Eighteenth-Century Naval Officers, War, Culture and Society, 1750–1850, 224 INDEX

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Index

A Améen, Carl Ulrik, 145 Åberg, Henrik, 134, 137, 147 American navy, 216 Åberg, Jonas, 135 American War of Independence Åberg, Zackarias, 134 (1775–82) Able seaman rating, British navy, 22 Danish naval officers in, 179–180 Académie de Marine, 62 Dutch participation in, 113 Adelsvärd, Carl Gustaf, 145 French naval officers in, 55 Adler, Sebastian Magnus, 143, French role in, 48, 49, 60 146–147 impact on French navy, 65–66 Admiraal De Ruijter, 114 qualifying for lieutenant’s exam Admiral during, 27 Danish reservation for Spanish officers in, 85 social elite, 171 Spanish role in, 77, 85 as gerontocracy in French navy, 59 Amiral de France, 56 Admiralty College (Admiralteiskaia Andrew Doria, 113 kollegiia), Russia, 187, 193, 201, Angerstein, Johan Reinholt, 142 204–205 Anglo-French Alliance (1716–31), 49 Age of liberty, Sweden, 128 Anglo-Spanish War (1727–29), 75 Aggression, of British naval Anjala conspiracy of 1788, 132 officers, 32–37 Ankarloo, Fredrik Magnus, 149 Aire, John, 20, 29 Anna Ioannovna, Empress Algeciras, Battle of (1801), 35 of Russia, 192–198 Algiers, 102, 108 Anna Leopoldovna, Grand Duchess Allotment system, Swedish navy, 131 of Russia, 198 Ambulodi Montalvo, Antonio, 83 Anne, Queen of Great Britain, 21

Anson, Capt. George, 18, 24 Russian renewal of Apprentice seamen (aventureros), relations with, 198 Spanish navy, 78 British naval officers, 11–38 Apraksin, Adm. F. M., 187, 188 aggression, 32–37 Archipelago Expedition background and education, 19–23 (1769–74), 207 effectiveness vs. other European Arenfeldt, Lt., 173 naval officers, 13 Arethusa, 66 employment prospects, 23–30 Arriaga, Julián, 75 lieutenants’ exam, 13–18 Austria, Russian relations with, 196, promotion prospects, 29–33 199–200, 204 British navy Auxiliary naval service, Danish officers in, 178, 179 French officers in, 57 Dutch emulation of, 101 geopolitical goals of, 3 promotion of aggressive officer B culture in, 37–38 Bácaro Valcárcel, Antonio, 82 public’s reliance on success of, 35 Baltic Fleet, see Russian navy Russian officers in, 4 Baltic Sea, 127, 162 size of officer corps, 25–26 Barbary corsairs, 102 Swedish officer in, 147–148 Barrington, 22 Bruijn, Jaap, 100 Batavian Republic, 117–119 Brunswick-Lüneburg, Louis Ernest, Batavian Revolution of 1795, 118 Duke of, 114 Belle Poule, 66 Bylandt, Lt.-Adm. Lodewijk, Count Bestuzhev-Riumin, Vice-Chancellor of, 113–114, 116 Aleksei Petrovich, 200 Byng, George, 1st Viscount Bézout, Etienne, 62 Torrington, 33 Bickerton, Sir Richard Hussey, 27 Byng, John, 33–35 Billing, Thomas, 147 Bilton, John, 22 Biographia Navalis (Charnock), 11 C Bligh, Capt. William, 18 Cadets and cadet schools Borda, Chevalier de, 65 Danish, 162 Bounty, 18 French, 49, 56 (see also Naval Bourbons, military reforms of, 73–74 academies) Bourgeoisie, see Middle class Russian, 201 Boynes, Bourgeois de, 55 Swedish, 136–137, 143–145 Brandon, Pepijn, 103 Cádiz, siege of, 77 Bredal, V-Adm. Peter, 199, 202–203 Camperdown, Battle of (1797), 119 Brewer, Jon, 3 Campredon, Jacques de, 191–192 Britain Cape St. Vincent, Battle of (1751), officers’ role in naval supremacy, 77, 84 11–13 Cape Santa Maria, Battle of (1780), 85 INDEX 225

Capes, Battle of the (1781), 50 Chef de division, 57 Capitaine de frégate, 57 Chefs d’escadre, 56 Capitaine de vaisseau, 56 Children Capitaine en second, 56 in British navy, 21 Caps Party, Sweden, 128, 196 in Danish navy, 173 Captain’s servant rating, in Swedish navy, 136, 138, 139 British navy, 22 Choiseul Praslin, duc de, 54, 58 Career progression Christian VI, King of Denmark, 175 British naval officers, 29–33 Class, socioeconomic challenges of staying fully British naval officers’ origins, 18–23 employed, 4 commissions as reserved for Danish naval officers, 168–174 gentlemen, 15–16 (see also Dutch naval officers, 104, 108, 120 Middle class) French naval officers, 54, 56–60 negotiating multiple class origins, 3 overall development of systems for, (see also Social elite) 216–219 (see also Promotion Class training, see Theoretical vs. prospects) practical skills training Russian naval officers, 201–204, Colonialism, naval officers’ 207 (see also Service at sea) participation in, 47–66, 85 Spanish naval officers, 82–87 Commanders, in British navy Swedish naval officers, 134–140, structure, 24 145–155 Commissioning Carné, Captain de, 65 British officers, 19–21, 25 Castejón, González de, 75 Danish officers, 167–170 Castellane-Majastres, marquis Henri- French expansion beyond nobility, César de, 50 49–53 Castries, maréchal de, 55, 57 Swedish purchase system, 138–139 Catherine I, Empress of Russia, Commodore 190–193 duties of Danish, 173 Catherine the Great (II), Empress of French equivalent, 57 Russia, 204–208 Commoners, expansion of Champigny, Jacques-Charles French naval commissions Bochart de, 47 to, 49–53, 56 Chapman, Fredrik Henrik, 130, 133 See also Middle class Charisius, Petrus, 101 Compagnie des Indes, 57 Charles III, King of Spain, 75 Company captains, Danish navy, 169 Charles IV, King of Spain, 77 Conflans, comte de, 59 Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, 192 Construction Committee Charles XII, King of Sweden, 128 (Konstruktionskommissionen), Charnock, John, 11 Danish naval officer Chartres, duc de, 51 service on, 180 Châteaubriand, François-René de, 60 Córdoba, Luis de, 84 226 INDEX

Couëdic de Kergoualer, De Witt, Johan, 101 Charles-Louis du, 66 Dirks, Backer, 103 Cowardice, Royal Navy’s Dischingtun, Capt. Job, 170 intolerance for, 37 Discipline Crown, Sir Robert, 30 Danish navy’s Naval Articles, 176 Cruys, V-Adm. Cornelius, 186 French navy’s problems with, 61 Russian navy’s problems with, 190 Spanish navy’s problems with, 81 D Division commanders, Danish navy, 168 Daendels, Lt.-Gen. H.W., 118–119 Dogger Bank, Battle of the, 99, 108, Danish naval officers, 161 113–116 career progression, 168–174 d’Orvilliers, Admiral, 62, 64 education, 165–168 Dragon, 22 foreign service, 177–180 Duelling, 37, 177 Naval Articles, 175–177 Duke of Bedford, 24 as peacetime spies, 5 Duncan, Adm. Adam, 119 Danish navy Dutch naval officers, 99–121 geopolitical stability of, 3 career progression, 104, 108, 120 rivalry with Sweden, 163 education and training, 107, 109 size of officer corps, 172 foreign naval service, 5 strength and structure, 162–165 in Russian navy, 185–186 Swedish officer’s professionalization, 104, experience with, 148 106–107, 120 Danneskiold-Samsøe, Adm. Frederik social context, 107, 116, 120–121 Count, 175–176 Dutch navy Dean, John, 190 Danish officers in, 178 Death, common causes of, 5, 155 emulation of British navy, 101 De Beschermer, 146 power trajectory during 18th De Genoveva Maria, 147 century, 100–103 De Goeade Rack, 146 size of officer corps, 169–170 de Grasse, comte, 65 Swedish navy and, 135 De Jonge Rombont, 147 Swedish officers in, 146–147 De Kruyff, Jan, 99–100 Dutch Republic, 99–121 De La Clocheterie, Jean-Isaac in American War of Chadeau, 66 Independence, 113 Denmark, Russian restoration of French invasion of, 103, 113, 117 relations with, 196 politics and political identity, 99, d’Eoux, Raymondis, 59 100, 108–112 De Ruyter, Adm. Michiel, 100, Dutch West Indies, 102 101, 113 Dutchness’, Patriot-Orangist struggle Desertion rates, Swedish navy, 150 and, 115–116 d’Estaing, comte, 51 Duty and honour, 36 De Winter, V-Adm J.W., 118–119 See also Honour, culture of INDEX 227

E Spanish officers, 79, 82–84 Education and training, 214–217 Swedish officers, 134–135, 151 British, 19–23, 215–216 Farquharson, Henry, 188 Danish, 164–168 Ferdinand VI, King of Spain, 75 Dutch, 107, 109 Finnish galley squadron, 129 French, 53–56, 215 First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–54), 101 overview, 4 Fiscal-military state, 3 Russian, 187–188, 201–202, Fontenay, Caspar Frederic 204–207 le sage de, 168 Spanish, 77, 78, 80–83 Foreign naval service Swedish, 131, 134–137, 141–145 British officers serving in, 29 Ekholmsund, 150 commonality of, 220 Ekna, Daniel Stråle af, 143 Danish officers serving in, 162, 167, Elizaveta Petrovna, Empress of Russia, 177–180 198–201 Danish recruitment of foreign Employment prospects officers, 165, 167 British naval officers, 23–30, Dutch officers serving in, 105, 147 36, 38 Russian officers serving in, 4, challenges of finding regular, 4–5 189, 198 Dutch naval officers, 104–106, 108 Russian recruitment of foreign (see also Foreign naval service) officers, 187, 189, 190, 198, 206 French naval officers, 63 Swedish naval officers serving in, peacetime challenges, 217–218 146–147 Swedish naval officers, 151 Swedish recruitment of foreign Enfants du corps, 53 officers, 138 Enrolment system, Danish, 169–170 Formidable, 65 Ensenada, marquis of, 75, 81 Fourth Anglo-Dutch War Escadres d’évolutions (1780–84), 113 (training cruises), 62 Frederick II, King of Prussia, 204 État de la Marine, 47 Frederick IV, King of Denmark, 165 Ethics of nobility, French naval Frederick V, King of Denmark, 175 officers, 60–63 French army, invasion of Dutch Republic, 101, 103, 113, 117 French naval officers F British midshipman’s view of, 2 Family naval service career progression, 56–60 British officers, 30–32 diverse social backgrounds of, 50–53 Danish officers, 165 education and training, 53–56 Dutch officers, 104 ethics of nobility, 60–63 French officers, 50–53, 60 influence on Danish academy, 165 as primary professionalization service at sea, 63–66 method, 213 social class vs. practical skills for Russian officers, 202 officers, 15 228 INDEX

French navy Russian role in, 185 attack on Russian frigates during War Sweden’s role in, 128–129, 133, of the Polish Succession, 197 140, 151–153 at Cadiz during Trafalgar Greig, Samuel, 220–221 campaign, 35 Guardiamarinas (Spanish collapse and rebuilding of, 48–50 midshipmen), 77–80 Danish officers in, 178–180 Guichen, du Bouëxic de, 52 overstaffing of officers vs. British Gustav III, King of Sweden, 130, 132, navy, 60 133, 207 size of officer corps, 48–50, 57 Gustav II’s Russian War (1788–90), Swedish naval officer’s experience 130, 140 with, 147–148 French Revolution, 26, 27, 66 H Half-pay for officers not assigned to G ship duty, 25, 28 Ganteaume, V-Adm. Honoré, 37 Hampshire, 22 Gardes de la Marine (naval cadets), Hankerson, Thomas, 27 49, 56 Hannibal, 35 Gardes du Pavillon amiral, 49, 54, 56 Hats party, Sweden, 128, 129, 132, 198 Geographical background Hawke, Sir Edward, 27, 34 French naval officer shifts in, 52 Haykens, Mentet, 110 importance to the French, 60 Henck, Mikael Gottlieb, 155 Spanish naval officer shifts in, 79 Hereditary titles, see Social elite George I, King of United Hermione, 66 Kingdom, 192 Hoche, Gen. Lazare, 118 George III, King of the United Holland, see Dutch Republic Kingdom, 16 Holmen naval base, Denmark, 162 Gerner, Henrik, 167 Honour, culture of, 5 Gibraltar, siege of (1782), 85 for British naval officers, 35–37 Glete, Jan, 3, 5, 132 Danish Naval Articles, 176 Golitsyn, Gen-Adm. M. M., 204 for Spanish officers, 84 Golovin, Adm. N. F., 199, 202–204 Horn, Arvid, 196 Gordon, Adm. Thomas, 197 Hossler, Martin, 190 Grand Corps, 50–51, 57 Huguenots, 180 Grant, George, 22 Grasse, comte de, 55, 61 Grave, Lt-Adm. Hendrik, 103 I Great Belt, 170 Impress Service, 12, 29 Great Northern War (1700–21) Informes reservados (officer assessment, Danish role in, 163–165, 177 Spanish navy), 79, 80 financial consequences for Russia Inglis, Charles, 32 from, 191 Ireland, Batavian Republic’s failed Russian naval buildup during, 186 invasion attempt, 118–119 INDEX 229

Isles du Vent (Leeward Islands), 48 Lieutenants’ exam, British, 13–18, Ivan VI, Emperor of Russia, 198 25, 82 Lieutenants généraux des armées navales, 56 K Lilliehorn, Per, 155 Kaisarov, Capt., 199 Louis XIV, King of France, 48, 51, 52, Kantemir, Prince Antiokh 61, 101 Dmitreevich, 198 Louis XV, King of France, 52 Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein- Louis XVI, King of France, 61 Gottorp, 192 Lous, Chr. Carl, 167 Karl Leopold, Duke of Mecklenburg- Schwerin, 192, 193 Karlskrona naval base, Sweden, 129, M 132, 163 Mac Nemara, Jean-Baptiste, 62 Keats, Richard Godwin, 35 Major de vaisseau, 57 Kersaint, Captain de, 65 Manners, Charles, 26–27 King, Richard, 22 Marseillais, 50 Klercker, Karl Ulrik af, 138 Master and commander, 24, 57 Knights of Malta, 61 Master’s mate rating, British navy, 23 Kräckel, Johan Georg, 154 Maurepas, comte de, 48, 63 Krassow, Wilhelm von, 155 Mazarredo, José, 86 Mecklenburg, Duchy of, 192, 193 Media polemics in Dutch political L debate, 111 La Belliqueux, 179 Menshikov, Prince, 191–193 La Fargue, Jean Thomas, 110–111 Merchant marine La Touche-Tréville, Louis-René British naval officers in, 21, 29 Levassor de, 66 Danish naval officers in, 180 Landed or titled families, 19, 24 Dutch naval officers in, 105 See also Social elite French naval officers in, 52 Latouche, Charles-Augustin Russia’s manpower issue and Lecassor de, 63 lack of, 190 Laub, Michael Georg, 179 Swedish naval officers in, 145, Le Havre naval academy, 54–55 147–148 Leszczyn´ ski, Stanisław, 197 Swedish navy’s minimal use of, 131 Lieutenant Merchants and professionals, see British naval officers, 24–25 Middle class Danish naval officers, 166, 173 Merit French naval officers, 56 in British navy’s promotion system, Swedish naval officers, 138–139, 30–32 149–151 coupling with family connections, Lieutenant de frégate, 57 213–214 230 INDEX

Merit (cont.) Naval Articles, Danish, 175–177 in Spanish navy’s promotion system, Naval heroism, importance for the 86–87 Dutch, 115–116 Middle class Naval Noble Cadet Corps (Morskoi British naval officers from, 19–20 shliakhetnyi kadetskii korpus), 201 Danish naval officers from, 165 Naval officers, unique duty vs. honour and British naval responsibilities of, 3 officers, 36 Navies and Nations (Glete), 5 French naval officers from, 50 Nelson, Adm. Horatio, 1st Viscount as secondary source for naval Nelson, 11, 18, 29, 35, 36 officers, 214–215 The Netherlands, see Dutch Republic Swedish naval officers from, 141 Nine Years’ War (1688–97), 101 Midshipman rating, British navy, 22 Nobility, see Social elite Militarization, French adoption of, 63 Non-commissioned officers, French Milne, Sir David, 29 promotion to officer status, 52 Mishukov, V-Adm. Zakhar Danilovich, Norden, Frederik Ludvig, 167 199, 201, 203, 204 Northumberland, 59 Mitau, 197 Norwegian naval officers Monceau, Duhamel du, 62 (Danish navy), 165–166 Monge, Gaspard, 55 Moras, François Marie Peyrenc de, 54 Mordvinov, V-Adm. N. S., 205, 206 O Morogues, Capt. Bigot de, 62 O’Brien, V-Adm. Christopher, 203 Moyua Mazarredo, Francisco, 83 Officiers bleus, 51, 57 Mutiny Officiers de la marine, defined, 47 Danish navy’s punishment for, 176 Öland, 155 Swedish problem with, 130 Orde, Sir John, 35–36 Order of Malta, 50, 206 Ordinances for the Navy, N Spain, 75–77 Nagaev, Capt. First Rank A. I., 201 Ordinary seaman, 22, 137 Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of Orlov, Count Aleksei, 206 France, 37 Osterman, Vice-Chancellor Andrei, Napoleonic Wars, 12, 26, 77 189, 191–193, 195–198 Naval academies Ottoman Empire, 215–216 British, 22–23 Danish, 161, 165–168 French, 15, 53–55, 62 P Russian, 187–189 Patiño, José, 74–75 Spanish, 78, 80 Patriot Movement, Dutch Republic, Swedish, 144 112–114 Naval Academy (Morskaia akademiia), Patriot-Orangist struggle, 121 Moscow, 188 Patronage system, British, 16, 31–33 INDEX 231

Paulus, P., 117 Danish naval officers, 162 Pavillon, chevalier du, 66 Dutch naval officers, 101, 104, Pay for officers 106–107, 120 British navy, 25, 28 French naval officers, 57, 60–63, Danish navy, 168, 171–172 65, 66 Dutch navy, 104–106 overview, 2 French navy, 57–58, 61 shared bond among all naval officers inflation in, 216 and, 219 overall patterns, 219–220 Spanish naval officers, 73, 84–91 Russian navy, 186, 198 Prokopovich, Feofan, 185, 187 Swedish navy, 155 Promotion prospects Pellew, Edward, 31, 32, 35 British naval officers, 24, 29–33 Penthièvre, duc de, 51, 57 Danish naval officers, 163–164, Perceval, George James, 20 166, 168 Peter II, Emperor of Russia, 192–193 Dutch naval officers, 105 Peter III, Emperor of Russia, 204 French naval officers, 56–60 Peter the Great (I), Emperor of Russian naval officers, 189, 201 Russia, 29, 185–189 Spanish naval officers, 82–87 Petrovich, Grand Prince Pavel, 189 Swedish naval officers, 149–154, 163 Petrukhintsev, N. N., 195 Prussia, 200, 204 Philip V, King of Spain, 74 Public opinion, influence on judgment Philippe I, Duke d’Orléans, 49 of British naval officers’ actions, 35 Plessix, Parscau du, 52 Puke, Adm. Johan, 144 Polianskii, V-Adm., 201 Purchase system for commissions, Politics Sweden, 138–139 British government’s handling of Byng prosecution, 34 Dutch navy’s international Q reputation, 99–100, 108–109 Quebec, 66 Dutch navy’s reputation and Dutch Quiberon Bay, Battle of (1759), 27, political identity, 100, 101, 34, 59, 65 108–109 impact on French naval officers during Revolution, 66 R Port Mahon, Minorca, 33 Rank system Post-captain, British, 24 British navy, 24 Practical skills training, see Theoretical Danish navy, 170–172, 176 vs. practical skills training French navy, 47, 56–58 Prize money, 5 Russian navy, 188, 195 Professionalization, 213–214, similarities among nations, 219 216–217 Spanish navy, 77–78 British naval officers, 16, 24, 34, 38 Swedish navy, 137–139 232 INDEX

Rated vessels, post-captains as organization after Peter I, 189–190 commanders of, 24 from Peter I to Catherine II, Ravenel, Gaud-Louis, 52 201–204 Real Armada, 73–77, 83, 89 Peter the Great’s naval Rear-admiral, British, 24 administration, 185–189 Reichenbach, Rudolf Niklas, 138 recruitment of foreign officers, Religion, Catholic requirement for 185–186 French officers, 53 reorganization of structure, 195 Robertson, William, 21 size of officer corps, 187 Rodger, N.A.M, 3, 7, 11 vs. Swedish navy, 128, 130 Rondeau, Claudius, 190, 194 Russo-Swedish War (1741–43), Rossiia, 197 133, 198 Rouillé, Antoine Louis, 54 Russo-Swedish War (1789–90), 207 Royal Danish Naval Academy, Russo-Turkish War (1735–39), 197 161–162, 165–168 Russo-Turkish War (1768–74), Royal George, 21 205, 206 Royal Naval Academy (Real Academia de Guardias Marinas), Spain, 78–80 S Royal Officer’s Academy, Sweden, 144 Saint-André du Verger, brothers de, 65 Royal Swedish Academy St. Eustatius, 113 of Sciences, 132 Saintes, Battle of the, 55, 66 Rubalcaba Medina, Salazar, Luis Maria, 87 Juan Gutiérrez de, 82 Saldern, Detlof von, 144 Russell, 22 Salé corsairs, 103 Russia Sanders, V-Adm. Thomas, 194 relations with Austria, 200 Sandwich, Earl of, 24 vs. Sweden, 198–199 Sané, Jacques-Noël, 65 Russian naval officers Sartine reform of 1776, 66 Peter I’s development of officer Saumarez, Sir James, 35 corps, 187–189 Saunders, Rear Adm. Thomas, 190 training on British ships, 4 Schiønning, Peter, 164, 172, 174, 176 Russian navy, 185–208 Schlyter, Hans, 155 under Anna Ioannovna, 192–198 School of Mathematics and Navigation British officers serving in, 29 at Moscow, 188 under Catherine I, 190–193 Schrijver, Lt-Adm. Cornelis, 107–112 under Catherine the Great, 204–208 Science, importance for naval consequences of Osterman’s foreign operations, 65, 88, 132 relations for, 196 Scientific training, see Education and Danish officers serving in, 178 training Great Northern War, 128 Sea Fencibles, 29 maritime interests of, 3 Seamanship, education in, 4 INDEX 233

See also Theoretical vs. practical skills French ethics of nobility and, 60 training French naval officer expansion Seniority beyond, 49–53 British Navy’s promotion by, 31 French naval officers from, 52 Danish navy’s Naval Articles, 176 as primary choice for naval French navy’s promotion by, 58 officership, 214–215 Spanish navy’s promotion by, 87 promotion advantage for, 30, 33, 63 Service at sea Spanish naval officers from, 79, 84 Danish naval officers, 170–174 Swedish naval officers from, 131, French naval officers, 56, 62–66 139–141, 151 Seven Years War (1756–63) Swedish training of officers for, 144 British officers in, 27 Söderdal, Lars, 155 Danish officers in, 179–180 Solano Bote, José, 85 Dutch officers in, 147 Somodevilla, Zenon de, 75 French role in, 49, 54, 58 Sous-lieutenant de vaisseau, 57 Russian role in, 200–201 Spanish Admiralty, establishment of, 75 Spanish role in, 77 Spanish naval officers, 73 Swedish officers in, 127, 147 career progression, 82–87 Swedish role in, 129 education and training, 80–83 Ship’s boy, Swedish navy entry as, professionalization, 88–89 143–144 rank system and guardiamarinas, Ship’s pilots, Spanish navy’s 77–80 commissioning of, 78 Real Armada, 73–77 Shtandart, 186 Spanish navy Signalling, 66 decentralized organization of, Silvester, Kennedy, 22 74–75 Skåne, 155 French coordination with, 66 Social context for naval officers, strength of, 82 213–215 Stadholderly Orangist Party, 112–114 British officers, 18–23, 38 Stålhandske, Karl, 155 Danish officers, 165 Suffren, comte Pierre-André de, 52, Dutch officers, 107, 116, 120 55, 64, 65 French officers, 50–53, 63–65 Suomenlinna, 133 overview, 3–4, 6 Superb, 35 Spanish officers, 80, 88 Superbe, 65 Swedish officers, 131–134, 140–141 Surveillante, 66 Social elite Svensksund, Battle of (1790), 133 British mitigation of promotion Sweden advantage for, 31–32 political and social context, 127–131 Danish naval officers from, 165, 171 Russian relations with, 196, Dutch naval officers from, 104–105 198–200 234 INDEX

Swedish army officers, political Trading networks, Spanish officers’ dominance of, 132 participation in, 89 Swedish naval officers, 127–156 Trafalgar, Battle of (1805), 77 career progression, 134–140, Trafalgar campaign (1805), 35–36 145–155 Training of officers, see Education and education, 141–145 training foreign naval service, 4 Transnational community, naval promotion prospects, 149–154 culture as, 2, 5, 219–221 social backgrounds and context, Transport Service, British officers 131–134, 140–141 working in, 29 Swedish navy Tripoli expedition (French navy), 49 geopolitical goals of, 3 rivalry with Denmark, 163 vs. Russian navy, 186, 187 U size of officer corps, 155 Ulloa, Antonio de, 84–85 Ulrica Eleonora, 146 Uniforms, 5, 24, 62–63 T Ushant, Battle of (1778), 51 Taffanel de la Jonquière, Jacques- Pierre de, 48 Taube, Evert Didrik, 143 V Tersmeden, Adm. Carl, 142–143, 156 Valdés, Antonio, 75, 77, 86 Theoretical vs. practical skills training, Van der Capellen tot den Pol, Joan 218–219 Derk, Baron, 115, 116 British naval officers, 15–16 Van der Hoop, J.C., 117 Danish naval officers, 166–168 Van der Reijden, C., 119 French management of, 53–55, 62 Vanguard, 18 Spanish management of, 80–82 Van Kinsbergen, Rear-Adm. J.H., 117 Swedish naval officers, 135, Velez-Malaga, Battle of (1704), 144–145 48, 56 Thésée, 65 Vernon, Frances Venerables, 1–2, 18 Thesiger, Sir Frederick, 30 Viborg, Swedish navy’s escape from Thévenard, Antoine-Jean-Marie, 57 Russians, 130, 133 Titled or landed families, 19, 24 Vice-amiraux, 56 See also Social elite Villeneuve, V-Adm. Tofiño, Vicente, 88 Pierre-Charles de, 35 Tone, Theobald Wolfe, 118 Volunteer Tordenskiold, V-Adm. Peter Jansen Danish navy, 161 Wessel, 177 Swedish navy, 136–137, 151 Toulon, Battle of (1744), 49, 85 Volunteer per order, British navy, 23 Toulon fleet, 35, 36 Von Falkengren, Adm., 199 Toulouse, comte de, 51, 56 Von Rajalin, V-Adm., 199 INDEX 235

Voyages of exploration, 5, 88, Wartime and peacetime 201–202, 218–219 advantage for naval career, Vrigny, Jacques-Philippe, 161 59, 63, 84 effect on Swedish naval recruitment, 153–154 W as shaper of naval profession, War of Jenkins’s Ear (1739–48), 75 217–219 War of the Austrian Succession Wildmanden, 173 (1740–48) Wilhelmina, Princess of Prussia, 113 British naval officers in, 25, 27 William Henry, Duke of Gloucester Dutch role in, 102 and Edinburgh, 27 French naval officers in, 59 William IV, King of the United French role in, 49, 51 Kingdom, 16, 32 Spanish role in, 75 William IV, Stadholder of the Dutch War of the Polish Succession Republic, 108, 109 (1733–38), 75, 197 William V, Stadholder of the Dutch War of the Quadruple Alliance Republic, 112, 114–115, 117 (1710–20), 75 The Wooden World (Rodger), 11 War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), 48, 73, 74, 101, 105 Warrant officers, Swedish navy, Z 137–138 Zoutman, Rear-Adm. Johan, 100, 114