Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations 2019
Forum: GA1 – Disarmament and International Security
Issue: Demilitarization of militias in post-IS Syria
Student Officer: Ishaan Goel
Position: Deputy Chair
Introduction
The Syrian Civil War is arguably the worst civil conflict of the century, having drawn on for the past eight years. Almost 400,000 people have been killed and millions more have been displaced from their homes, either into other nations or to other regions within Syria itself. The conflict has several participants, ranging from the Syrian people themselves to foreign military personnel. However, the most notable belligerents have been the independent militias, formed in large numbers during the course of the war. The oldest of these are the anti-government rebel forces and pro-government militias, which have existed as long as the War itself. Till 2014, however, their numbers were limited. The formation and brutal rise of ISIL in 2014, along with the establishment of its theocratic caliphate, led to the rise of several reactionary groups to counter it. Some of them were even formed with foreign aid from nations such as the USA, Russia, Iran and Turkey. A large number of Arab tribes in Syria too formed their own militias. These militias all had one common objective – eradicating ISIL – but otherwise, they had little to nothing in common, often fighting amongst each other. After the defeat of the last stronghold of ISIL in early 2019, the issue of demilitarization of these militias has come to the forefront. With ISIL now almost completely vanquished, the militias are pursuing their individual interests in the Syrian Civil War. For example, Kurdish forces are using supplied arms to further their fight for autonomy in the Rojava region of Syria. They are even contributing to separatist movements in Turkey and Iraq for the formation of an autonomous Kurdish state. This has led to an increase in political tensions in the region, as shall be detailed later. There exists a real possibility of the beginning of infighting amongst the several militia groups, as has already happened several times in the past. For example, as recently as January 2019, the National Liberation Front, a rebel group, engaged in battle with Tahrir-al-sham, a radical
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Salafist group1. Moreover, the presence of militias has led to the emergence of several illegal arms black markets and flourishing drug trades. All these events pose a risk to the already fractured Syrian economy and political conditions. Fighting between militias has also had adverse effects on ethnic unity within Syria, while also leading to the destruction of more government infrastructure. Moreover, an extensive use of child fighters has been noted in the Syrian militias, with 851 documented cases in 2016 alone2 and the current, actual number expected to be several times higher. This is indicative of a worrying trend - the increase of involvement of minors in direct fighting. With 2.8 million children deprived of an education due to the war3, the future of skilled labour in the country has also been severely impacted. Demilitarization of militias in post-IS Syria is an urgent and critical issue. It is important for the maintenance of the political stability and security of not only Syria, but also its immediate neighbours. Moreover, mutual and co-ordinated demilitarisation is a crucial step in finding a solution to the decade long Syrian War as a whole as well as rejuvenating Syrian society. It will also serve as an end to the multiple proxy wars between foreign states taking place in Syria. Thus, it is imperative for the DISEC to act on it immediately.
Definition of Key Terms
Demilitarization
For the discussion of this topic, it is important to define the process of demilitarisation. Demilitarization is defined well in the International Encyclopaedia of the Social and Behavioural Sciences as “the dismantling or demobilization of a military, and the eventual destruction of military equipment, the destruction of weapons and explosives, and the incineration and destruction of chemical and biological weapons.”4 The term “Demilitarize” can be understood to
1 “National Front for Liberation–Tahrir Al-Sham Conflict.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 9 June 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation%E2%80%93Tahrir_al-Sham_conflict. 2 Turner, Laura. “Child Soldiers in Syria.” The Borgen Project, The Borgen Project, 23 July 2018, borgenproject.org/child- soldiers-in-syria/. 3 “Nearly 5 Million Syrian Children Accessing Education despite over Seven Years of War on Children.” Home Page, 23 Apr. 2018, www.unicef.org/mena/press-releases/nearly-5-million-syrian-children-accessing-education-despite-over- seven-years-war.
4 Wright, James D. “Demilitarization.” Demilitarization - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, ScienceDirect, www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/demilitarization.
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Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations 2019 mean “to do away with the military organization or potential of” or “to prohibit (something, such as a zone or frontier area) from being used for military purposes”. 5
Militias and insurgents
The definition of a militia is quite ambiguous, with some publications limiting militias to pro- government activities and equating them to paramilitaries, while separating them from insurgent groups. For example, a militia has been described as an “armed group that acts alongside state security forces or independently of the state, aiming to shield local populations from rebels.”6 Insurgent groups, in turn, constitute insurgents. An insurgent is one who participates in an insurgency, which has been defined as “rebellion, riot or mutiny by portion of the citizens of the State against the established government.”7 For the discussion of this topic, militia can refer to either of these definitions, as is common practise.
Armament and Disarmament
Disarmament can be described as “a variety of measures designed to limit or reduce, both quantitatively and qualitatively, eliminate and cease the production of means of warfare.” It “may include limitation and reduction of military personnel of armed forces, and reduction of defence spending”. 8Armament is simply the inverse of disarmament, and can be understood as a set of measures to increase the production of means of warfare, as well as armed personnel and defence spending.
Demilitarized and Buffer Zones
A demilitarized zone is an area in which treaties or agreements between nations, military powers or contending groups forbid military installations, activities or personnel.9 A buffer zone, meanwhile, is defined as “a defined area controlled by a peace operations force from which
5 “Demilitarize.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/demilitarize.
6 Jentzsch, Corinna, et al. “Militias in Civil Wars.” Journal of Conflict Resolution, SAGE Publications, 2015, journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0022002715576753.
7 Gupta, Rashi. “Recognition of Insurgent and Belligerent Organisations in International Law.” SSRN, Nirma University - Institute of Law, 28 June 2014, papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2457749.
8 Tuzmukhamedov, Bakhtiyar. “Disarmament.” Oxford Public International Law, Max Planck Foundation for International Peace and the Rule of the Law, 6 June 2017, opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e289.
9 “Page.” Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East, by Michael B. Oren, Presidio Press, 2003, p. 7.
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Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations 2019 disputing or belligerent forces have been excluded”. It is generally formed to “create an area of separation between disputing or belligerent forces and reduce the risk of renewed conflict”.10 The two are often combined, forming demilitarized buffer zones (such as the one between North and South Korea).
Rojava
Rojava (officially the Autonomous Administration in North and East Syria) is the portion of Syria under control of the Kurdish people and a de facto state. Its definition remains unclear, with the constitution of Rojava stating “All cities, towns and villages in Syria which accede to this Charter may form Cantons falling within Autonomous Regions.” Cantons are the administrative regions of Rojava. So far, Rojava is believed to have 7 main regions in Northern and Eastern Syria – Jazira, Euphrates, Afrin, Raqqa, Tabqa, Manbij and Deir-ez Zor. The state is officially unrecognized, but it is largely free from government control
Governorate
A governorate is an administrative division of a country. It is headed by a governor. 11
Background Information
Background of the Syrian Civil War
The Syrian Civil War began as a part of the larger Arab Spring Movement in 2011, with the citizens of Syria protesting against the allegedly oppressive and nepotistic regime of President Bashir al-Assad, and demanding human rights. The government then led a violent crackdown on unarmed protestors, thus leading to multiple civilian casualties. This led to civilians taking up arms against the government, starting an armed conflict that snowballed into a civil war. It has since magnified in intensity, with the introduction of multiple new groups working for the attainment of individual interests. It has even become a proxy war between major foreign powers.
10 “Buffer Zone Definition (US DoD).” Military Weapons,
11 Law, Gwillim. Administrative Subdivisions of Countries: a Comprehensive World Reference, 1900 through 1998. Mcfarland, 2011.
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Early formation, support and armament of the militias
The militias formed early in the war were mainly anti-government in nature. Of these, the Free Syrian Army (FSA), formed by defectors from the Syrian military who were trained in Turkey, was the most prominent. These militias initially armed themselves through theft from the military storehouses that they captured. Soon, they also received weaponry from the Turkish military and private donors from the Gulf region, particularly Kuwait. 12 Pro-government Arab nationalist forces, like the National Defence Forces13 (NDF) were also formed and trained by the Syrian army, to support it in its fight against the rebels. The NDF comprised part-time volunteers from the civilian population. The FSA received prominent foreign support in the form of weaponry in 2012, from several nations such as the UK, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Germany and France. All these nations supported the rebels in their efforts to overthrow the Assad regime. The USA, under the administration of President Barack Obama, approved large amounts of money as nonlethal aid to Syria. Hence, it is apparent that a large proportion of rebel weaponry came from foreign sources. 14 Rise of ISIL and the reactionary formation of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF)
The formation of ISIL occurred in 2014. (Note that although the group calls itself Islamic State, this name is not used as it has negative connotations for the Islamic community as a whole. Hence it is referred to as ISIL – the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant). ISIL soon expanded its influence, conquering large swathes of land in Iraq and Syria. At its peak, ISIL ruled over a population of 8 million people. The enormous territory under ISIL, along with the brutality of its methods and the threat posed by it to regional stability and security called for immediate action against it. In October 2015, several Christian, Arab and Kurdish militias came together to form the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF)15, a coalition to form a federal, secular and democratic Syria. The People’s Protection Forces (YPG), a prominent Kurdish militia, leads it. It is now the primary
12 Westall, Sylvia, and Mahmoud Harby. “Kuwaitis Campaign Privately to Arm Syrian Rebels.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 26 June 2013, www.reuters.com/article/syria-kuwait-arms/kuwaitis-campaign-privately-to-arm- syrian-rebels-idINDEE95P08A20130626.
13 “National Defence Forces.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 31 May 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defence_Forces#Formation.
14 “Who Is Supplying Weapons to the Warring Sides in Syria?” BBC News, BBC, 14 June 2013, www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-22906965.
15 Al-Khalidi, Suleiman, and Tom Perry. “New Syrian Rebel Alliance Formed, Says Weapons on the Way.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 12 Oct. 2015, www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds/new-syrian-rebel-alliance- formed-says-weapons-on-the-way-idUSKCN0S60BD20151012.
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Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations 2019 security force of the self-declared autonomous Rojava region in North-eastern Syria. The SDF engaged in battle with ISIL, in order to defend its territory, and received a large amount of international support for doing so, particularly from the US and its coalition.16 Older existing militias, such as the FSA and the National Defence Forces too engaged in combat with ISIL for their individual protection and were aided by international powers and the Syrian government17. Hence, ISIL played a major role in militarisation in Syria.
Syrian Train and Equip Program and Operation Timber Sycamore
The Syrian Train and Equip program was an overt program run by the US government to train and arm rebel soldiers to fight ISIL directly on the ground in Syria, at a reported cost of nearly $1 billion.18 Operation Timber Sycamore was a covert operation by the CIA to arm Syrian rebels to aid them in their efforts to overthrow the Assad regime. It provided Kalashnikov rifles, mortars, rocket- propelled grenades, anti-tank guided missiles, night-vision goggles, pickup trucks, and other weapons to prospective Syrian rebel forces. It was phased out in 2017.19 The parts played by these programs in the militarisation of militias should be noted in the context of their purpose, i.e., the elimination of ISIL, which is no longer valid. Moreover, supplied weapons are suspected to have been smuggled out of Syria by rebels to raise funds (as shall be detailed under “Generalizing sources of armaments to the militias”. Hence, it is important to retrieve weapons of such a lethal nature back (particularly heavy artillery) from Syrian rebels.
Religious and ethnic motives behind militias in Syria
A large number of militias in Syria are part of the fight due to religious reasons. Examples include the radical Islamic militias in Syria (Salafists), such as the ISIL and al-Nusra Front, and the Christian militias in the SDF. Iran has set up a large number of Shia militias in Syria to fight ISIL (which considers Shias as infidels and has killed thousands of them). These militias also
16 Al Rifai, Diana. “US Supplies Weapons to Syrian Opposition Group.” News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 17 Dec. 2015, www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/12/supplies-weapons-syrian-opposition-group-151217060221279.html.
17 “Opposition–ISIL Conflict during the Syrian Civil War.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 2 Mar. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition%E2%80%93ISIL_conflict_during_the_Syrian_Civil_War.
18 “Syria Train and Equip Fund.” Syria Train and Equip Fund | Security Assistance Monitor, securityassistance.org/content/syria%20train%20and%20equip%20fund.
19 Mazzetti, Mark, et al. “Behind the Sudden Death of a $1 Billion Secret C.I.A. War in Syria.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 2 Aug. 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/08/02/world/middleeast/cia-syria-rebel- arm-train-trump.html.
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Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations 2019 import fighters from Pakistan and Afghanistan. In fact, Pakistanis and Afghans have been organised into their own militias (Liwa Zainabiyoun and Liwa Fatemiyoun respectively).20 Iran has also enlisted the aid of the Lebanese Hezbollah, a powerful terrorist group, in its fight against ISIL. Most militias are organised for the service and defence of one ethnic group or tribe, like the YPG or the Syriac Military Council21 (Christian militias). Very few of them are pan-ethnic, excluding coalitions. Thus, ethnicity is a major factor in militarisation. Therefore, any solution involving demilitarisation must also bear in mind the role of ethnic and religious divides and work for unity in Syrian society. Generalising sources of armaments to the militias
The multiple militias in Syria have several general sources of armament, although the specifics may vary from group to group. Prominent ones include illegal black markets22, smuggled arms, spoils of battles, and international or domestic governmental support. In fact, members of the Syrian Arab Army themselves have been known to steal arms from storehouses and sell them to rebels on the black market.23 Illegals arms markets are abundant in Syria with locally made guns being extremely popular. Arms have even been smuggled extensively into Syria, particularly from Lebanon24, Turkey25 and Iran. Extremist organisations like the al-Nusra Front have obtained their arms directly from al-Qaeda. Demilitarisation processes must involve checking these general sources of armaments to militias in order to build pressure on the militias to reduce their numbers due to a sheer lack of arms.
20 “Iranian Forces and Shia Militias in Syria.” British Israel Communications and Research Centre, BICOM, Mar. 2018, www.bicom.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Briefing-Iranian-forces-and-Shia-militias-in-Syria-April- update.pdf.
21 Khalel, Sheren, and Matthew Vickery. “Syria's Christians Fight Back.” Foreign Policy, Foreign Policy, 25 Feb. 2015, foreignpolicy.com/2015/02/24/syrias-christians-fight-back-assyrian-militias/.
22 Moreau, Madeleine. “Booming Business for Weapons Dealers in Iraq - GRI Insight.” Global Risk Insights, 14 Dec. 2014, globalriskinsights.com/2014/12/booming-business-black-market-weapons-dealers-iraq-syria/
23 Blanford, Nicholas. “Profit Trumps Principle on Syria Weapons Black Market.” The Christian Science Monitor, The Christian Science Monitor, 4 Feb. 2014, www.csmonitor.com/World/Security-Watch/2014/0204/Profit- trumps-principle-on-Syria-weapons-black-market 24 “Syria Conflict: Qusair's Strategic Importance.” BBC News, BBC, 5 June 2013, www.bbc.com/news/world-middle- east-22595767. 25 Al-Khalidi, Suleiman. “Turkey Sends Weapons to Syrian Rebels Facing Russian-Backed...” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 25 May 2019, www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-idlib/turkey-sends-weapons-to-syrian-rebels-facing-russian- backed-assault-syrian-sources-idUSKCN1SV0FA .
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Uses of supplied weaponry beyond counter-extremism
As stated above, weapons supplied to rebels in Syria have been extensively used for purposes other than counter-extremism. Weapons supplied through operation Timber Sycamore to Syrian rebels were smuggled through Southern Syria into Jordan, where they were in turn sold to ISIL itself, often within weeks, thus making the entire operation self-sabotaging26 - a major cause for it being phased out. There is no reason to believe that this illegal smuggling has stopped with existing stockpiles. Moreover, the YPG and the PKK (Kurdistan Workers Party) have very strong ties (with Turkey considering them virtually the same entity), and the two organisations have seen exchange of troops as well. Given that the PKK is a designated terrorist organisation by several states27 (excluding the UN) and is vigorously leading a separatist movement, there is a strong possibility indicating that weapons supplied to the SDF went to the PKK and thus contributed to regional instability in Turkey.28 Thus, it is apparent that weapons supplied by foreign parties to Syria can and have ended up in the hands of extremist organisations. These weapons need to be withdrawn immediately to curb the further rise of extremism in the Middle East.
Impact of the economy
The crippled economy of Syria, has led to stagnation in industrial growth and lack of jobs. Unemployment and poverty have had large impacts on the Syrian War29. Pursuit of money has led several unemployed men, and even children, to the militias, where they are paid for their services in war. Such an abundant supply of manpower for the militias has helped general militarisation. 30
26 Mazzetti, Mark, and Ali Younes. “C.I.A. Arms for Syrian Rebels Supplied Black Market, Officials Say.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 26 June 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/06/27/world/middleeast/cia-arms-for-syrian- rebels-supplied-black-market-officials-say.html 27 “Foreign Terrorist Organizations - United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, 8 Oct. 1997, www.state.gov/foreign-terrorist-organizations/. 28 “ The US Denies Ties between the YPG and PKK. This Is How They're Linked.” The US Denies Ties between the YPG and PKK. This Is How They're Linked, 12 Nov. 2018, www.trtworld.com/magazine/the-us-denies-ties-between-the-ypg-and- pkk-this-is-how-they-re-linked-21593 . 29 “The Visible Impacts of the Syrian War May Only Be the Tip of the Iceberg.” World Bank, The World Bank, www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2017/07/18/the-visible-impacts-of-the-syrian-war-may-only-be-the- tip-of-the-iceberg . 30 Luck, Taylor. “As Syrian Rebels' Losses Mount, Teenagers Begin Filling Ranks.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 24 Aug. 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/as-syrian-rebels-losses-mount-teenagers-begin-filling- ranks/2013/08/24/2bdbdfea-0a8f-11e3-9941-6711ed662e71_story.html?utm_term=.212542cab6c7 .
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Moreover, War-based industries, such as illegal arms markets and arms trafficking, have sprung up to cater to the militias. Even members of the Syrian Army partake in these activities. Drug smuggling, particularly of the substance Captagon31, is rampant and is a major source of funds for the militias. The cash-strapped government of Syria is unable to make any improvements to broken infrastructure. This, combined with the crippled economy, has cultivated further anti-incumbency in several regions. Also, a shortage of staff and infrastructure in the education sector has made children susceptible to “alternative” education by militias, a farce for indoctrination and propaganda. Clearly, any solutions for demilitarisation must also work to solve the economic problems in Syria, as the two are intimately linked. Solving the economic crisis can prevent any further militarisation from occurring in Syrian society. Major problems faced in demilitarisation
Demilitarisation of militias in Syria faces several hurdles. Firstly, there is no incentive for militias to demilitarise until all their opponents do as well. Hence, demilitarisation has to be completely mutual. Secondly, in the event of a withdrawal of weapons, there is no certain way of confirming the true stockpiles of weapons possessed by the militias. Thirdly, militias have established independent networks of funding and supply chains of weapons now, which are difficult to contain. These issues will need to be resolved for demilitarisation to be successful. Major Countries and Organizations Involved
United States of America
The United States of America has played a major role in the Syrian Civil War. As stated previously, not only has it supplied arms to and trained Syrian rebels and the SDF, but has also sent several of its own military personnel into Syria for direct engagement with ISIL. In fact, the USA is the single largest foreign supplier of arms to Syrian militias, thus playing a major role in their militarisation. Hence, it has the potential to also play an equally major role in their demilitarisation. The USA has formed the Combined Joint Task Force as part of its Operation Inherent Resolve, comprising of military forces from the USA and 80 other countries32, and even NATO forces. It is estimated to have spent tens of billions of dollars for military involvement in
31 Bambury, Brent. “Meet Captagon, the Nightmare Drug Fuelling Syria's Civil War | CBC Radio.” CBCnews, CBC/Radio Canada, 2 June 2017, www.cbc.ca/radio/day6/episode-340-amphetamines-in-syria-stanley-cup-bassist-noriega-s-pen- pal-subversive-board-games-and-more-1.4139584/meet-captagon-the-nightmare-drug-fuelling-syria-s-civil-war- 1.4139601 . 32 “Partners.” The Global Coalition Against Daesh, theglobalcoalition.org/en/partners/.
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Syria, and in the 2019 fiscal year alone, $19.3 billion has been33 allocated to the Pentagon for the same. This money has been used in part to aid militias. However, President Donald Trump has recently announced an almost complete pullout of US troops from Syria in light of ISIL’ s defeat, which is likely to severely impact the War. The USA and the Russian Federation are believed to be using Syria as a proxy war, and arming opposing militias is part of this indirect conflict.34
Russian Federation
The Russian Federation has supported the Syrian government and the Assad regime. It has deployed military personnel on the ground and has provided military support in terms of airstrikes, mostly to counter rebel militias. It has also trained and deployed a pro-regime volunteer force called the Fifth Corps, to fight alongside the Syrian Army.35 Russia is believed to have relationships with other pro-regime groups like the Palestinian Quds brigade. As stated before, Russia and the USA are believed to be using Syria as a proxy war, and supporting opposing militias is a part of this indirect conflict.
Republic of Turkey
Turkey has played an important role in the Syrian Civil War from the start. It is against the Assad regime, and was the first to provide training and support to defectors from the Syrian army who later went on to form the FSA. 36It has also formed its own Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army (different from the FSA)37, and has led military operations in Syria from 2016. These have been against both ISIL and Kurdish militias, as part of its war against Kurdish separatists. Turkish intelligence is believed to have played a crucial role in training rebels.
33 Rainey, Michael. “Cost of War in Syria Is Rising.” The Fiscal Times, 11 Apr. 2018, www.thefiscaltimes.com/2018/04/11/Cost-War-Syria-Rising.
34 Barmin, Yury. “Syria and the Beginning of a New Cold War.” Middle East | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 22 Apr. 2018, www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/syria-beginning-cold-war-180422075430047.html
35 “Russian Military Contractors Train Syrian Army's 5th Corps (PHOTOS).” Al, News Desk, 10 Feb. 2019, www.almasdarnews.com/article/russian-military-contractors-train-syrian-armys-5th-corps-photos/.
36 Manna, Haytham. “Syria's Opposition Has Been Led Astray by Violence | Haytham Manna.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 22 June 2012, www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jun/22/syria-opposition-led- astray-by-violence.
37 Ashawi, Khalil. “Syrian Rebels Build an Army with Turkish Help, Face Challenges.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 12 Aug. 2018, www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-force/syrian-rebels-build-an-army-with-turkish-help- face-challenges-idUSKBN1KX05Y.
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Islamic Republic of Iran
Iran has emerged as a major player in Syria. It is a supporter of the Assad regime in Syria. Iran has provided direct military support to the Syrian government, but its biggest contribution lies in its militia program. As stated, it has enlisted the help of the Lebanese Hezbollah, and foreign fighters from Iraq, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Iran has also allegedly trained the NDF, and about 2100 Iranian soldiers have been killed in the war.38 According to the US Department of Defence, Iran has spent about 21 billion dollars in the War.39 Iran and Saudi Arabia are believed to be using the war as an extension of their rivalry for regional dominance in the Middle East, and that is one of the principal reasons for them having armed militias on opposing sides.40
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is one of the major parties in the Syrian Civil War. It is against the Assad regime and has been actively been involved in funding and aiding rebel groups in Syria.41 It was a part of Operation Timber Sycamore and has been responsible for smuggling weapons into Syria from the Jordanian and Turkish borders.42 However, it is suspected to have supplied weapons to terrorist groups as well, including the al-Qaeda associated al-Nusra front.43 It has, since 2017, disengaged from the rebel groups and now has adopted a more conciliatory stance towards the Assad regime, which has reduced the support given to militias. As stated above, Saudi Arabia
38 “Tehran: 2,100 Iranian Soldiers Killed in Syria and Iraq.” Middle East Monitor, 7 Mar. 2018, www.middleeastmonitor.com/20180307-tehran-2100-iranian-soldiers-killed-in-syria-and-iraq/.
39 “Outlaw Regime: A Chronicle of Iran's Destructive Activities.” Wayback Machine, US Department of State, web.archive.org/web/20180926082500/https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/286410.pdf.
40 Barnes-Dacey, Julien. “Saudi–Iranian Rivalry and the Impact on the Syrian Conflict.” Middle East Centre, 29 June 2018, blogs.lse.ac.uk/mec/2018/06/22/saudi-iranian-rivalry-and-the-impact-on-the-syrian-conflict/.
41 Chivers, C. J., and Eric Schmitt. “Saudis Step Up Help for Rebels in Syria With Croatian Arms.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 26 Feb. 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/02/26/world/middleeast/in-shift-saudis-are-said-to- arm-rebels-in-syria.html?pagewanted=all.
42 Norton, Ben. “CIA and Saudi Weapons for Syrian Rebels Fueled Black Market Arms Trafficking, Report Says.” Salon, Salon.com, 28 June 2016, www.salon.com/control/2016/06/28/cia_and_saudi_weapons_for_syrian_rebels_fueled_black_market_arms_traf ficking_report_says/.
43 Sengupta, Kim. “Turkey and Saudi Arabia Shock Western Countries by Supporting Anti-Assad Jihadists in Syria.” The Independent, Independent Digital News and Media, 13 May 2015, www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle- east/syria-crisis-turkey-and-saudi-arabia-shock-western-countries-by-supporting-anti-assad-jihadists- 10242747.html.
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Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations 2019 and Iran are believed to be using the conflict to advance their rivalry for regional dominance, thus having armed opposing militias.
Syrian Arab Republic
The Syrian government has fought the rebel militias since 2011 and have lost thousands of soldiers. The government has also sponsored the formation of several militias to aid the Army in its fight, notably the NDF. The NDF has been given funds, arms and training by the Syrian Army. The government has also aided the Shabiha, an Alawi Muslim militia.44 The Syrian Arab Republic will play a major role in the demilitarization process, as almost all initiatives aimed towards demilitarization will require government approval and cooperation.
Islamic Republic of Pakistan
Pakistan has maintained a relatively neutral stance on the issue of the Syrian Civil War, and has not supported any militias. However, it has clearly stated that it is against any attempt to overthrow President Assad.45 Pakistani citizens on the other hand, especially those from the Shia Muslim community, have travelled as fighters to Syria for years, and have been trained by Iranian forces for this purpose. They are organized into a militia known as the Liwa Zainabiyoun. The high salaries offered by the Iran government incentivize them.46 The Pakistani government has not taken major steps to curb this outflow of people.
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
The Afghan state has not been involved in the Syrian Civil War much, probably due to Afghanistan having its own stability problems. However, similarly to Pakistan, Shia Afghans have travelled to Iran and Syria extensively and have been trained by the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps to fight in the War for the Assad government and against rebel militias and ISIL.47 They have a special brigade known as Liwa Fatemiyoun whose exact strength is ambiguous, but is
44 “Syria Unrest: Who Are the Shabiha?” BBC News, BBC, 29 May 2012, www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east- 14482968.
45 Haider, Mateen. “Syrian Crisis: Pakistan against Any Attempt to Topple Bashar Al-Assad.” DAWN.COM, 24 Dec. 2015, www.dawn.com/news/1228523.
46 Reuters. “Iran Recruits Pakistani Shias for Combat in Syria.” The Express Tribune, 11 Dec. 2015, tribune.com.pk/story/1007694/iran-recruits-pakistani-shias-for-combat-in-syria/.
47 Smyth, Phillip. “Iran's Afghan Shiite Fighters in Syria.” Iran's Afghan Shiite Fighters in Syria - The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 3 June 2014, www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/irans-afghan-shiite- fighters-in-syria.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has played a major role in the Syrian Civil War in the form of action against ISIL. Operation Shader is the name of a military operation by the British army against ISIL, which has comprised mainly airstrikes along with some deployed personnel. The UK is against the Assad regime, and has provided monetary aid to Syrian rebel groups along with training, but both these programs have now been halted. 49 50
French Republic
The French Republic has also been an active participant in the Syrian Civil War. It has conducted a special operation, Operation Chammal against the ISIL, which mainly consists of airstrikes. France has also supported rebel groups in Syria like the Free Syrian Army.51 Moreover, it has aided the SDF and YPG in the form of arms and advice, and has sent security personnel to Syria to guide and train personnel for anti-ISIL operations.52 This has led to France being put in a conflicting position with Turkey due to France’s support of Kurdish militias.
State of Kuwait
As stated in the section “Early formation, support and armament of the militias”, Kuwait played a major role in the early stages of the Free Syrian Army. Kuwait has also undertaken direct military intervention in Syria.
48 Jamal, Ahmad Shuja. “The Fatemiyoun Army: Reintegration into Afghan Society.” United States Institute of Peace, 19 Mar. 2019, www.usip.org/publications/2019/03/fatemiyoun-army-reintegration-afghan-society.
49 Ensor, Josie, and Roland Oliphant. “Britain Withdraws Last of Troops Training Syrian Rebels as World Powers Distance Themselves from Opposition.” The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, 3 Sept. 2017, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/09/02/british-troops-halt-training-syrian-rebels-world-powers-distance/.
50 McKernan, Bethan. “UK Cuts Aid Funding for Programmes in Rebel-Held Syria.” The Independent, Independent Digital News and Media, 20 Aug. 2018, www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-uk-aid-cut-rebels-assad- regime-civil-war-a8499731.html.
51 “France's Hollande Hints at Arming Syrian Rebels.” France 24, 20 Sept. 2013, www.france24.com/en/20130920-france- says-ready-arm-syrian-rebels-hollande-assad-fsa-islamists.
52 Moore, Jack. “France Admits Special Forces Operating on Ground with Rebels in Syria.” Newsweek, Newsweek, 18 June 2016, www.newsweek.com/france-admits-special-forces-operating-ground-rebels-syria-468434.
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Kingdom of Jordan
Jordan has routinely conducted airstrikes against ISIL, and also used to act as a point of transit of weapons between supplying nations and rebel groups.53 This has been discontinued, but Jordan is still believed to be supplying weapons to select militias.54 As stated in “Uses of supplied weaponry beyond counter-extremism”, Jordan is also believed to be a point of smuggling for supplied weapons in Syria.
Lebanon The Lebanese government itself has had limited involvement in the Syrian Civil War. However, rebel and pro-government militias have previously fought each other on Lebanese soil. The Lebanese Hezbollah, a powerful terrorist group, operates from the nation and has played a major role in fighting for the Syrian government against the rebel forces and ISIL. It has even tried stopping the spill over of the Syrian war into Lebanon. It is worth noting that the Lebanese Hezbollah is a militia in itself, and is believed to be the most powerful non-state actor in the world.55 Germany Germany has been involved in the Syrian civil war for a long time, having funded Syrian rebels with tens of millions of euros.56 Germany is even possibly considering stepping up air support in Northern Syria to protect Kurdish forces from Turkish military action.57 However, Germany has, through the years, maintained a policy of minimal military involvement in Syria. Syrian Democratic Forces
53 Sands, Phil. “Syrian Rebels Get Arms and Advice through Secret Command Centre in Amman.” The National, The National, 28 Dec. 2013, www.thenational.ae/world/syrian-rebels-get-arms-and-advice-through-secret- command-centre-in-amman-1.455590.
54 Rumman, Mohammed Abu. “Jordanian National Security: The Transition of ‘External’ Threat Sources.” Centre for Strategic Studies, 29 Jan. 2017, jcss.org/ShowNewsAr.aspx?NewsId=517.
55 Blanford, Nicholas. “Hezbollah: In Syria for the Long Haul.” Middle East Institute, 18 Nov. 2014, www.mei.edu/publications/hezbollah-syria-long-haul.
56 Aboufadel, Leith. “Germany Secretly Paid Rebels in Syria Nearly €50 Million - Report.” AMN, 11 Nov. 2018, www.almasdarnews.com/article/germany-secretly-paid-rebels-in-syria-nearly-e50-million-report/.
57 Huggler, Justin. “Germany 'in Secret Talks to Send Aircraft to Patrol Syrian Safe Zone'.” The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, 30 May 2019, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/05/30/germany-secret-talks-send-aircraft- patrol-syrian-safe-zone/.
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The Syrian Democratic Forces hold the distinction of being the largest rebel coalition in Syria. They are mainly Kurdish-led, and are pan-ethnic in nature. They played an important role in defeating ISIL. However, due to their fight for autonomy in Rojava and their possible separatist actions, as well as their links to the PKK, their demilitarisation is important. The significant threat posed by the SDF to regional stability cannot be ignored.
National Defence Forces The National Defence Force is a prominent pro-regime militia, and a major supporter of the Syrian army. It is mainly engaged in fighting the rebel forces and even fought ISIL. However, due to reports of the NDF violating the Idlib demilitarization, it must be demilitarized
Timeline of Events
Date Description of event
th 15 March 2011 The Syrian Civil War officially begins, with major civilian unrest
29th July 2011 The Free Syrian Army is formed
Possible start of Russian and Iranian military aid to the Syrian government. The Lebanese Hezbollah also possibly begins to deploy January 2012 troops in Syria
Foreign support for the FSA, particularly in the form of armaments, March – May 2012 begins
1st November 2012 National Defence Forces formed
2013 Operation Timber Sycamore starts
The Islamic State in Iraq expands to form the Islamic State in Iraq and November 2013 the Levant
2014 The United States government launches the Train and Equip Program
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22nd September Direct US military involvement in Syria begins (Operation Inherent 2014 Resolve)
November 2014 The Liwa Fatemiyoun, an Afghan Shia militia backed by Iran, is formed
3rd December 2014 59 nations meet in Brussels to form a coalition to counter ISIL
30th September Russia, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and other Gulf States begin direct military 2015 involvement in the War
Relevant Treaties and Events
● The Sochi Agreement between Russia and Turkey, leading to the formation of the Idlib demilitarized zone.58 In it, Russia and Turkey agreed to the formation of a buffer zone between Turkish-backed rebel forces, Russian and government military forces and radical Islamist militias. Russian and Turkish forces are patrolling it. All heavy weaponry within the zone is to be withdrawn and all militias are to leave the zone. This was in response to a possible government attack on rebel forces holed up in Idlib, which might have led to heavy casualties. It is a major step towards demilitarization and can be replicated. However, its implementation continues to be a problem as pro-government forces and the Syrian military continue to breach its borders.59 Hence, measures have to be taken so that all parties agree to respect the boundaries of the zone. ● The Afghan New Beginnings Program60 (ANBP), launched by the Afghan government in 2005. It was overseen by the UNAMA. It involved taking demobilized Taliban fighters and reintegrating them into civilian life, much like the Congo. The program impacted an estimated 50000 fighters. Like a lot of other militias in Syria, the Taliban is also a
58 Al Jazeera. “Russia, Turkey Agree on Borders of Demilitarised Zone in Idlib.” News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 22 Sept. 2018, www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/09/russia-turkey-agree-borders-demilitarised-zone-idlib- 180921142500450.html .
59 al-Khateb, Khaled. “Syrian Military Keeps Shelling Idlib despite Demilitarized Zone.” Al - Monitor, 16 Apr. 2019, www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/04/turkish-patrols-military-idlib-syria-buffer-zone-rssuia.html .
60 Bhatia, Michael V., and Mark Sedra. Afghanistan, Arms and Conflict: Armed Groups, Disarmament and Security in a Post- War Society. Routledge, 2008.
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religious militia. The socio-economic backgrounds of Syria and Afghanistan are also similar. Moreover, Afghanistan also faced the problem of child-fighters. Hence, this program holds great relevance to Syria. ● Security Council Resolution 2348,61 on the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It is one of the few instances of the Security Council explicitly calling for specific militias to demilitarise (namely the FDLR). It also lays out steps for the implementation of the Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration plan for militias (DDR), an approach that involves disarming militias and integrating combatants into civilian life or the national military. The DDR is the primary policy followed by the UN for demilitarization. This approach is highly relevant with respect to Syria for two reasons. Firstly, it helps to emphasize the importance of socio-economic measures in demilitarization. Secondly, it addresses issues similar to those in Syria – illicit arms smuggling, child fighters and multi-national militias amongst others.
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
There have been few previous attempts to solve the issue, mainly because of the highly recent defeat of ISIL. Moreover, the focus has so far been on solving the larger issue of the entire civil war and achieving temporary ceasefires, rather than specifically addressing the demilitarization of militias. But with ISIL gone, there is an urgent need to demilitarize the militias in Syria to take concrete steps to de-escalate the conflict.
Possible Solutions
There is no clear path or solution to demilitarize all militias in Syria. Any solution must be multi-dimensional i.e. it must incorporate methods to deal with a large variety of issues, such as those mentioned above, in order to be effective at demilitarization. There are several methods to achieve this. For example, Russia, Turkey and Iran, in the next round of their on-going Astana talks, could possibly include representatives from militias and the Syrian government, and also the Lebanese Hezbollah. These new talks can aim for a temporary ceasefire in at least parts of Syria, as this is an important reassurance for the militias to demilitarize. These talks could also
61 “UNSCR Search Engine for the United Nations Security Council Resolutions.” UNSCR, United Nations Security Council, 31 Mar. 2017, unscr.com/en/resolutions/2348 .
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Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations 2019 include discussions on mutual demilitarization, as well as the issue of Rojava. Such negotiation- based tactics are important first steps.
A coordinated DDR program in Syria could also be launched, in cooperation with the UN Peacekeeping department, focusing on business incubation in Syria under government control, as well as setting up labour intensive industries which focus on infrastructure development. Rehabilitation centres for captured fighters can also be set up, for their effective reintegration and employment. The IMF and World Bank can be brought in on this program. The mandate of the UN Special Envoy to Syria can be possibly extended to oversee this project. This would help in ensuring that the demilitarization process is executed smoothly and all demilitarized personnel are dealt with effectively. The Special Envoy could also be empowered to cooperate with the Syrian government to work out a plan to promote ethnic unity in Syria through measures such as (but certainly not limited to) diversifying the military to include all ethnic and religious groups, or launching community outreach programs between the government and Syrians from all ethnic backgrounds. Ethnic unity is crucial to prevent further ethnicity-based radicalisation and militarisation. The UNCTAD (UN Conference on Trade and Development), through the Special Envoy’s office, could cooperate with the Syrian government in order to take measures to rebuild trade and industries. For example, advising the Syrian government on how to reform and repair its damaged infrastructure in order to make Syrian markets enticing for foreign and private investments, boosting entrepreneurship, or rebuilding its major industries in oil, minerals and textiles under safer, guarded environments. This would help rebuild the Syrian economy, thus effectively combating unemployment and helping to check anti-incumbency, which are major causes for militarisation. Interventions by the UNICEF are also necessary. These could be done in coordination with the Syrian government, in former rebel or ISIL held areas and state penitentiaries, to work with former or captured child-fighters and provide them with an education - both academic and ethical. This will help them find alternative career paths to violence while also possibly reversing the effects of ideological indoctrination by militias and ISIL. This is similar to measures taken in the ANBP.62
62 “2,000 Former Afghan Child Soldiers to Be Demobilized and Rehabilitated.” UNICEF, 27 Aug. 2004, www.unicef.org/media/media_19165.html.
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Another crucial step towards demilitarization would be reproducing the Idlib model of a demilitarized zone in other locations in Syria with low rebel concentrations, monitored by foreign actors in the region. The security in the current zone will have to be increased, however, to prevent any breaches of peace. To combat the problem of drug smuggling, the UNODC (UN Office on Drugs and Crime), through its regional offices, could cooperate with the Syrian government to lead a comprehensive crackdown on the drug industry within Syria. Such a program could also be extended to arms trafficking, possibly in cooperation with law enforcement agencies from neighbouring countries. Delegates should note that this list of solutions is by no means comprehensive. Delegates are encouraged to think of solutions different from those listed here, bearing in mind the feasibility and specific details of any such solution.
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lv. Ensor, Josie, and Roland Oliphant. “Britain Withdraws Last of Troops Training Syrian Rebels as World Powers Distance Themselves from Opposition.” The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, 3 Sept. 2017, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/09/02/british- troops-halt-training-syrian-rebels-world-powers-distance/. lvi. Moore, Jack. “France Admits Special Forces Operating on Ground with Rebels in Syria.” Newsweek, Newsweek, 18 June 2016, www.newsweek.com/france-admits-special- forces-operating-ground-rebels-syria-468434.
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