THE DECLINE OF ASIAN

Food markets, habitat destruction and pet trade drive Asia’s freshwater turtles and to extinction

2 The Decline of Asian Turtles

Contents Page 1. Summary 1.1. in English, in German 3 1.2. in French, in Spanish 4 Millions of wild-caught Chelonians are on sale 2. Turtles in Mythology and Tradition at Southeast Asian food markets each year 2.1. Role of Turtles in Asian Mythology 5 2.2. The Medicinal and Culinary Use of Turtles 5

3. Turtles Traded as Food and Medicine 6 3.1. Local Demand 6 3.1.1. 6 3.1.2. Cambodia, Lao PDR and 6 3.1.3. , the and 7 3.1.4. , , , Nepal and Sri Lanka 7 3.1.5. and Papua New Guinea 7

3.2. International trade 10 3.2.1. China 10 3.2.2. Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam 10 3.2.3. Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand 10 3.2.4. Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal & and Pakistan 10 3.2.5. Indonesia, Papua New Guinea 11 3.2.6. USA 11

3.3. Transport and Treatment 11

3.4. Farming of Turtles 11

4. Extent and Increase of the Trade for Food and Medicine 12 4.1. Escalating Demand in 12 4.2. Imports to 12

5. Other threats to Asian Turtle Populations 13 5.1. Habitat Destruction 13 5.1.1. Sand Mining and Damming 13 5.1.2. Agriculture and Deforestation 13 5.1.3. Chemical Pollution and Other Factors 13 Pro Wildlife Loefflerstr. 5a 80999 Munich 5.2. National and International Pet Trade 14 Germany 5.2.1. Turtles as Pets in Asian Countries 14 Tel.: +49-89-81299-507 5.2.2. Asian Countries as Suppliers for the Fax: +49-89-81299-706 International Pet Trade 14 [email protected] 5.2.3. Asian Turtles as Pets in Europe and USA 15

Written by 6. Indicators of the Decline of Asia´s Turtle Fauna 16 Sandra Altherr & Daniela Freyer 6.1. Asian Box Turtles - The Cuora 16 6.2. The genus in the Indian Subcontinent 17 Copyright: 6.3. Asian Softshell Turtles 17 March 2000, Pro Wildlife 6.4. Chelonian Populations in China 17 Photos by: 7. Legal Aspects 18 Cover: Qing Ping market, China, B. McCord 7.1. National Protection Measures 18 p. 2: M.-W. Lau ; p. 5: B. McCord ; 7.2. International Legislation 18 p. 6: P. Valentin ; p. 7: M. Hardtke ; 7.3. Trade in CITES-listed at Asian p. 10: P. Valentin ; p. 11: R. Wirth ; Food Markets 19 p. 12: B. McCord (left), p. Valentin (right); p. 13: Discovery; p. 14/15: R. Wirth; 8. Recommendations: 20 p. 16: Pro Wildlife (left); R. Wirth (right); 8.1. Immediate Measures at CoP 11 20 p. 17: R. Wirth; p. 18/19: B. McCord 8.2. Appendix II for all Chelonians 20 p. 20: E. Meier ; p. 21: B. McCord 8.3. Candidates for an Appendix I Listing 20 8.4. Recommendations beyond CITES 21

9. References 22

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 3

1. Summary 1. Zusammenfassung

Southeast-Asia holds the richest diversity of terrestrial Südostasien ist Heimat einer einzigartigen Artenvielfalt von turtles in the world, encompassing over 25 % of the Schildkröten: Mehr als 25 Prozent aller Land- und Sumpf- world`s chelonian species. Virtually all of these can be schildkrötenarten leben hier. Fast alle sind im Handel found in trade, either as food or medicine or for the pet vertreten. Sie werden seit Hunderten von Jahren gegessen trade. Freshwater turtles and tortoises have been utilised und als Heilmittel verwendet sowie heutzutage auch als by humans for centuries and are still favoured as food and Haustier gehalten. Bevölkerungswachstum und zuneh- medicine in many Asian countries. However, with growing mender Wohlstand in Asien ließen die Nachfrage nach human populations and increasing affluence in Asia de- kulinarischen Spezialitäten und Präparaten der traditionel- mand in luxury food and traditional medicine has in- len Medizin zunehmen. So stieg der Verzehr von und der creased. Consumption of and trade in turtles have risen Handel mit Schildkröten während des letzten Jahrzehnts dramatically in the past decade and, it is feared to rise explosionsartig an. Es ist zu befürchten, dass sich diese even further. Entwicklung sogar noch fortsetzt.

At present a minimum of 12 to 20 million freshwater turtles In Asien werden inzwischen jährlich mindestens 12 bis 20 and tortoises are consumed in Asia each year. The trade Millionen Schildkröten verschlungen. Die Panzertiere ma- in turtles constitutes a large proportion of the trans-border chen vielerorts einen Großteil des grenzüberschreitenden wildlife trade between certain Asian countries. This trade Wildtiergeschäftes aus. Dieser Handel verläuft nahezu seems virtually unregulated. The great majority of unkontrolliert. Fast alle Tiere stammen aus der freien Wild- on sale are wild caught and already the huge and ever- bahn. Bereits jetzt kann die riesige und immer noch wach- growing demand can no longer be met by native species: sende Nachfrage nicht mehr mit heimischen Arten East Asian food markets are increasingly supplied with abgedeckt werden. So waren z.B. 98 Prozent der Schild- turtles from an ever-widening range of more and more kröten, die auf einem chinesischen Markt gesehen wurden, distant countries. For example 98 % of specimens ob- Importe aus anderen Ländern. Einige Arten stammten served on sale during a visit to a Chinese market were non sogar aus so weit entfernten Ländern wie Papua Neugui- native. Some species are even imported from Papua New nea oder den USA. Guinea or the USA. Die Wildbestände vieler gehandelter Arten sind drastisch The wild populations of many species that are on sale in zurückgegangen, manche sind bereits völlig zusammen- food markets have severely declined, some even col- gebrochen. Der größte Teil des Handels, sogar mit CI- lapsed. Most of the trade is not recorded, even in CITES*- TES*-geschützten Tieren, wird nicht erfasst. Ein erhebli- listed species. A significant proportion of the trade in turtles cher Anteil des Schildkrötenhandels verstößt gegen natio- contravenes national or international legislation. nale und internationale Gesetze.

While both national and international trade for food and Während nationaler und internationaler Handel für den medicine constitute a major threat to Asian turtles, habitat Verzehr und als Heilmittel die größte Bedrohung für die destruction, pollution and the pet trade further imperil wild asiatischen Schildkröten darstellen, schaden Lebensraum- populations. For some that are in demand zerstörung und Heimtierhandel den Wildbeständen zu- from Western turtle enthusiasts the pet trade has a particu- sätzlich. Insbesondere seltene Arten sind von der starken larly serious impact. Nachfrage westlicher Schildkrötenliebhaber betroffen.

Immediate action and international co–operation are nec- Umgehende Schutzmaßnahmen in internationaler Zu- essary to avoid the impending extinction of turtle species: sammenarbeit sind dringend erforderlich, um die bevorste- The exploitation of turtle populations must be reduced to a hende Ausrottung vieler Schildkrötenarten zu verhindern. sustainable level and trade must be regulated. In a first Die völlig unkontrollierte Plünderung der Bestände muss step especially should be protected ein Ende haben. In einem ersten Schritt sind besonders through international legislation. In view of the huge vol- bedrohte Arten international zu schützen. Mit Blick auf das ume of trade and the fact that it is largely unselective, all Ausmaß des nahezu unselektiven Handels ist der gesamte trade in turtles should be monitored and in the medium- Handel zu überwachen. Mittelfristig muss er durch Auf- term all turtle species should be included in CITES Appen- nahme aller Schildkrötenarten in Anhang II von CITES dix II. Enforcement of existing national and international reguliert werden. Der Vollzug bereits bestehender nationa- legislation and in some countries improved legislation to ler und internationaler Gesetze ist unabdingbar, in einigen protect turtles is urgently needed. Ländern sind verbesserte Schutzvorschriften dringend erforderlich. In this report Pro Wildlife documents the increase in the exploitation of Asian turtles as food, medicine and pets as Im vorliegenden Bericht dokumentiert Pro Wildlife die well as the decline of turtle fauna in different Asian coun- zunehmende Ausbeutung asiatischer Schildkröten für den tries. In a 10 Point Plan immediate and long-term meas- Nahrungs-, Arznei- und Heimtiermarkt und die Folgen für ures to prevent Asian Chelonians from extinction are rec- die Wildbestände. In einem Zehn-Punkte-Plan werden ommended. sofortige und langfristige Maßnahmen empfohlen, um asiatische Schildkröten vor der Ausrottung zu bewahren.

* CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora

Pro Wildlife 4 The Decline of Asian Turtles

1. Resumen 1. Résumé

En el sureste de Asia hay una gran variedad de tortugas: 1. L'Asie du Sud-Est présente une diversité unique de tortues: más del 25 por ciento de todas las tortugas de tierra y de plus de 25 % de toutes les tortues terrestres et des tortues pantano viven aqui. Cási todas están representadas en el des marais vivent ici. De ces espèces, presque toutes font comercio. Desde hace cientos de años estas tortugas se l'objet d'un juteux commerce; mangées et utilisées comme comen y se usan como medicina, también se tienen como remède depuis des centaines d'années, elles sont également animales de compañia. El crecimiento de la población y la devenues aujourd'hui domestique. Avec la croissance prosperidad en Asia ha aumentado la demanda de démographique et l'amélioration du niveau de vie en Asie, la demande de spécialités culinaires et de préparations de mé- especialidades culinarias y preparados de la medicina decine traditionnelle croît hélas elle aussi. La consommation tradicional. Por esta razón el consumo y el comercio de et le commerce de tortues ont connu une montée spectacu- tortugas aumentó en los últimos decenios de forma laire au siècle dernier, et rien n'indique un renversement de vertiginosa. Hay que temer el incremento de este tendance. desarollo. Bon an mal an, ce sont entre douze à vingt millions de tortues En Asia, entretanto se comen al menos de 12 hasta 30 qui disparaissent ainsi chaque année. En maints endroits, les milliones de tortugas al año. Estos animales de caparazón tortues représentent la majeure partie du commerce interna- representan en muchos lugares la gran parte del tráfico tional d'animaux sauvage, un commerce qui profite d'une quasi-absence de contrôles et qui concerne presque exclusi- clandestino de animales salvajes. Este comercio es vement des animaux sauvages, capturés dans leur environ- incontrolable. Cási todos los animales provienen de nement naturel. Il est actuellement impossible de satisfaire la lugares de entorno natural. Hoy en día la enorme y aún demande d'espèces animales locales, d'ores et déjà colos- creciente demanda de tortugas no se puede silenciar. Así, sale, et appelée à s'accroître encore. Un pointage a révélé por ejemplo, se observa que el 98 por ciento de tortugas que 98 % des tortues vues sur les étals d'un marché chinois que se han visto en un mercado asiático han sido avaient été importées d'autres pays. Quelques-unes, c'est importatadas de otros países. Unas especies provienen de dire, provenaient des Etats-Unis et de Papouasie Nouvelle- países muy lejanos tal como los Estados Unidos o Papua, Guinée. Nueva Guinea. Parmi les espèces ainsi commercialisées, beaucoup voient

leurs effectifs s'effondrer, voire s'approchent de l'extinction Las existencias de muchas especies salvajes, con las pure et simple. La majeure partie du commerce, même celui cuales se comercia, se han reducido drásticamente, unas concernant les animaux protégés par la CITES*, ne fait l'objet ya no existen. La majoría del comercio - incluso de d'aucun enregistrement. Or, comme on sait, une part considé- animales protegidos por CITES – no está registrado. Gran rable du commerce de tortues contrevient aux lois tant natio- parte del comercio de tortugas infringe los leyes nales qu'internationales. nacionales e internacionales. Si le commerce national et international de tortues destinées à Mientras el negocio nacional e international para el la consommation humaine et à la fabrication de remèdes représente la menace la plus grave pour les tortues asiati- consumo y las medicinas representen amenaza para las ques, la destruction de leur espace vital et leur capture en vue tortugas asiáticas; la destrucción del espacio vital y el d'en faire des animaux de compagnie constituent eux aussi negocio con animales domésticos perjudican des dangers extrêmement sérieux. Et les plus menacées sont adicionalmente las existencias salvajes, especialmente las les espèces rares, qui jouissent d'une grande popularité parmi especies raras que están efectuadas por la enorme les "amateurs" occidentaux. demanda de los amantes de las tortugas. Seules des mesures de protection énergiques et immédiates, Es absolutamente necesario tomar inmediatas medidas de entreprises à l'échelon international, pourront éviter l'extinction de certaines espèces. Il est indispensable de faire cesser ce protección, con la colaboración international para evitar la honteux pillage. Dans un premier temps, l'interdiction absolue extinción segura de especies de tortugas. Hay que de tout commerce s'impose pour les espèces particulièrement terminar el saqueo incontrolado de las existencias. En menacées; mais au vu du volume et de la nature non- primer lugar, hay que proteger internationalmente las sélective de ce commerce, c'est pour la branche d'activité tout especies más amenazadas. Teniendo en cuenta el entière qu'il faut établir au plus vite des instruments de comercio inselectivo con tortugas, también hay que contrôle efficaces. Parmi ces moyens, citons l'enregistrement controlar el comercio total. A medio plazo hay que à moyen terme de la totalité des espèces dans l'annexe II de proteger todas las especies de tortugas mediante la la CITES, la mise en place de mécanismes d'application des asimilación en el anexo II de CITES. El cumplimiento con lois nationales et internationales déjà en vigueur, et l'élabora- las existentes reglas nacionales e internacionales son tion de règlements de protection dans ceux des pays qui n'en absolutamente necesarios y también hay que mejorar sont pas encore dotés. estas reglas de protección en algunos paises. Dans le présent rapport, Pro Wildlife documente l'aggravation de l'exploitation des tortues asiatiques destinées à la El presente reportaje de Pro Wildlife documenta la consommation humaine, à la production de remèdes et à la crecienda explotación de tortugas asiáticas para el commercialisation en tant qu'animal de compagnie, en analy- mercado del consumo, medicina e animales de compañia sant les conséquences de ces pratiques pour les diverses y las consequencias para una supervivencia. Se espèces. Dans le cadre d'une programme en dix volets, l'or- recomiendan medidas inmediatas y a plazo largo en un ganisation recommande la prise de mesure tant immédiates plano de 10 puntos para proteger la existencia de las qu'à plus long terme, destinées à garantir la survie des tortues tortugas asiáticas. asiatiques.

* CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild Fauna and Flora

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 5

2. Turtles in Mythology and In China the use of turtle shells in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is a 4,000 year old tradition. Today, turtle Tradition shell is still one of the most common ingredients in tradi- tional Chinese potions and can be found in at least 117 preparations1 5 (see TABLE 1). The plastron is said to be „We are on the brink of losing a group of animals that “nourishing yin and suppressing hyperactive liver-yang, has managed to survive the upheavals of the last 200 reinforcing the kidney to strengthen the bones, nourishing million years, including the great extinction episode the blood, reinforcing the heart, and normalising menstrua- that eliminated the dinosaurs.” tion to cure menorrhagia” 6. Traditional prescriptions generally mention certain native Russell Mittermeier, Conservation International species, like the Chinese Three-keeled Pond Turtle (Chi- nemys reevesii) and the . How- ever, systematic groupings vary greatly from those in 2.1. Role of Turtles in Asian Mythology western zoology. According to Chang5 “there are five or six general types based on considerations of local and me- According to Chinese mythology, the turtle together with dicinal effects. Makers and dealers of Chinese medicine the tiger, the dragon and the Feng bird, is one of four di- may even market the shells of all assortments of species vine animals that were present at the creation of the as just plain ``”. world1. Each animal is associated with a season and a Some species, such as the Three-striped compass point. The turtle represents winter and the North. (Cuora trifasciata) and the Gold-headed Box Turtle (Cuora This is why turtles are regarded as “hot food”, to be eaten aurocapitata) are especially sought for their assumed in winter to strengthen the body2. However, this central medicinal properties. These species are highly prized with role in mythology did not protect turtles from exploitation. the former now achieving prices of up to several thousand 7 dollars per specimen . Some parts of Cuora trifasciata are In Buddhism turtles are very popular as temple and re- 8 3 said to heal cancer . This species is also prescribed to lease animals . At temples, turtles such as the Giant Asian treat male erectile dysfunction. This attribute is based on Pond Turtle ( grandis) and the Yellow-headed the similarity of the turtle’s head to a phallus. Pond Turtle (Hieremys annandalei), are treated as sacred.

To release a turtle into a temple pond is believed to count Although turtles have been used in medical preparations as a good deed, which is helpful for one’s fate after rebirth. for several centuries, some TCM practitioners argue that Unfortunately, many release activities do not consider turtle ingredients are not essential for traditional prescrip- whether the place of release provides a suitable habitat for tions. The president of the Association of Chinese Medi- the particular species, and thus often result in the animals’ cine and Philosophy, Lo Yan-Wo, commented on the use death1 3. of turtle shell and jelly in medicines as follows: „The herbs

used in the jelly are the most important ingredients, not

turtles. Herbs are very cheap, but by adding turtle, they 2.2. The Medicinal and Culinary Use can charge much more.” 9. of Turtles TABLE 1: The use of turtles and tortoises in Tradi- Turtles are valued as food and medicines throughout Asia. tional Chinese Medicine preparations10 Almost all Asian turtle species are affected. However, Name of date of Chelonians softshell turtles are the most sought after species for food Application 2 4 Preparation origin Used because of the palatability and desirability of their meat . th periodically recurring of Qinghao 18 The collection of turtle eggs, too has a long tradition in fever, chronic low carti- biejiatang century many Asian cultures. Details about the extent of this trade fever laginea and its alarming increase are documented in Sections 3 carapace of and 4 of this report. Sanjia fumo- 18th fever, blood stasis, Amyda car- tang century spasms tilaginea & th carapace of 17 periodic fever, Qinggusan Amyda carti- century emaciation, red laginea tongue emaciation, infertility, 17th night sweat, confu- Zuoguiwan Testudo century sion, poor eye sight, dry mouth carapace of irritability, cough, 14th Testudo, Dabuyinwan nocturnal emission, century heated in buzzing in the ears vinegar uncontrolled ejacula- tion and urinary excre- Sangpiao- 12th carapace of tion, cloudy urine, xiaosan century Testudo forgetfulness, pale tongue 13th normalising menstrua- carapace of Gujingwan century tion Testudo

Sacks filled with turtle plastrons for medicinal purposes

Pro Wildlife 6 The Decline of Asian Turtles

3. Turtles Traded as Food Generally turtles destined for consumption are sold alive or butchered at food markets. In addition, turtle parts, such as and Medicines plastrons, , bile, blood etc., and manufactured products are sold for their use in traditional medicine. The shell, which is made into a jelly by prolonged boiling in „Today, there is no more serious turtle crisis than that water, is especially valued. which is taking place in Southeast Asia and southern China. Southeast Asia is being vacuumed of its turtles for China’s food markets.” 3.1. Local Demand John Behler, IUCN/SSC and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group 3.1.1. China

While humans have consumed turtles for several hundred Trade constitutes the major threat to the conservation of years, recent changes in China’s economy have resulted Asian turtles. Almost all species of Asian freshwater turtles in an increased demand for wildlife including turtles2 11. and tortoises are affected by trade for food and medicine. The demand for live wild animals is highest in southern Increasingly even non-Asian species supply an ever grow- China. Based on observations at several Chinese food ing demand. Almost all specimens are wild-caught. TABLE markets, the annual consumption of turtles for China 2 (page 8-9) gives an overview of 63 Asian and five Ameri- alone, is estimated between 12 to 20 million individuals8 12 can species recorded for sale in Chinese food markets, as 13. According to Chinese traders the daily turnover of the well as current population trends. In view of the sharp Qing Ping market in Guangzhou alone is 30-60,000 kg14. decline of a rapidly increasing number of turtle species In 1996 more than 37% of restaurants near the border there can be no doubt that affected populations can no between and Vietnam offered dishes containing longer withstand this unsustainable level of collection from the Chinese Softshell Turtle ( sinensis). Nearly the wild. To prevent their impending extinction immediate 26% sold tortoise-meat including Black-breasted Leaf action is required. Turtle ( spengleri), Chinese Stripe-necked Tur- tle (Ocadia sinensis), and Chinese Three-keeled Turtle, Data Availability: Chineyms reevesi 15. During a survey in the provinces For a variety of reasons few detailed quantitative data on Guangxi and in 1997, 27 turtle species were the demand for turtles in Asia are available: found in markets and restaurants. With the exception of the native Pelodiscus sinensis, non-native species were 1. The majority of the trade transactions are not recorded, most abundant16. The situation in the province is and if they are there often is no discrimi-nation be- similar, with more than 50% of the investigated restaurants tween different species. selling wildlife dishes17. However, despite wildlife dishes in 2. Often species are identified incorrectly, while others restaurants being very common the sale of wildlife for food are completely unknown. in restaurants is prohibited in both Guangxi and Fujian. 3. Turtle parts and products in trade are often unre- Furthermore, traditional medicines containing turtles are cognisable. very popular in China. The consumption of turtle shells in 4. Shipments are often falsely labelled as “seafood”. alone for example is estimated to be 100,000- 5. A significant proportion of trade is illegal. 200,000 kg per annum5.

3.1.2. Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam

All over Cambodia tortoises like the ( elongata) are collected and shipped to Phnom Penh. They are used for the manufacture of orna- ments or as ingredients for traditional medicines. The animals’ heads, as well as their shell are frequently sold as a tonic after childbirth and were on offer at 27% of shops investigated18. Amongst the wildlife on sale in Neak Lung, tortoises have by far the largest turnover by weight, with 9.5 tonnes sold in West Neak Lung in 1993, while 3.6 tonnes were sold in East Neak Lung in 1994. Most of these animals are destined for Vietnam but there is also some local demand.

In Lao PDR softhell turtles such as the (Amyda cartilaginea) are sought after for their meat and are offered at markets and in restaurants19. Tortoises, such as Indotestudo elongata are also on sale.

At least 21 of Vietnam’s 23 native turtle species were recorded in trade between 1993 and 199620 21. Cau Mong market (Ho-Chi-Minh-City) in the South and Hanoi in the North are the country’s two wildlife trade centres22. During the last few years prices have risen significantly21 with Turtles on offer at Qing Ping market (China) softshell turtles on average achieving the highest prices23. Despite its CITES Appendix II listing in 1975, the Elon- gated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) is perhaps the most

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 7 common turtle species in trade, followed by the Giant 3.1.4. Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal and Sri Asian Pond Turtle (Heosemys grandis) and the Keeled Lanka Box Turtle (Pyxidea mouhotii)24. The most frequently of- fered softshelled species is Amyda cartilaginea. The South In Bangladesh the Spotted Pond Turtle (Geoclemys ham- (Cuora amboinensis), the Indochinese iltonii), the ( petersi), the Nar- Box Turtle (Cuora galbinifrons), Yellow-headed Temple row-headed Softshell Turtle ( indica) and the ( punctata) are heavily exploited Turtle (Hieremys annandalei), (Manou- 28 ria impressa), and the Malayan Snail-eating Turtle (Ma- for local food markets . Despite its CITES Appendix I layemys subtrijuga), are also abundant in trade22 25. status Indian Roofed Turtles (Kachuga tecta) are captured in large numbers for local food markets as documented in section 7.3..

In India 50 million tribal people rely on turtles as a source of food. Here the commercial trade in turtles is largely concentrated in , to which thousands of specimens are imported from neighbouring countries29. This enormous demand for turtle meat for food, but also shells and blood for medicinal purposes has resulted in a decline of most, if not all species in West Bengal. At the same time prices have risen tenfold29. The number of species on sale decreased from 10 in 198330 to seven in 199331, which might reflect a drop in availability. Turtles collected from all over the country are transported to Cal- cutta, India´s main turtle market. The most popular spe- cies, Lissemys punctata, is wanted for its soft meat and its chewy, cartilaginous shell29. Other softshell turtles, but also hard-shelled species like the Crowned River Turtle (Hardella thurjii) and the Roofed Turtles (Kachuga spp.) are also for sale31.

In Myanmar animal products are rarely used in traditional South Asian Box Turtle (Cuora amboinensis) medicines32. Although trade in Chelonians is illegal, turtles on sale in Cambodia are still viewed as an essential part of the diet and are either consumed locally or sold over the border to Thailand and China, where native populations are more depleted4. 3.1.3. Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand In Nepal eggs and meat of turtles, e.g. the Indian Softshell Softshell turtles are the most commonly eaten Chelonians in Peninsular Malaysia, with Amyda cartilaginea and Turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus), several Roofed Turtles Dogania subplana being most in demand2. Reportedly the (Kachuga spp.) and the ( trijuga), are collected by several indigenous tribes for local eggs of softshell turtles are eaten whenever they are 33 found. Trade in tortoises and emydid turtles is very low2. markets . There is a local demand for food and medicinal purposes, and large freshwater and softshell turtles are the In the Philippines according to the country’s CITES Au- most sought after species. Smaller species of hardshelled thority turtles are not used for medicines. However, in the turtles are often used to make tourist souvenirs. lowlands they are now used for food26. Softshell turtles in Sri Lanka, e.g. the Indian Flapshell

In Thailand all native species of softshells are intensively Turtle (Lissemys punctata), are sought after both for their exploited for commercial trade, and collection for the food meat and for use in traditional medicine. While the Indian and animal trade is still a major factor in the decline of Star Tortoise ( elegans) was formerly said to 27 be unpalatable or even toxic, this opinion is no longer held many populations . However, all turtle species (except for 34 Amyda cartilaginea), are legally protected and overall the and specimens are now consumed as food . sale of turtles other than softshells is at a much lower level 3.1.5. Indonesia & Papua New Guinea in Thailand than elsewhere in Indochina. Amyda cartilagi- nea is the species offered most at markets, although the The comparatively low local demand for turtles in Indone- (Dogania subplana) and the Nar- sia concentrates on softshell turtles. However, during a row-headed Softshell Turtle (Chitra indica) are sought after 3 survey of local dealers in , Cuora amboinensis as well . The consumption of small emydids seems to be was reported to be the most common turtle species on at a low level while the collection of tortoises has been offer35. intense and caused a collapse of at least Indotestudo elongata2. Some species, e.g. Malayemeys subtrijuga, are 27 In Papua New Guinea the Asian Giant Softshell Turtle offered as release animals for religious purposes . ( bibroni), is reportedly an important part of the local people’s subsistence diet. Its large bony carapace is turned into decorated ceremonial masks. According to reports by local people this species has become rare dur- ing recent years36.

Pro Wildlife 8 The Decline of Asian Turtles

TABLE 2: Freshwater turtles and tortoises identified at Asian food markets Species underlined = highly abundant on sale; * = local commercial exploitation in the range states Classifications based on: IUCN: Red List (1996)37, China: Red Data Book (1998)38 and Vietnam: Red Data Book(1992)39

Species Origin Status/Trends Ref. Species Origin Status/Trends Ref. Thailand, Vietnam, No data 2, 12, tcheponensis Cambodia? Lao 20, 24 Annamemys Vietnam very rarely recorded 2, 12, Stripe-necked PDR? annamensis 20, 24, Leaf Turtle Annam Leaf 40, 11, 12, Turtle Geoclemys Bangladesh, India, CITES Appendix I hamiltonii Nepal, Pakistan IUCN: “near threatened”; 24, 33, baska* Bangladesh, India, CITES Appendix I 2, 12, Spotted Pond Nepal: in decline, 43 River Indonesia, Malaysia, IUCN: “endangered”; 43, 46, Turtle Bangladesh: common Myanmar, Thailand, One of the ten most 47

Cambodia? Lao threatened turtles in Asia Geoemyda Myanmar IUCN: “critically 2, 12, PDR? Singapore?, 44 Vietnam? depressa endangered”; extremely Arakan Forest rare Callagur Indonesia, Malaysia, CITES Appendix II 2, 12 Turtle borneoensis Thailand, ? IUCN: “critically 2, 20, Myanmar? endangered” Geoemyda China, Indonesia, China: “endangered” spengleri , Malaysia, 44, 45 Columbia, Costa Has the largest 12, 11, Black-breasted Vietnam, Lao PDR? serpentina Rica, Ecuador, distribution of any turtle 48 Leaf Turtle Common Guatemala, in North America, no Geoemyda Indonesia IUCN: “data deficient” 12, 44, Snapping Turtle Honduras, Mexico, data on population size 48 Nicaragua, USA yuwonoi () Hardella thurjii* 43, 45 Chinemys China China: “endangered, 12, 45 Bangladesh, India, IUCN: “near threatened”; megalocephala rare” Crowned River Myanmar, Pakistan Nepal: “rare”, Chinese Broad- Turtle Bangladesh: fairly headed Pond T. common Heosemys Cambodia, IUCN: “near threatened” 2, 11, 12, 20, Chinemys nigri- China, Vietnam? IUCN: “data deficient”; 12 grandis Malaysia, Myanmar, Giant Asian Thailand, Vietnam, 24 cans China: “endangered, Red-necked rare” Pond Turtle Lao PDR? 2, 44 Pond Turtle Heosemys Brunei, Indonesia, IUCN: “vulnerable” Chinemys China, Japan, North China: “sharply declining 11, 12, spinosa Malaysia, reevesii Korea, South Korea numbers”; 45 Singapore, Thailand, Myanmar? Chinese Three- One of the most Hieremys Lao PDR; Malaysia, IUCN: “vulnerable” 2, 12, keeled Pond abundant species on 20, 22 Turtle sale in Hong Kong annandalei Thailand, Vietnam, Yellow-headed Cambodia? Cuora amboi- Bangladesh, IUCN: “near threatened”; 11, 20, nensis Cambodia, India, One of the most 22, 27, Temple Turtle Myanmar? 40, 43 Kachuga dhon- Bangladesh, India, IUCN: “near threatened”; 12, 33, South Asian Box Indonesia, Lao abundant species on 41, 43 Turtle PDR, Malaysia, sale in Hong Kong, goka* Nepal India: “vulnerable”, Myanmar, declining populations Three-striped Nepal and Bangladesh: Philippines, Roofed Turtle rare Singapore, Kachuga Bangladesh, India, IUCN: “endangered”; 12, 33, 41, 46 Thailand, Vietnam, kachuga* Pakistan India: population decline China? Red-crowned > 80% in 20 years, Cuora China IUCN: “data deficient”; 7, 38 Roofed Turtle Nepal: rare; aurocapitata China: “critically One of Asia´s ten most Golden-headed endangered, rare”, threatened turtles Box Turtle One of the most expensive species on Kachuga Bangladesh, India, Nepal: decreasing 12, 33, 42, 43 sale, rapidly declining smithii Pakistan populations; Cuora flava- China, Japan (Ryu IUCN: “vulnerable”; 12, 38 Brown Roofed Bangladesh: rare marginata Kyu Islands) China: “endangered”, Turtle India: lower risk Chinese Box populations declining Kachuga tecta Bangladesh, India, CITES Appendix I 11, 12, Indian Roofed Nepal, Pakistan India: lower risk – near 33, 40, Turtle 43 Cuora galbini- Cambodia, China, IUCN: “near threatened”; 2, 12, Turtle threatened frons Vietnam, Lao PDR? China: “endangered”, 20, 22, Nepal: rare Indochinese Box populations declining 24, Bangladesh: common Turtle Cuora mccordi China IUCN: “data deficient”; 7, 38, Kachuga Bangladesh, India, India: population decline 12, McCord´s Box China: “data deficient”, 44 tentoria* Nepal > 20% in 10 years, Turtle rapidly declining Indian Tent Nepal: rare population Turtle Cuora China, Lao PDR; IUCN: “endangered”; 2, 7, Cambodia, One of the most 2, 11, 20, 38, subtrijuga Indonesia, Malaysia, abundant species on 12, 20, trifasciata Vietnam, China: critically 24, 40 Three-striped Cambodia? endangered, very rare” 45 Malayan Snail- Thailand, Vietnam, sale in Hong Kong Box Turtle Vietnam: “vulnerable”, eating Turtle Lao PDR? The most expensive China IUCN: “data deficient”; 12 turtle species on sale iversoni China: “data deficient”, Fujian Pond In total 29 specimens Cuora zhoui China IUCN: “data deficient”; 7, 38, Turtle known Zhou´s Box China: “data deficient, 44 Mauremys China, Japan, China: “endangered” 2, 11, mutica Vietnam, Lao PDR? In 1996 the most 12, 20, Turtle sharply declining 44, 45 numbers” Yellow Pond common turtle found at Cyclemys Bangladesh, China, China: “endangered” 2, 12, Turtle markets in Hong Kong dentata India, Indonesia, Bangladesh: rare 40, 43, Mauremys China (), no data 12 Asian Leaf Turtle Lao PFR, Malaysia, 45 pritchardi Myanmar Myanmar, Philip- Melanochelys Myanmar Widely distributed in 12, 47 pines, Thailand, edeniana Myanmar ?, Melanochelys Bangladesh, India, IUCN: “data deficient”; 12, 40, Cambodia? Nepal? subtrijuga, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Bangladesh: rare 43 Singapore? Indian Black Lanka, Thailand Turtle

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 9

Species Origin Status/Trends Ref. Species Origin Status/Trends Ref. Morenia Myanmar CITES Appendix I 2, 11, China, Malaysia, CITES Appendix II 11, 12, ocellata IUCN: “near threatened”; 12, 40, impressa* Myanmar, Thailand, IUCN: “vulnerable”; 20, 22, Burmese Eyed Bangladesh: rare 43 Impressed Vietnam, Vietnam: “vulnerable”; 40, 45, 46, 47 Turtle Tortoise Cambodia? Lao PDR? China: “endangered”; Morenia petersi Bangladesh, India, IUCN: “near threatened”; 11, 12, One of Asia´s ten most Indian Eyed Myanmar Bangladesh: common 40, 43 threatened turtles Turtle Testudo Afghanistan, CITES Appendix II 45 Notochelys Brunei, Indonesia, IUCN: “data deficient” 2, 12, horsfieldii Azerbaijan, China, IUCN: “vulnerable”; platynota Lao, Malaysia, 20 Central Asian Iran, Kazakhstan, China: “critically Malayan Flat- Myanmar, Singa- Tortoise Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, endangered” shelled Turtle pore, Thailand, Russia, Tajikistan, Cambodia? Turkmenistan Ocadia China IUCN: “data deficient”; 12, 44 glyphistoma China: “Data deficient, in Amyda Indonesia, Lao PDR, IUCN: “vulnerable”; 2, 11, total only 10 specimens cartilaginea* Malaysia, Myanmar, most common softshell 20, 24, are known” Asiatic Softshell Singapore, Thailand, turtle in trade, 40, 47 12, 44 Ocadia China () IUCN: “data deficient”; Turtle Vietnam, declining populations philippeni China: “data deficient, in Brunei? Philippen’s total only nine ferox USA overall populations 12 Striped Turtle specimens are known” Florida Softshell appear stable; Ocadia China, Lao PDR , IUCN: “near threatened” 2, 20, 44 Turtle some local populations sinensis Taiwan, Vietnam China: “Endangered”, on may be in decline. Chinese Stripe- sale in Hong Kong Apalone USA overall populations 11, 12 necked Turtle spinifera appear stable; 2, 44 Orlitia Indonesia, Malaysia, IUCN: “near threatened” Spiny Softshell some local populations borneensis Brunei? Turtle may be in decline. Malayan Giant Aspideretes Bangladesh, India, CITES Appendix I 12, 33, Turtle gangeticus* Nepal, Pakistan Nepal: common 40 2, 12, Pyxidea Cambodia, China, China: “endangered”, Indian Softshell mouhotii India, Lao PDR, on sale in Hong Kong 20, 24, 44 Turtle Keeled Box Myanmar, Thailand, Aspideretes Bangladesh, India, CITES Appendix I 11, 12, Turtle Vietnam hurum, Nepal, Pakistan Nepal: common, but 33, 40 12 bealei China (incl. Hong IUCN: “vulnerable” ; *Peacock declining Four-eyed Turtle Kong and Hainan), China: “endangered” Softshell Turtle Vietnam, Lao PDR? Chitra indica* Bangladesh, India, IUCN: “vulnerable”; 12, 28, 12, 44 Sacalia China (Hainan) IUCN: “data deficient”; Narrow-headed Lao PDR, Nepal, Populations declining; 33, 47 pseudo-cellata China: “data deficient, in Softshell Turtle Pakistan, Thailand, Nepal: common, but Chinese Eyed total three specimens Bhutan? Malaysia? declining Turtle are known” Myanmar? Sacalia qua- China, Vietnam, Lao IUCN: “vulnerable”; 2, 12, 12, 27 20 Dogania sub- Indonesia, Lao PDR, Thailand: declining driocellata PDR? China: “endangered” plana*, Malayan Malaysia, Myanmar, populations in Four-eyed Turtle Softshell Turtle Thailand, Cambodia, 2, 12, Brunei? 20 crassicollis Indonesia, Lao Lissemys punc- Bangladesh, India, CITES Appendix II 11, 12, Black Marsh PDR, Malaysia, tata* Myanmar, Nepal, Nepal: common 33, 43 Turtle Myanmar, Indian Flapshell Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh: common Singapore, Turtle Bhutan? Thailand, Vietnam, for- Myanmar, IUCN: vulnerable” 12 Brunei? mosa, Burmese Thailand? China? 45 Terrapene Mexico CITES Appendix II Peacock Soft- coahuila IUCN: “endangered” shell Turtle Coahuilan Box Palea Vietnam, China, IUCN: “near threatened”; 2, 12, Turtle steindachneri introduced in China: “endangered, 20, 38, 12, 24 Mexico, USA Wattle-necked and Mauritius very rare” 45 scripta elegans Softshell Turtle Red Eared Pelochelys Bangladesh, India, IUCN: “vulnerable”; 2, 12, Slider cantorii* Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam: “vulnerable”, 20, 27, TESTUDINIDAE Asian Giant Myanmar, Philip- declining populations 45, 47 Geochelone Myanmar CITES Appendix II 2, 12, Softshell Turtle pines, Thailand, platynota IUCN: “critically 44, 46 Vietnam, Burmese Star endangered”; Brunei?, Cambodia? Tortoise One of Asia´s ten most Lao PDR? Singapore? threatened turtles Indotestudo Bangladesh, CITES Appendix II 2, 11, Pelodiscus China, Indonesia, China: “vulnerable”, 2, 11, elongata Cambodia, China, IUCN : “vulnerable” ; 12, 20, sinensis Japan, Korea, Japan, declining populations; 12, 20, 45 Elongated India, Lao PDR, Vietnam: “vulnerable” 22, 24, Chinese Philippines, Russia, One of the most 33, 40, Softshell Turtle Singapore, Vietnam, abundant species on Tortoise Malaysia, Myanmar, China: “endangered” 43, 44, Nepal, Thailand, Nepal: rare 45, 46 introduced to Thailand sale in Hong Kong Vietnam Bangladesh: rare PLATYSTERNIDAE 2, 44 Indotestudo India, Indonesia CITES Appendix II Platysternon Cambodia, China, Lao IUCN: “data deficient”; 2, 12, forstenii* IUCN : “vulnerable” megacephalum PDR, Myanmar, Vietnam: “rare”; 20, 44 Travancore Big-headed Singapore, China: “endangered, Tortoise Turtle Thailand, Vietnam very rare” Manouria Bangladesh, India, CITES Appendix II 12, 46, Asian Brown Indonesia, Lao IUCN : “vulnerable” ; 47 Tortoise PDR, Malaysia, one of Asia´s ten most Myanmar, Thailand threatened turtles

Pro Wildlife 10 The Decline of Asian Turtles

3.2. International Trade About 90% of the turtles at markets in Vietnam are des- tined for China20. According to Klemens4 “Vietnam is truly „A colossal wildlife network which covers some pro- the hub of the enormous and expanding illegal trade vinces of China, Vietnam, other countries of Southeast as turtles are funneled from throughout Indochina to Asia, Hong Kong and Macao has been formed during supply the Chinese markets.” The trade in freshwater the last five years”. turtles and tortoises constitutes 61% of the wildlife trade between Vietnam and Southern China15. During an inspec- Li Yiming and Li Dianmo, Institute of Zoology, tion at the border between Guangxi and Vietnam, 2.29 to Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 29.325 tons of wildlife were exported from Vietnam to 15 China every day of which 1.84 to 18.4 tons were turtles . An increasing number of Chelonians are threatened by The most numerous species exported to China is Pelodis- international trade. With declining native turtle popula-tions cus sinensis. Other species commonly traded are In- in the main consuming countries in East Asia demand is dotestudo elongata24 52, and Cuora galbinifrons20. Some 40 increasingly met by South and Southeast Asian popula- cross-frontier trade sites have been established along the tions. Even species from North America are now supplying border to Guangxi (China), with more than 40 roads con- the food trade, and other continents like Africa and South verging on these sites. However, wildlife officers are not America may soon also become involved. Some species present at every location53. are traded in spite of national and international trade bans.

3.2.3. Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thai- 3.2.1. China land

As a substitute for dwindling native species, freshwater Malaysian turtles, e.g. Cuora amboinensis are regularly turtles and tortoises are increasingly collected from coun- exported to Vietnam54, which for the majority of these tries further and further away and are imported in huge animals acts as a through-route to China and Hong Kong2. numbers. Species originate from Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, In the Philippines according to official sources small num- Nepal, Pakistan Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Vietnam bers of Cuora amboinensis were exported to Korea and 26 and the U.S.A. From 68 turtle species recorded at Chinese Hong Kong in 1995 and 1996 . It has to be assumed that food markets in Guangzhou and Sunzhen at least 42 dif- they were destined for food markets. ferent species were not native (TABLE 2). As much as 98% of specimens on offer are said to be imported12. The CITES Management Authority of Singapore reported During a survey of markets and restaurants in Guangxi a substantial trade in at least Cuora amboinensis. More than 90% of these animals are said to be re-exported to and Guangdong in 1997, of 27 turtle species on sale, non- 55 native species were the most numerous16. other Asian countries .

3.2.4. Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal & Pakistan

Bangladesh earns an average US$ 600,000 per year from the export of freshwater turtles, dried turtle shells and turtle oil. Recipient countries are Japan, China, Thailand, Malay- sia, Singapore, Korea and the UK. This trade provides a welcome contribution to annual foreign currency earnings and in 1993 involved about 15,000 people28. In 1999 this figure rose to 50.000 and the revenue earned from exports increased to US$ 1.5 million56. Even CITES Appendix I species are exported: e.g. Aspideretes gangeticus in large numbers to Hong Kong and China11, and Aspideretes hurum to Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan28. Geoclemys hamiltonii, Morenia petersi, Chitra indica and Lissemys punctata are exported to countries such as India. In 1993 610,000 kg of live Indotestudo elongata were exported to China, 103,010 kg live animals to Hong Kong, and 8,000 Large numbers of imported Painted , 57 kg live animals went to Singapore . (Callagur borneoensis), at a food market (China)

3.2.2.Cambodia, Lao PDR and Vietnam In response to dwindling Indian turtle populations, animals from Bangladesh and Nepal, e.g. the sought-after Kachuga Cambodia exports an estimated 2-4 tons of turtles per day tecta (CITES Appendix I), are imported to satisfy the con- from Phnom Penh to Vietnam4, from where many are siderable local demand28 58. Presumably exports from shipped on to China. In 1994 a single trader reported ship- India to SE Asian food markets also take place. In Chinese ping one ton of Chelonians to Vietnam each month18. An- food markets at least 20 species, which are also native to other trader said he was shipping 500 to 800 tons of turtles India, are offered regularly, including Kachuga spp., In- a year. dotestudo forstenii and Geoclemys hamiltonii. From Lao PDR live turtles (e.g. Cuora amboinensis, In- dotestudo elongata) and shells (e.g. Melanochelys subtri- From Myanmar Chelonians are traded across the border juga) are exported to Thailand19. Animal traders from Viet- to Thailand, Vietnam and China, where native populations 4 32 51 nam stated that they too import turtles, from Lao PDR50 51. have become more depleted . In addition, shells, A recent survey reported exports of at least Cuora trifas- which are used for traditional medicine are exported to ciata, Cuora galbinifrons and Platysternon mega- China and Thailand, where they fetch higher prices than at cephalum52 to Vietnam. local markets32.

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 11

From Nepal many turtles are exported to Bangladesh, India and increasingly to China58.

In Pakistan increasing amounts of dead turtles native to Pakistan, which can be found in the mountains near the Chinese border provide an indication of exports to China. These turtles have been discarded by traders prior to crossing the border8.

3.2.5. Indonesia and Papua New Guinea

Live softshell turtles from Indonesia are exported in sub- and high mortality25 52. An increasing number of turtle car- stantial volumes to the Far East2. From Sulawesi alone up casses are found in the mountains near the border be- to 13 tonnes of Cuora amboinensis plastrons are exported tween Pakistan and China where dead animals have obvi- annually to Hong Kong and China. This number is equiva- ously been discarded prior to crossing the border8. lent to about 200,000 individuals2 59. According to official Inhumane treatment and especially extremely painful kill- figures, 147,344 Cuora amboinensis specimens were ing methods, such as disembowelling and dismembering exported from Indonesia directly into Hong Kong between of live animals have also attracted criticism. This can also November 1993 and October 1994. Only Amyda cartilagi- be observed in the “Chinatowns” districts of California in nea, for which an export volume of 312,459 individuals has the USA, where animals are also butchered alive at the been reported, is more commonly exported from Indonesia market62 63. to Hong Kong. Between 80-90% of these animals were re- exported from Hong Kong to China11. An animal trader 3.4. Farming of Turtles from Hong Kong reported that 5,000 to 6,000 kg of turtles were directly exported from Indonesia to China in 19968. The enormous and still increasing demand for Chelonians for culinary and medicinal purposes by far exceeds the It has repeatedly been reported that Papua New Guinea number of animals bred in captivity. Although farming supplies turtles for Chinese food markets12 59, although no operations might help to relieve some pressure on wild detailed information is available. populations, wild caught specimens are preferred and achieve higher prices. Pelodiscus sinensis is farmed for export in Malaysia, Indo- 3.2.6. USA nesia and Thailand, where annual productivity was esti- mated at between 3-6 million hatchlings in 19942. From Between 1993 and 1996 the USA exported 31,5 million Thailand farmed animals are exported to China, Japan and Red-eared Sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans) not only Korea. Farming poses potential ecological risks as non- for the pet trade all over the world, but also for the live food native animals can escape from farms and establish popu- trade in East and Southeast Asia60. The export of North lations in the wild. This is especially true for the easily bred American softshell turtles (Apalone spp.) began in 1985 Pelodiscus sinensis, which is farmed as a non-native spe- with 65 specimens and expanded to 38,611 individuals in cies in several Asian countries. In addition, escaped ani- 1995. A similar increase was recorded for the Common mals can expose native populations to diseases to which Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina), 58,430 specimens they are not accustomed, and which can have fatal conse- of which were exported between 1990 and 1995. Unfortu- quences. Therefore activities to intensify farming should be nately a discrimination between food and pet animals is carefully managed. not provided. However it is certain that at least part of these shipments are destined for Southeast Asia. TABLE 2 documents that at least four species that are native to the USA are regularly seen in Chinese food markets. Accord- ing to the US & Wildlife Service 40 to 50 crates of live turtles pass through the airport of Los Angeles each week61.

3.3. Transport and Treatment

Many shipments take place by air,particularly from distant countries. Others follow land or sea routes or are made by river boat. A large number of air shipments are falsely labelled as “seafood”12 61, so that a realistic assessment of trade volumes is impossible. Transport conditions have often been criticised for not conforming to IATA regulations with regard to packaging and documentation. Poor transport conditions and nutri- tion, as well as inappropriate handling result in injuries

The USA exports Florida Softshell Turtles (Apalone ferox) to Asian food markets

Pro Wildlife 12 The Decline of Asian Turtles

4. Extent and Increase of the Turtle lot higher and therefore calculate that more than 12 to 20 million turtles are sold each year in China alone. Probably Trade for Food and Medicine even this calculation underestimates the true extent of consumption. There is no doubt that, due to this huge demand and the low reproductive potential of many spe- „Today, the heavy hand of man is extirpating whole cies, this level of exploitation is not sustainable. Unless populations, even whole species of rare or localised effective countermeasures are taken many of the affected turtles in eastern and south eastern Asia, and is seri- species will be extinct in the wild within a few years. Due to ously depleting even widespread ones.” continuously expanding human populations and increasing affluence, present problems are set to worsen. , Chelonia Institute, Florida

4.1. Escalating Demand in Southeast Asia

The radius of countries supplying the ever growing de- mand for turtles is widening. In China for example, rapid economic growth since the early 1980s has resulted in a steady rise in living standards. As a result the demand for luxury foods and traditional medicines has also in- creased53. The demand for wildlife products, including turtles, has stimulated not only the domestic trade but has also affected the cross-border trade with neighboring coun- tries, particularly Vietnam. After the decline of Chelonian populations in Vietnam, Lao PDR and Cambodia, turtles from an ever-widening range of more and more distant countries are imported to China. In the 1990´s the Indian The daily turnover of the Qing Ping market is estimated subcontinent increasingly supplied the Southeast Asian at 30-60 tonnes of Chelonians demand. Even countries as far away as the USA play a growing part as a supplier of turtles to Asia. Meanwhile about 25% of the world’s 263 turtle species are af- 4.2. Imports to Hong Kong fected by the draw of food and traditional medicine The imports of food Chelonians to Hong Kong, a major markets12 59. It must be considered likely that even Africa12 64 export centre to China are well documented and therefore and South America may become future suppliers. a good indicator of trends in demand. An alarming in- crease in turtle imports is revealed in the past few years. “In 1977, 139,200 kg of food Chelonians was imported to Hong Kong. In 1991, 110,574 kg of food Chelonians was imported and rose to 680,582 kg in 1993. In the first ten months of 1994, a record high of 1.8 million kg of animals was imported.” 11. In 1996 Hong Kong imported 3.5 million Kg of turtles65. According to recent import statistics this volume has once again increased to up to 12 million kg in 19989. This means a more than 100-fold increase in amounts imported since 1977 (FIGURE 1).

FIGURE 1: Volume of Food Chelonians imported to Hong Kong.

12.000

10.000 Crates filled with turtles are unloaded from a truck 8.000 Detailed data on the current volume of consumption in 6.000 Southeast Asia are not available. However, the following data are tangible indications of the tremendous threats 4.000 facing Asian turtles. weight (tonnes) 2.000 At two Chinese food markets alone an estimated 10,000 12 0 turtles were offered over a two-day period . Bill McCord 1977 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 calculates that “if China only had five or six markets, ... , this would add up to at least 50,000 turtles on any given day. If the total replacement time was conservatively fig- ured to be a full week (2-3 days given orally), then five or six markets would process at least 2.6 million turtles a year!” Others7 13 estimate the number of markets to be a

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 13

5. Other Threats to Asian Turtle 5.1.2. Agriculture and Deforestation

Populations In Bangladesh deforestation and annual fires are said to have caused a decline of terrestrial species such as In- dotestudo elongata and the Asian Brown Turtle (Manouria „Many turtles and tortoises appear to be declining from 43 emys) . The draining of ponds, canals and other waters is destruction and modifications of their forest habitats responsible for the loss of further crucial turtle habitat. and from collection for food and the pet trade.” In Cambodia huge areas of jungle and forest were cleared 18 68 Indraneil Das, Centre for , during the Khmer Rouge regime with inevitable delete- Madras Crocodile bank, India rious consequences for chelonians.

It is more than likely that turtle populations in China have 5.1. Habitat Destruction been affected by the large-scale deforestation carried out 69 in Southwest China in the course of the past 50 years . 5.1.1. Sand Mining and Damming Many forest areas in India have been replaced by planta- tions. Further areas have been destroyed by fires. As a Sand mining has become one of the most serious factors result forest-inhabitants like the very rare Geoemyda silva- 34 threatening the survival of tropical Asian turtles30. In Ma- tica and Indotestudo forstenii have suffered . laysia, Thailand, Indonesia, India and Bangladesh large Human relocation and deforestation programmes impact 68 rivers are severely damaged. As a consequence, sand- heavily on the forests of Indonesia . In Borneo the situa- nesting turtles like the River Terrapin (Batagur baska), the tion is further exacerbated by large-scale fires, which have Painted Terrapin (Callagur borneoensis), Roofed Turtles destroyed huge forested areas mainly in the eastern part (Kachuga spp.), and the large softhell turtles (Amyda carti- of the island. laginea, Aspideretes hurum, Chitra indica and Pelochelys Logging contracts between Myanmar and Thailand have cantorii) face serious environmental pressure. resulted in one of the fastest rates of decline in forest 32 70 cover in the world . Upriver dams exacerbate this problem further by prevent- In Nepal, too, deforestation has negatively affected the ing the replacement of removed sand and increasing ero- country’s turtle species, e.g. Narrow-headed Softshell 33 58 sion by periodic and unseason flooding caused by artificial Turtle (Chitra indica) . Similarly, in Sri Lanka forests regulation of water levels. Turtle populations may also be are progressively replaced by agricultural areas primarily 34 68 affected by flooding programmes in Eastern India and for the plantation of rice, tea and coconuts . Bangladesh66. In Nepal damming and canalisation of cer- Meanwhile, forest cover in Thailand has been reduced tain rivers is reported to have negative impacts on aquatic from 53% of the country’s land area in 1961 to 28% in 27 and semi-aquatic species, such as the Indian Softshell 1991 . In the Mae Klong basin the Asian Giant Softshell Turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus), the Crowned River Turtle Turtle (Pelochelys cantorii), formerly an abundant species, (Hardella thurjii), the Three-striped Roofed Turtle (Kachuga has recently almost disappeared as a consequence of dhongoka), the Red-crowned Roofed Turtle (Kachuga logging activities in mangrove forests to make way for kachuga) and on tortoises, including the Elongated Tor- artificial shrimp ponds. At the same time, the threat of toise (Indotestudo elongata)33. All of China’s major rivers forest fires remains a concern for Thailand’s wildlife. have been dammed within less than forty years67. Only 8% of Vietnam’s primary vegetation is said to re- 23 main . Forest clearing, often by fire, takes place all over the country. Commercial logging also continues, with an estimated 2,000 km2 cleared each year with only 1,600 km2 being reforested22.

5.1.3. Chemical Pollution and Other Factors

Human settlement and agricultural expansion have re- sulted in increased pollution along Thailand’s riverbanks27. In Nepal several rivers are polluted with heavy metals, pesticides and DDT33. Scientists are concerned that the indiscriminate use of agrochemicals may cause infertility, sterility and thinning of eggshells in turtles43. In Bangladesh discharge of industrial chemical waste is thought to have contaminated the aquatic habitats of the Padma and Karnaphully rivers. In many areas forests are affected by acid rain. The most affected regions in China are the Guangxi and Guangdong provinces71. Concrete and asphalt cover of the lakeside at the Hoan- Kiem-Lake in Vietnam make nesting impossible for tur- 72 tles . In many Asian countries only small areas of forest have been spared from large scale logging activities

Pro Wildlife 14 The Decline of Asian Turtles

5.2. National and International Pet Trade 5.2.2. Asian Countries as Suppliers for the International Pet Trade

In 1995 Southeast Asian Chelonians reportedly did not „The exotic pet trade is especially worrisome, for it play a prominent role in the Western pet trade, although a preys heavily on wild populations where habitat re- relatively wide range of species were subject to trade2. A mains intact. The world´s exotic pet markets are survey of species offered by European pet traders carried poorly regulated.” out by Pro Wildlife in 1999, together with US import statis- John Behler, IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater tics demonstrates that at least 51 Asian turtle species are now available in western pet shops (TABLE 3). Turtles Specialist Group

According to a trader in Indonesia almost every unprotected Indonesian reptile species has attracted the After collection for food and habitat destruction the pet interest of the pet industry73. Thus, the trade in has trade poses a further serious threat to the populations of gradually gathered pace since the early 1990´s. The de- small- and medium-sized forest-dwelling turtles and tor- mand for Indonesian turtle species is illustrated by a trade toises46. In contrast to food markets, the pet industry tends report of 1998, where South Asian Box Turtles (Cuora to prefer smaller species and specimens. Hundreds of amboinensis), Spiny Turtles (Heosemys spinosa), Asiatic thousands of Asian turtles are estimated to have been Softshell Turtles (Amyda cartilaginea), and Black Marsh collected for international pet markets in the past 20 Turtles (Siebenrockiella crassicollis) are described as years. On the one hand, demand for the most popular and “abundant”, in other words “thousands can be collected if common species causes them to be sold in tens of thou- needed”. Asian Brown Tortoises (Manouria emys), Tra- sands. On the other hand a specialist market specifically vancore Tortoises (Indotestudo forstenii), Painted Terra- targets rare species, and thus threatens their survival. pins (Callagur borneoensis), Malayan Flatshelled Turtles Once again, reliable data are lacking since generally only (Notochelys platynota) and Malayan Softshell Turtles trade in species contained in the CITES Appendices is (Dogania subplana) are said to be “common”, i.e. “always recorded. The data presented below represent only a tiny available in adequate numbers”. Only Pelochelys bibroni fraction of the true trade volume in turtles as pets. and Geoemyda yuwonoi are classified as rare and there- fore “difficult to get in any quantity”. Most of these species are on sale at western pet markets as shown in TABLE 3. 5.2.1. Turtles as Pets in Asia Official exports of CITES Appendix II species to the USA, Japan and Europe between 1993 and 1996 are as follows: While there appears to be no demand for turtles as pets in 2089 individuals of Indotestudo forstenii, 218 of In- mainland-China, in Hong Kong there is a significant over- 57 11 dotestudo elongata, and 1399 of Manouria emys . lap between turtle species used for food or as pets . In Taiwan some species (e.g. from the genus Cuora) have become quite popular as pets and are gradually displacing imported North American Red-eared Sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans)5.

The demand for turtles as pets in Malaysia is met mainly by the North American Trachemys scripta elegans, while native species don’t seem to play an important role2.

In Vietnam juvenile Chelonians including the Elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) are kept as pets21.

In Thailand, too there is demand for some species in the local pet trade, e.g. the Annam Leaf Turtle (Annamemys annamensis)2.

In India several species, e.g. (Geo- che-lone elegans), Indian Black Turtle (Melanochelys sub- trijuga) and (Kachuga tecta) are sold as pets. Roofed Turtles (here Kachuga smithii) are in demand as pets Western Turtles as Invasive Species The North American Red-eared Slider (Trachemys scripta In Malaysia only official export figures of CITES Appendix elegans) has become the most common turtle on sale in II species are recorded. Between 1993 and 1996, 4812 Thailand and Malaysia2. Escaped individuals of this spe- individuals of Indotestudo elongata, 645 of Manouria emys, and 221 of Manouria impressa were exported to the USA, cies, of which more than 31 million individuals were ex- 57 60 Japan and Europe . In addition, Cuora amboinensis ported by the USA between 1993 and 1996 , can pose 74 strong competition with native turtles in the wild, as is specimens were shipped to Switzerland . illustrated in several locations in Thailand2 3. India primarily exports the Indian Star Tortoise (Geoche- lone elegans). This CITES Appendix II species is in great Although this is definitely not an Asia-specific problem, it 60 provides an example of some side effects of the interna- demand from turtle enthusiasts , although the species is tional pet trade that are hard to guard against, which affect difficult to maintain in captivity. The increasing availability both exporting and importing countries. of this species in the western and Southeast Asian pet trade has raised concerns amongst herpetologists2 31. According to TRAFFIC India 10-15,000 individuals enter the trade each year31. Frazier75 even reports a trade of “tens of thousands animals a year”.

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 15

In mainland-China and Hong Kong a small number of traders specialise in the demands of Western herpetolo- gists and turtle enthusiasts for rare and only recently dis- covered species: Many species and subspecies, which have been recently described ex situ, have been exported by a single dealer in Hong Kong76 77, e.g. Platysternon megacephalum shiui, Cuora amboinensis lineata, Cuora aurocapitata, Cuora mccordi, Cuora zhoui, Mauremys iversoni, , Ocadia glyphistoma, Ocadia philippeni, Sacalia pseudocellata. Some of these species are occasionally for sale in Europe and the USA and can fetch very high prices. McCord’s Box Turtle (Cuora mccordi) and Golden-headed Box Turtle (Cuora aurocapi- tata) for example are sold for up to 2,000 US$ per speci- men. In addition, 1,588 Indotestudo elongata and 55 Man- ouria impressa, both CITES Appendix II species were exported to the USA, Japan and Europe between 1993 In Europe at least 49 different Asian turtle species are sold as pets, here Spiny Turtle (Heosemys spinosa) and 1996 according to official records57.

Vietnam exports emydids such as the Annam Leaf Turtle TABLE 3: Asian Turtle Species in Western Pet Trade (Annamemys annamensis) as pets to Europe and Thai- Bold letters = species abundant in trade, i.e. offered regularly or in land2. A Dutch wholesaler offered at least 11 turtle species 78 high numbers, A = Austria; BE = Belgium; CH = Switzerland; DE= originating from Vietnam . Official exports of CITES Ap- Germany; NL = Netherlands; US = USA. pendix II species to the USA, Japan, Europe between 1993 and 1996 were 415 specimens of Manouria im- Species Country Species Country 57 pressa . Amyda cartilaginea NL, UK Geoemyda sp. DE Annamemys ann. CH, DE Heosemys grandis DE, NL NL CH, DE, Callagur borneon. Heosemys spinosa NL, UK 5.2.3. Asian Turtles as Pets in Europe and USA Chinemys kwang- CH DE, NL, US Hieremys annand. tungensis Altogether at least 49 Asian turtle species are available for CH CH, DE, Chinemys megal. Indotestudo elong. sale in Europe (TABLE 3). Already in the 1980´s several NL, US CH, US CH, US Asian turtle species were regularly offered in the European Chinemys nigricans Indotestudo forsten. Chinemys reevesii CH, DE, Kachuga smithii CH, DE pet markets, including the Chinese Three-keeled Pond NL, UK, US Turtle (Chinemys reevesii), the Giant Asian Pond Turtle Chitra indica US Kachuga tecta A, CH, DE CH, DE, Kachuga tentoria CH (Heosemys grandis), four Asian box turtles, Cuora spp., Cuora amboinen. NL, UK, US Annamemys annamensis and the Big-headed Turtle circumdata Cuora amboinensis CH A, CH, US 79 Lissemys punctata (Platysternon megacephalum) . Following European Un- lineata ion import restrictions on North American Box Turtles (Ter- Cuora aurocapitata DE Malayemis subtrij. DE, NL, UK rapene spp.), European keepers discovered Asian box Cuora flavomarg. CH, DE, Manouria emys BE, CH, turtles as an attractive alternative80. Tens of thousands of NL, US DE, NL, US Cuora galbinifrons CH, DE, Manouria impressa DE, US Cuora amboinensis were imported to Europe during the NL, UK, US Cuora galbinifrons CH CH, US past decade, although the majority of animals did not sur- Mauremys japonica vive in captivity for long7. There is also a demand for other bourretti CH, DE CH, DE, species that are difficult to keep, e.g. the Indochinese Box Cuora mccordi Mauremys mutica NL, US Turtle (Cuora galbinifrons) and Spiny Turtle (Heosemys Cuora pani A, CH Melanochelys trij. A, CH, DE 50 81 82 A, DE, UK, CH, NL spinosa) . Cuora trifasciata US Notochelys platyn. Cyclemys dentata CH, DE, Ocadia sinensis CH, DE, Prior to 1991, the United Kingdom collected trade figures NL, UK, US NL, US US CH, DE, NL for some species not listed by CITES83. A total of 16,817 Cyclemys mouhotii Orlitia borneensis Cyclemys tchepon. CH Pelodiscus sinensis CH Asian turtles were imported into the UK between 1986 and Cyclemys sp. NL Platysternon mega. CH, DE, 1990. The following species were recorded: Chinemys NL, UK, US DE, NL CH, DE, reevesii (4,766), Cuora amboinensis (3,833), Amyda carti- Dogania subplana Pyxidea mouhotii NL, US laginea (2,044), Platysternon megacephalum (2,013), Geochelone ele- A, BE, CH, CH, DE, Sacalia bealei Malayemys subtrijuga (1,443), Cyclemys dentata (1,032), gans DE NL, US Cuora trifasciata (827), Heosemys spinosa (775), and Geoclemys hamilt. A, DE Sacalia quadriocel. CH, DE CH, DE, Siebenrockiella DE, NL Cuora galbinifrons (84). Geoemyda spengl. NL, US crassicollis Geoemyda spinif. US A wide variety of Asian Chelonians is on sale in Germany, although detailed import data do not exist. As shown in TABLE 3, at least 27 species are available. The genus In 1999 Pro Wildlife carried out a survey of 27 German Cuora constitutes one of the most dominant varieties, wholesalers and specialist reptile shops to investigate the since these animals are visually attractive and therefore availability of the genus Cuora. It was found that Cuora highly sought after. amboinensis was available at 44.5% of businesses ques- tioned. A further third offered to supply the species on request. Cuora flavomarginata was in stock in 48.2% of businesses surveyed and could have been obtained on request at a further 11%. Cuora galbinifrons, too was in stock at 44,5% and available on request at 7.5%. Import-

Pro Wildlife 16 The Decline of Asian Turtles ers report that Cuora galbinifrons and Cuora flavomargi- 6. Indicators of the Decline of nata are available at decreasing numbers while prices are increasing. This is highly likely to be a consequence of the Asia’s Turtle Fauna decline of wild populations.

If available at all, other species of the genus (Cuora auro- „Long-lived Chelonians cannot tolerate commercial capitata, Cuora mccordi, Cuora trifasciata) could only be collection. The concept of sustainable harvest of al- supplied by special . Individuals of these rare species ready-reduced populations of long-lived organisms are in great demand: Collectors pay as much as US$ 500- appears to be an oxymoron“ 1,000. Reptiles are not only offered in pet shops, but are also sold by private dealers at special fairs, where species J.D. Congdon, Conservation Biologist like Cuora galbinifrons, Cuora flavomarginata and Dogania subplana can be bought. Both the food and traditional medicine trade prefer large turtles, which have successfully survived to an advanced age. Removing adult specimens of a long-lived, slow- maturing species with low reproductive potential from the wild has potentially fatal consequences for the long-term survival of the population. As a result of increasingly un- sustainable exploitation levels, populations of Asian turtles are in decline across much of their range. Affected coun- tries include Bangladesh28, Cambodia4, China38, more details in Section 6.4.), India29 84, Lao PDR85, Malaysia2, Myanmar70, Nepal33 46, Thailand4 27 and Vietnam85. Some examples of species that are under huge pressure from the markets are given in the following.

6.1. Asian Box Turtles - The Genus Cuora

Eight of nine Cuora species have suffered a precipitous decline within the past decade – the ninth had probably already become extinct at the beginning of the 20th cen- tury. Unsustainable harvesting and trade to satisfy the still intensifying demand of Asian food markets is the main (Cuora galbinifrons) cause behind these species’ demise. As a result of their on a sale event in Germany low reproductive potential these long-lived, slow growing animals are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation. At least 23 species of Asian freshwater turtles and tor- Most members of the genus produce only one or two nests toises are on sale within the Netherlands (TABLE 3). a year with clutch sizes of between one and four eggs. Once again, exact import statistics are not available. Five of the nine Cuora species are classified as ”en- dangered” or even ”” in China´s At least 34 different Asian turtle species are on offer in Red Data Book. Unless the whole genus is offered inter- Switzerland (TABLE 3). Collectors have a special interest national protection against commercial overexploitation it is in rare species like Cuora mccordi, Cuora pani and Manou- likely some of its species and subspecies will become ria emys, which achieve remarkably high prices. The range extinct within the space of a few years. 74 of a Swiss wholesaler is dominated by Chinese species .

A minimum of 23 Asian turtle species are on sale in the USA. During a three-year-period, between 1993 and 1995, 24,600 Asian turtles were imported to the USA60. With 14,476 specimens imported Cuora amboinensis is the most commonly imported Asian turtle in the US. It is fol- lowed by Cuora flavomarginata (2,140), Chinemys reevesii (1,884), Cuora galbinifrons (1,179) and Indotestudo elon- gata (1,115). Other species are imported in lower num- bers, e.g. Pyxidea mouhotii (991), Geomyda spengleri (748), Platysternon megacephalum (569), Cyclemys den- tata (511), Manouria impressa (279), Cuora trifasciata (286), Sacalia bealei (276) and Manouria emys (210).

Populations of the formerly common South Asian Box Turtle (Cuora amboinensis) are declining

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 17

Two Cuora species, Cuora mccordi and Cuora zhoui are The , (Aspideretes nigricans), is en- so far known solely from food markets. No information demic to a single pond in Chittagong (Bangladesh). With a about their population status, habitat etc. is available. population of an estimated 400 specimens, this species is According to recent accounts65, neither species has been highly sensitive to direct or indirect disturbance89. With seen at food markets for several years, although Western only an estimated 16 surviving individuals the Striped herpetologists have offered large sums of money. Such Narrow-headed Softshell Turtles (Chitra chitra), which is information raises concerns that these species may al- endemic to the Mae Klong Basin in Thailand, counts as ready be hovering on the brink of extinction. Cuora trifas- one of the rarest and most endangered turtle species in ciata is the most sought after of all Chelonian species for the world27 46. use in traditional medicine: It achieves prices ten times higher than most other species2 86 . Today, specimens fetch as much as US$ 1,00087 or even more. Certain 6.4. Chelonian Populations in China Cuora species are further imperilled through continued exports for the European and North American pet trade (see Section 5.2.3). „Today, there is no more serious turtle crisis than that which is taking place in Southeast Asia and southern China. Southeast Asia is being vacuumed of its turtles for China’s food markets.” 6.2. Roofed Turtles (Kachuga spp.) in the Indian Subcontinent John Behler, IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group, Southeast Asia Populations of all six species of the Roofed Turtles (Kachuga spp.) are declining at least in some range states. Following unsustainable harvesting for food, Red-crowned All of China’s native turtle species which are accessible to Roofed Turtle populations (Kachuga kachuga) have been collectors are directly affected by escalating commercial reduced by more than 80% within the past 20 years. The demands11 12. As a result most populations have collapsed. situation of the Roofed Turtle (Kachuga sylheten- The Red Data Book of China38 classifies 15 native sis), the rarest species of this genus88, is even worse, with turtle species as “endangered”, four as “critically populations collapsing to less than 10% in the space of 10 endangered” and two as “probably extinct in the wild” years41. Indian populations of this species are now nation- – These 21 species represent 70 % of the 30 native fresh- ally classified as “critically endangered” by the IUCN41. water turtles and tortoises. A further 17 % are classified as According to Das46 Kachuga kachuga and Kachuga “data deficient”. sylhetensis belong to the 10 most threatened turtle species in tropical Asia. The remaining four species of this genus are also in decline – not only in India but also in Nepal58 and Bangladesh43, and individuals are increasingly hard to find. In contrast to the situation 10 years earlier, species such as Kachuga dhongoka and Kachuga tentoria have already disappeared from Indian market stalls31. As a further example populations of Kachuga trivittata, a spe- cies which is classified as “endangered” by the IUCN37 are considered locally extinct in Myanmar70.

6.3. Asian Softshell Turtles

Softshell turtles play a central role in traditional medicine and are generally regarded as the most palatable non- marine Chelonians within Southeast Asia2 19. The Burmese Flapshell Turtle (Lissemys punctata) is the most popular 31 turtle species at markets in India , and the Chinese Soft- Two thirds of Chinese freshwater turtle and tortoise species shell Turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) is the dominant species are classified as endangered (here the Four-eyed Turtle, exported from Vietnam to China15. Unsustainable levels Sacalia quadriocellata) or critically endangered of exploitation have caused the rapid decline of almost all softshell turtle populations in Thailand27, Myanmar70, Due to overexploitation meanwhile only 2% of the Chelo- 12 Malaysia2, Nepal33 and Bangladesh28. The situation in nian specimens on sale are native to China . Lau et al. and Vietnam is unlikely to be better21 85. There are describe the situation in China: “ In the late 1970´s the also fears that without immediate remedial action the Nar- hard-shelled Chelonian trade was dominated by Chinese species. Now there are more Southeast Asian species for row-headed Softshell Turtle (Chitra indica) and the Giant 11 Softshell Turtle (Pelochelys bibroni) might soon become sale than Chinese ones.” The dramatic collapse of extinct in the wild87. China’s Chelonian populations can only add to the threats facing turtles and tortoises in the rest of SE Asia unless immediate and effective action is taken.

Pro Wildlife 18 The Decline of Asian Turtles

7. Legal Aspects 7.2. International Legislation

7.1. National Protection Measures While most Asian freshwater turtles and tortoises are not protected by international legislation, seven species are The level of national protection afforded to Asian Chelo- listed in CITES Appendix I and six in Appendix II (see nians within range states is summarised in TABLE 4. Al- TABLE 5). An expansion of international protection meas- though national legislation to conserve Chelonians ures is urgently required to control the unregulated trade in does exist in several Asian countries, large quantities turtles. of protected species are still subject to national as well as international trade. Inadequate enforcement of existing legislation is a major hindrance to turtle conserva- TABLE 5: Asian Chelonians protected by CITES tion. In addition, many species which are abundant in the international trade for food (e.g. Amyda cartilaginea, Chi- Species CITES App. Protected Since nemys reevesii) and as pets (e.g. Cuora amboinensis) are Aspideretes gangeticus I 01.07.75 not protected across most range states. Furthermore na- tional measures are not consistent between provinces in Aspideretes hurum I 01.07.75 some states. Aspideretes nigricans I 01.07.75

Batagur baska I 01.07.75 TABLE 4: National legislative measures for the pro- tection of turtles in Asia Geoclemys hamiltonii I 01.07.75 Kachuga tecta I 01.07.75

Country National Legislation Morenia ocellata I 01.07.75 Capture, trade and killing of all wild fauna is Bangladesh Callagur borneoensis II 18.09.97 prohibited (Wildlife Preservation Amendment) Hunting and exporting of native wildlife is Geochelone platynota II 04.02.77 Cambodia illegal Indotestudo elongata II 04.02.77 Capture, transport and sale of wildlife, includ- Lissemys punctata II 16.02.95 ing between provinces, requires a permit (Wildlife Protection Law); Marine turtles and China Manouria emys II 04.02.77 Testudo horsfieldii are excluded from con- sumption; stronger protection measures in Manouria impressa II 04.02.77 some provinces, e.g. , Guangxi, Fujian

Hunting, capture and export of wildlife is pro- India hibited In 1999 the 15th Animals Committee to CITES for the first Trade in some species, e.g. Chitra indica, is time addressed the decline of Asian turtles when an infor- Indonesia prohibited; export quota systems for other mation document presented by Pro Wildlife was consid- species ered. Several attending range states shared the concerns Some species (e.g. Cuora amboinensis, Sie- expressed over dwindling turtle populations, and the con- benrockiella crassicollis) are strictly protected; cept of more intensive efforts on this issue within CITES Lao PDR limited hunting for Indotestudo elongata, Man- was supported. ouria emys and Amyda cartilaginea : some species (e.g., Manouria emys) are protected; Malaysia Peninsular Malaysia and : Wildlife Pro- tection Act does not cover turtles; Subsistence hunting of native wildlife is permit- Myanmar ted, but no commercial trade Nepal Turtles are not protected Papua New International trade is restricted or prohibited Guinea Philippines Export of native wildlife is prohibited Possession of, and trade in some species, e.g. Singapore Kachuga tecta and Lissemys punctata, is prohibited

Capture and trade in all turtle species is pro- Large numbers of Elongated Tortoises (Indotestudo elon- Thailand hibited, except for Amyda cartilaginea gata), listed on CITES-Appendix II, are regularly on sale at food markets Only Indotestudo elongata and Pelochelys Vietnam cantoriii are protected At the 11th Conference of the Parties to CITES, Germany and the USA will present a discussion document on the “Trade in Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises to and in Southeast Asia” 90, which contains a set of recommenda- tions for the conservation of turtles, addressed to ranges states and consumer nations. In addition, a proposal to list the entire genus Cuora on Appendix II is submitted91. The

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 19 genus Cuora, which represents all Asian Box Turtles, These observations clearly illustrate the existence of illegal belongs to the species most threatened by commercial international trade at least in Appendix I species. I It also food, medicine and pet trade (as described in sections 3, 5 seems very doubtful that the volume of Appendix II species and 6). in trade is sold in accordance with CITES regulations, and the requirement for non-detriment findings.

7.3. Trade in CITES-listed Species at TABLE 6: CITES Appendix I and II Chelonians on sale Asian Food Markets at Chinese food markets

Species Origin CITES Location „Indotestudo elongata is perhaps the most common trade species in Vietnam. Despite its App. II status, it Aspideretes Bangladesh, App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen gangeticus India, Nepal, (McCord12; Kuchling40) appears in most sizeable shipments to China.” Pakistan Doug Hendrie, Aspideretes Bangladesh, App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen hurum India (McCord12; Kuchling40); Hong Cuc Phuong Conservation Project, Vietnam Kong & China (Lau et al 11.)

Batagur Bangladesh, App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen Except for Aspideretes nigricans all CITES listed baska Cambodia, India, (McCord12) Chelonians have been found on sale at Chinese food Indonesia markets, although none were native to China (see Geoclemys Bangladesh, App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen TABLE 6). In Vietnam, the Elongated Tortoise, Indotestudo hamiltonii India, Nepal, (McCord12; Artner92); Hong 11 elongata, a CITES Appendix II species, is traded and ex- Pakistan Kong & China (Lau et al. ) 24 53 ported to China in very large quantities . During several Kachuga Bangladesh, App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen tecta India, Nepal, (McCord12; Kuchling40); Hong surveys in China, at least six Appendix I and six Appendix 11 II species were seen at markets11 12. At the Ruli market in Pakistan Kong & China (Lau et al. ) China’s Yunnan province 81 specimens of Morenia ocel- Morenia Myanmar App. I Guangzhou & Sunzhen 40 ocellata (McCord12) lata (App. I) were seen for sale in 1993 – a species that 40 is endemic to Myanmar. About 100 specimens of Kachuga Ruli (Yunnan), Kuchling tecta (also App I), originating from the Indian subcontinent, Callagur Indonesia App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen 12 were observed at the Qing Ping market in the province borneoensis (McCord ) 92 Guangzhou in 1995 . Indotestudo India, Pakistan, App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen elongata Sri Lanka (McCord12); Hong Kong & 11 China (Lau et al. ); Ruli (Yunnan), Kuchling

Geochelone Myanmar App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen platynota (McCord12)

Lissemys Bangladesh, App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen punctata Myanmar, Ne- (McCord12, Artner92); pal, Pakistan, Ruli (Yunnan), Kuchling40 Sri Lanka

Manouria Indonesia, Ma- App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen emys laysia, Myan- (McCord12) mar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka

Manouria Lao PDR, Ma- App. II Guangzhou & Sunzhen impressa laysia,Myanmar, (Kuchling40); Hong Kong & Thailand, China (Lau et al. 11) Vietnam

Peacock Softshell Turtles (Aspideretes hurun), originating Enforcement and compliance with CITES regulations, from India and Bangladesh and banned from international as well as national legislation within range states and trade( CITES App. I), on sale at Qing Ping market (China) consumer nations is essential to prevent the anihilation of Asia’s turtles.

Pro Wildlife 20 The Decline of Asian Turtles

3. Traditional medicine does not discriminate between 8. Recommendations 5 turtle species according to western . Chang states that turtles are divided into five or six general cate- „A complete CITES Appendix II listing for all turtle gories based on their of medicinal effects. Traditional species – except those that should be included in Medicine products, such as turtle jelly, can be made from Appendix I - may be a valid option.” several species, while shells of various different species are often offered simply as “turtle shell”. Peter Paul van Dijk, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok

8.1. Immediate Measures at CITES CoP 11

The future of Asian Chelonians rests in the hands of range and consumer states alike. Prompt and effective action is necessary if the extinction of several highly endangered Asian turtle species is to be prevented. Since international trade is the most immediate cause of the decline of Asian Chelonians, it is imperative that CITES Parties make a strong commitment to address this problem now. In April 2000, two important practical measures for the conserva- tion of Asian turtles will be discussed at the 11th Confer- ence of the Parties to CITES: McCord`s Box Turtle (Cuora mccordi) is considered to be commercially extinct. · A proposal to include all nine Asian Box Turtle species, Cuora spp., which are amongst those most heavily traded as food and pets, in CITES Appendix II. 8.3. Candidates for an Appendix I Listing · A discussion document entitled “Trade in Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises to and in Southeast Asia” may The following Asian turtle species require stronger protec- initiate more comprehensive measures for the conser- tion and should be included in CITES Appendix I: vation of all Asian Chelonians at the national and inter- national level. · While all Asian Box Turtles meet the criteria for an Appendix II listing some face imminent extinction. Both issues require maximum support at the Confer- These include the Three-striped Box Turtle (Cuora ence of the Parties: They are potentially important trifasciata), which is classified as “endangered” by turning points for the achievement of effective interna- the IUCN and as “critically endangered” by the Chi- tional co-operation to protect Asian Chelonians. nese Red Data Book38. The species has become very rare at markets and achieves extremely high prices. 8.2. CITES Appendix II for all Chelonians · McCord’s Box Turtles (Cuora mccordi) and Zhou’s There are three important reasons why it is appropriate for Box Turtles (Cuora zhoui) are both classified as all Chelonians, except for those suitable for a CITES Ap- “data deficient” by the IUCN37 and China’s Red Data pendix I listing, to be included in Appendix II: Book38. Recent reports state that these species are almost commercially extinct7 65 87. 1. Recognising that once former sources have begun to show signs of depletion, Asian food markets readily exploit · The Golden-headed Box Turtle (Cuora aurocapi- any other available Chelonian species, even from abroad tata) is classified as “critically endangered” in China’s 38 and overseas, the inclusion of all Chelonian species in Red Data Book and as “data deficient” by the 37 Appendix II is necessary, in order to be able to monitor IUCN . The species appears to have vanished from 87 93 trade developments. This information in turn is essential both markets and the wild . for the timely regulation of the still growing trade in Chelo- nians and their parts. · The Striped Narrow-headed Softshell Turtle, Chitra chitra, is endemic to the Mae Klong Basin in Thai- 2. Difficulties in distinguishing between the many Chelo- land and is classified as “critically endangered” by the 37 nian species in trade present enforcement agencies with a IUCN . With a total population of only about 16 indi- difficult task. Furthermore, missing or incomplete docu- viduals this species is one of the most threatened mentation as well as false labelling render identification animals in the world. and monitoring of shipments almost impossible. With an Appendix II listing for all species in place, appropriate · Beal’s Eyed-Turtle (Sacalia bealei) and Four-Eyed Turtle (Sacalia quadriocellata) are both classified as documentation will be required, enabling authorities to 37 register and identify all turtle specimens in trade. “vulnerable” by the IUCN and as “endangered” by China’s Red Data Book38. They have a limited range and are highly sought-after by both the food and the pet trade.

Pro Wildlife The Decline of Asian Turtles 21

· Red-crowned Roofed Turtle (Kachuga kachuga) and 8.4. Recommendations beyond CITES (Kachuga sylhetensis) popu- lations are in sharp decline (see section 6.2). Apart from protection against unsustainable international Kachuga kachuga is classified as “critically endan- trade, further international as well as national measures, gered” by the IUCN37, while Kachuga sylhetensis is 88 including reliable enforcement and compliance, are re- said to be the rarest species of its genus in Assam . quired to avert the extinction of most Asian freshwater Both are reported to “belong to the 10 most threat- 46 turtles and tortoises. ened species of tropical Asia” . 1. Trade in Chelonians must urgently be reduced to · Kachuga trivittata is endemic to Myanmar and is sustainable levels. 37 classified as “endangered” by the IUCN . It is heavily affected by habitat destruction and already suffers lo- 2. Range and consumer states should closely co- 70 calised extinction . operate for immediate action and for effective long-term enforcement. · The Malayan Giant Turtle Orlitia borneensis, a large 3. Range states should review and amend their na- river terrapin, is classified as “near threatened” by the tional protection measures to improve protection 37 IUCN . It is in great demand at food markets, and as of Chelonians. National and international legisla- a result populations in both range states, Malaysia tion must be enforced at all levels. 8 and Indonesia, are said to be sharply decreasing . 4. Turtle shipments should strictly comply with IATA. · The Shanghai Softshell Turtle, swinhoe, Airlines involved in transporting turtles have a special 38 was originally said to be extinct from the wild and responsibility in this respect, and should not only recently has been rediscovered in the Hoan Kiem guarantee proper transport conditions, but also insist 94 Lake in Vietnam . The small population might be- on and confirm appropriate documentation. come exploited for the food markets. 5. Identification guides to assist authorities in identi- fying turtle species should be developed.

6. Surveys of key species should be conducted in the field as well as in markets. Data on trade and range, population status and trends, as well as habitat are urgently required for conservation and manage- ment purposes.

7. In collaboration with TCM practitioners, research to identify herbal alternatives to turtle products in traditional medicine should be initiated.

8. Public awareness and education efforts should be undertaken in both supplying and consuming na- tions.

9. Precautionary measures, including habitat con- Large numbers of the Malayan Giant Turtle (Orlitia servation should be pursued. borneensis) for sale at a market 10. Ex situ captive breeding conservation pro- Although other Asian turtle species, e.g. Pan’s Box Turtle grammes should be closely co-ordinated with (Cuora pani), Crowned River Turtle (Hardella thurjii), are range states if they are to guarantee a long-term per- also likely to meet the criteria for a CITES Appendix I list- spective for a successful re-introduction of individuals ing, detailed data are not available. into their natural habitat.

Pro Wildlife 22 The Decline of Asian Turtles

9. References 28 Rashid, S.M.A. & Swingland, I.R. (1997): ”On the ecology of 1 some freshwater turtles in Bangladesh.” in Proceedings: Chang, C.-J. (1996a): “Worshipped and Cursed – The Turtle’s Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tortoises and place in Chinese Culture”, Sinorama July 1996. Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle and 2 Jenkins M.D. (1995): “Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles: The Tortoise Society 1997, 225 ff.. 29 trade in Southeast Asia” TRAFFIC Network Report. Whitaker, R. (1997).: “Turtle Rearing in Village Ponds”, in Pro- 3 Manzke, U. (1993): “Schildkröten in Thailand”, DATZ 46 (9), ceedings: Conservation, Restoration and Management of Tor- 594-599. toises and Turtles - An International Conference, New York Turtle 4 Klemens, M. (1998): “Troubling Times in Southeast Asia.” and Tortoise Society, 106 ff.. 30 Wildlife Conservation Society Turtle Recovery Program Annual Moll, E. O. 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