a quick guide, broken into several sections: • Brief history of the Tower • What to see • Frequently asked questions about the Tower Please note that some teachers’ notes have also been prepared and can be downloaded from our website. Go to www.hrp.org.uk, navigate to Learning and then select Resources from the Related Links column. Page 2 Brief History of the Tower Roman origins The Tower was built on the south-eastern corner of the wall that the Romans built around Londinium circa AD 200. Parts of this wall are still visible within the Tower site. William the Conqueror After the successful Norman invasion, William the Conqueror set about consolidating his new capital by building three fortifications. The strongest of the three was the Tower, which controlled and protected the eastern entry to the City from the river, as well as serving as a palace. Work on the White Tower began in 1078 and probably took twenty-five years to complete.
    [Show full text]
  • Stony Brook University
    SSStttooonnnyyy BBBrrrooooookkk UUUnnniiivvveeerrrsssiiitttyyy The official electronic file of this thesis or dissertation is maintained by the University Libraries on behalf of The Graduate School at Stony Brook University. ©©© AAAllllll RRRiiiggghhhtttsss RRReeessseeerrrvvveeeddd bbbyyy AAAuuuttthhhooorrr... The Sense of the City: Politics and Culture in Pre-Revolutionary New York City A Dissertation Presented by Luke John Feder to The Graduate School in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University December 2010 Copyright by Luke John Feder 2010 Stony Brook University The Graduate School Luke John Feder We, the dissertation committee for the above candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, hereby recommend acceptance of this dissertation. Ned C. Landsman — Dissertation Advisor Professor, Department of History Donna J. Rilling — Chairperson of the Defense Associate Professor, Department of History Kathleen Wilson Professor, Department of History Andrew Newman Assistant Professor, Department of English, Stony Brook University This dissertation is accepted by the Graduate School Lawrence Martin Dean of the Graduate School ii Abstract of the Dissertation The Sense of the City: Politics and Culture in Pre-Revolutionary New York City by Luke John Feder Doctor of Philosophy in History Stony Brook University 2010 This dissertation explores how political partisanship and local understandings of British political culture shaped New York City’s reaction to the revolutionary crisis of the 1760s and 1770s. I investigate how the Livingston faction, DeLancey faction, and Sons of Liberty each attempted to define and manipulate “the sense of the city” to suit its private agenda. In the eighteenth century, “the sense of the city” and other similar phrases stood for public opinion.
    [Show full text]
  • H. Doc. 108-222
    34 Biographical Directory DELEGATES IN THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS CONNECTICUT Dates of Attendance Andrew Adams............................ 1778 Benjamin Huntington................ 1780, Joseph Spencer ........................... 1779 Joseph P. Cooke ............... 1784–1785, 1782–1783, 1788 Jonathan Sturges........................ 1786 1787–1788 Samuel Huntington ................... 1776, James Wadsworth....................... 1784 Silas Deane ....................... 1774–1776 1778–1781, 1783 Jeremiah Wadsworth.................. 1788 Eliphalet Dyer.................. 1774–1779, William S. Johnson........... 1785–1787 William Williams .............. 1776–1777 1782–1783 Richard Law............ 1777, 1781–1782 Oliver Wolcott .................. 1776–1778, Pierpont Edwards ....................... 1788 Stephen M. Mitchell ......... 1785–1788 1780–1783 Oliver Ellsworth................ 1778–1783 Jesse Root.......................... 1778–1782 Titus Hosmer .............................. 1778 Roger Sherman ....... 1774–1781, 1784 Delegates Who Did Not Attend and Dates of Election John Canfield .............................. 1786 William Hillhouse............. 1783, 1785 Joseph Trumbull......................... 1774 Charles C. Chandler................... 1784 William Pitkin............................. 1784 Erastus Wolcott ...... 1774, 1787, 1788 John Chester..................... 1787, 1788 Jedediah Strong...... 1782, 1783, 1784 James Hillhouse ............... 1786, 1788 John Treadwell ....... 1784, 1785, 1787 DELAWARE Dates of Attendance Gunning Bedford,
    [Show full text]